{"id":440,"date":"2020-05-01T18:46:49","date_gmt":"2020-05-01T18:46:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/adolescent\/?post_type=part&#038;p=440"},"modified":"2021-01-16T16:04:00","modified_gmt":"2021-01-16T16:04:00","slug":"psychological-research","status":"publish","type":"part","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/adolescent\/part\/psychological-research\/","title":{"raw":"Psychological Research","rendered":"Psychological Research"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe theories as they relate to lifespan development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the historical foundations leading to the development of theories about lifespan development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe Freud's theory of psychosexual development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe\u00a0the principles of classical conditioning<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe\u00a0the principles of operant conditioning<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe\u00a0social learning theory<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe\u00a0Piaget's theory of cognitive development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe information processing approaches to cognitive development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the major concepts of humanistic theory (unconditional positive regard, the good life), as developed by Carl Rogers<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain Maslow's hierarchy of needs<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe\u00a0Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain Bronfenbrenner\u2019s bioecological model<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the evolutionary perspective<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Contrast the main psychological theories that apply to human development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nHow do we know what changes and stays the same (and when and why) in development? We rely on research that utilizes the scientific method so that we can have confidence in the findings. How data are collected and analyzed vary by the type of information sought. The design of the study will affect the data and the conclusions that can be drawn from them about actual age changes.\r\n<div>\r\n<h3>Research in Development<\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAn essential part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information.\u00a0The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon.\u00a0Not long ago, a friend said to me that he did not trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story.\u00a0That, however, is precisely what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur.\u00a0Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey.\u00a0In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice.\u00a0So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #6c64ad;font-size: 1em;font-weight: 600\">Personal Knowledge<\/span>\r\n\r\nHow do we know what we know?\u00a0Take a moment to identify two things that you know about adolescence. Now, how do you know?\u00a0Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality), what others have told you, or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004).\u00a0There are several problems with personal inquiry, or\u00a0drawing conclusions based on our personal experiences.\u00a0Read the following sentence aloud:\r\n\r\nParis in the\r\nthe spring\r\n\r\nAre you sure that is what it said?\u00a0Read it again.\r\n\r\nIf you read it differently the second time (adding the second \u201cthe\u201d), you just experienced one of the problems with relying on personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe.\u00a0Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions; consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. Have you heard the saying, \u201cseeing is believing\u201d? Well, the truth is just the opposite: believing is seeing. This problem may just be a result of cognitive \u2018blinders,\u2019 or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views.\u00a0Confirmation bias\u00a0is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right, and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence.\r\n\r\nPhilosopher Karl Popper suggested that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005). A theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific.\u00a0And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.\r\n\r\nScience offers a more systematic way to make comparisons and guard against bias.\u00a0One technique used to avoid\u00a0sampling bias\u00a0is to select participants for a study in a random way.\u00a0This means using a technique to ensure that all members have an equal chance of being selected.\u00a0Simple random sampling\u00a0may involve using a set of random numbers as a guide in determining who is to be selected.\u00a0For example, if we have a list of 400 people and wish to randomly select a smaller group or\u00a0sample\u00a0to be studied, we use a list of random numbers and select the case that corresponds with that number (Case 39, 3, 217, etc.).\u00a0This is preferable to asking only those individuals with whom we are familiar to participate in a study; if we conveniently chose only people we know, we know nothing about those who had no opportunity to be selected.\u00a0There are many more elaborate techniques that can be used to obtain samples that represent the composition of the population we are studying.\u00a0But even though a randomly selected representative sample is preferable, it is not always used because of costs and other limitations. As a consumer of research, however, you should know how the sample was obtained and keep this in mind when interpreting results. It is possible that what was found was limited to that sample or similar individuals and not generalizable to everyone else.","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe theories as they relate to lifespan development<\/li>\n<li>Describe the historical foundations leading to the development of theories about lifespan development<\/li>\n<li>Describe Freud&#8217;s theory of psychosexual development<\/li>\n<li>Describe Erikson&#8217;s eight stages of psychosocial development<\/li>\n<li>Describe\u00a0the principles of classical conditioning<\/li>\n<li>Describe\u00a0the principles of operant conditioning<\/li>\n<li>Describe\u00a0social learning theory<\/li>\n<li>Describe\u00a0Piaget&#8217;s theory of cognitive development<\/li>\n<li>Describe information processing approaches to cognitive development<\/li>\n<li>Describe the major concepts of humanistic theory (unconditional positive regard, the good life), as developed by Carl Rogers<\/li>\n<li>Explain Maslow&#8217;s hierarchy of needs<\/li>\n<li>Describe\u00a0Vygotsky&#8217;s sociocultural theory of cognitive development<\/li>\n<li>Explain Bronfenbrenner\u2019s bioecological model<\/li>\n<li>Describe the evolutionary perspective<\/li>\n<li>Contrast the main psychological theories that apply to human development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>How do we know what changes and stays the same (and when and why) in development? We rely on research that utilizes the scientific method so that we can have confidence in the findings. How data are collected and analyzed vary by the type of information sought. The design of the study will affect the data and the conclusions that can be drawn from them about actual age changes.<\/p>\n<div>\n<h3>Research in Development<\/h3>\n<\/div>\n<p>An essential part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information.\u00a0The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon.\u00a0Not long ago, a friend said to me that he did not trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story.\u00a0That, however, is precisely what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur.\u00a0Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey.\u00a0In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice.\u00a0So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #6c64ad;font-size: 1em;font-weight: 600\">Personal Knowledge<\/span><\/p>\n<p>How do we know what we know?\u00a0Take a moment to identify two things that you know about adolescence. Now, how do you know?\u00a0Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality), what others have told you, or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004).\u00a0There are several problems with personal inquiry, or\u00a0drawing conclusions based on our personal experiences.\u00a0Read the following sentence aloud:<\/p>\n<p>Paris in the<br \/>\nthe spring<\/p>\n<p>Are you sure that is what it said?\u00a0Read it again.<\/p>\n<p>If you read it differently the second time (adding the second \u201cthe\u201d), you just experienced one of the problems with relying on personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe.\u00a0Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions; consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. Have you heard the saying, \u201cseeing is believing\u201d? Well, the truth is just the opposite: believing is seeing. This problem may just be a result of cognitive \u2018blinders,\u2019 or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views.\u00a0Confirmation bias\u00a0is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right, and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence.<\/p>\n<p>Philosopher Karl Popper suggested that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005). A theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific.\u00a0And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.<\/p>\n<p>Science offers a more systematic way to make comparisons and guard against bias.\u00a0One technique used to avoid\u00a0sampling bias\u00a0is to select participants for a study in a random way.\u00a0This means using a technique to ensure that all members have an equal chance of being selected.\u00a0Simple random sampling\u00a0may involve using a set of random numbers as a guide in determining who is to be selected.\u00a0For example, if we have a list of 400 people and wish to randomly select a smaller group or\u00a0sample\u00a0to be studied, we use a list of random numbers and select the case that corresponds with that number (Case 39, 3, 217, etc.).\u00a0This is preferable to asking only those individuals with whom we are familiar to participate in a study; if we conveniently chose only people we know, we know nothing about those who had no opportunity to be selected.\u00a0There are many more elaborate techniques that can be used to obtain samples that represent the composition of the population we are studying.\u00a0But even though a randomly selected representative sample is preferable, it is not always used because of costs and other limitations. As a consumer of research, however, you should know how the sample was obtained and keep this in mind when interpreting results. It is possible that what was found was limited to that sample or similar individuals and not generalizable to everyone else.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"parent":0,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_part_invisible":false,"pb_part_invisible_string":""},"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-440","part","type-part","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/adolescent\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/440","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/adolescent\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/adolescent\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/part"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/adolescent\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/440\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1252,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/adolescent\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/440\/revisions\/1252"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/adolescent\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=440"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/adolescent\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=440"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/adolescent\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=440"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}