Astronomy

Table of Contents

• • Preface

• Science and the Universe: A Brief Tour

• • Introduction to Science and the Universe
  • The Nature of Astronomy
  • The Nature of Science
  • The Laws of Nature
  • Numbers in Astronomy
  • Consequences of Light Travel Time
  • A Tour of the Universe
  • The Universe on the Large Scale
  • The Universe of the Very Small
  • A Conclusion and a Beginning
  • For Further Exploration: The Science and the Universe

• Observing the Sky: The Birth of Astronomy

• • Introduction to Observing the Sky: The Birth of Astronomy
  • The Sky Above
  • Ancient Astronomy
  • Astrology and Astronomy
  • The Birth of Modern Astronomy
  • For Further Exploration: The Birth of Modern Astronomy
  • Exercises: The Birth of Modern Astronomy

• Orbits and Gravity

• • Introduction to Orbits and Gravity
  • The Laws of Planetary Motion
  • Newton’s Great Synthesis
  • Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
  • Orbits in the Solar System
  • Motions of Satellites and Spacecraft
  • Gravity with More Than Two Bodies
  • For Further Exploration: Orbits and Gravity
  • Exercises: Orbits and Gravity

• Earth, Moon, and Sky

• • Introduction to Earth, Moon, and Sky
  • Earth and Sky
  • The Seasons
  • Keeping Time
  • The Calendar
  • Phases and Motions of the Moon
  • Ocean Tides and the Moon
  • Eclipses of the Sun and Moon
  • For Further Exploration: Earth, Moon, and Sky
  • Exercises: Earth, Moon, and Sky

• Radiation and Spectra

• • Introduction to Radiation and Spectra
  • The Behavior of Light
  • The Electromagnetic Spectrum
  • Spectroscopy in Astronomy
  • The Structure of the Atom
  • Formation of Spectral Lines
  • The Doppler Effect
  • For Further Exploration: Radiation and Spectra
  • Exercises: Radiation and Spectra

• Astronomical Instruments

• • Introduction to Astronomical Instruments
  • Telescopes
  • Telescopes Today
  • Visible-Light Detectors and Instruments
  • Radio Telescopes
  • Observations outside Earth’s Atmosphere
  • The Future of Large Telescopes
  • For Further Exploration: Astronomical Instruments
  • Exercises: Astronomical Instruments

• Other Worlds: An Introduction to the Solar System

• • Introduction to Other Worlds: An Introduction to the Solar System
  • Overview of Our Planetary System
  • Composition and Structure of Planets
  • Dating Planetary Surfaces
  • Origin of the Solar System
  • For Further Exploration: Other Worlds: An Introduction to the Solar System
  • Exercises: Other Worlds: An Introduction to the Solar System

• Earth as a Planet

• • Introduction to Earth as a Planet
  • The Global Perspective
  • Earth’s Crust
  • Earth’s Atmosphere
  • Life, Chemical Evolution, and Climate Change
  • Cosmic Influences on the Evolution of Earth
  • For Further Exploration: Earth as a Planet
  • Exercises: Earth as a Planet

• Cratered Worlds

• • Introduction to Cratered Worlds
  • General Properties of the Moon
  • The Lunar Surface
  • Impact Craters
  • The Origin of the Moon
  • Mercury
  • For Further Exploration: Cratered Worlds
  • Exercises: Cratered Worlds

• Earthlike Planets: Venus and Mars

• • Introduction to Earthlike Planets: Venus and Mars
  • The Nearest Planets: An Overview
  • The Geology of Venus
  • The Massive Atmosphere of Venus
  • The Geology of Mars
  • Water and Life on Mars
  • Divergent Planetary Evolution
  • For Further Exploration: Earthlike Planets: Venus and Mars
  • Exercises: Earthlike Planets: Venus and Mars

• The Giant Planets

• • Introduction to the Giant Planets
  • Exploring the Outer Planets
  • The Giant Planets
  • Atmospheres of the Giant Planets
  • For Further Exploration: The Giant Planets
  • Exercises: The Giant Planets

• Rings, Moons, and Pluto

• • Introduction to Rings, Moons, and Pluto
  • Ring and Moon Systems Introduced
  • The Galilean Moons of Jupiter
  • Titan and Triton
  • Pluto and Charon
  • Planetary Rings
  • For Further Exploration: Rings, Moons, and Pluto
  • Exercises: Rings, Moons, and Pluto

• Comets and Asteroids: Debris of the Solar System

• • Introduction to Comets and Asteroids: Debris of the Solar System
  • Asteroids
  • Asteroids and Planetary Defense
  • The "Long-Haired" Comets
  • The Origin and Fate of Comets and Related Objects
  • For Further Exploration: Comets and Asteroids: Debris of the Solar System
  • Exercises: Comets and Asteroids: Debris of the Solar System

• Cosmic Samples and the Origin of the Solar System

• • Introduction to Cosmic Samples and the Origin of the Solar System
  • Meteors
  • Meteorites: Stones from Heaven
  • Formation of the Solar System
  • Comparison with Other Planetary Systems
  • Planetary Evolution
  • For Further Exploration: Cosmic Samples and the Origin of the Solar System
  • Exercises: Cosmic Samples and the Origin of the Solar System

• The Sun: A Garden-Variety Star

• • Introduction to the Sun: A Garden-Variety Star
  • The Structure and Composition of the Sun
  • The Solar Cycle
  • Solar Activity above the Photosphere
  • Space Weather
  • For Further Exploration: The Sun: A Garden-Variety Star
  • Exercises: The Sun: A Garden-Variety Star

• The Sun: A Nuclear Powerhouse

• • Introduction to the Sun: A Nuclear Powerhouse
  • Sources of Sunshine: Thermal and Gravitational Energy
  • Mass, Energy, and the Theory of Relativity
  • The Solar Interior: Theory
  • The Solar Interior: Observations
  • For Further Exploration: The Sun: A Nuclear Powerhouse
  • Exercises: The Sun: A Nuclear Powerhouse

• Analyzing Starlight

• • Introduction to Analyzing Starlight
  • The Brightness of Stars
  • Colors of Stars
  • The Spectra of Stars (and Brown Dwarfs)
  • Using Spectra to Measure Stellar Radius, Composition, and Motion
  • For Further Exploration: Analyzing Starlight
  • Exercises: Analyzing Starlight

• The Stars: A Celestial Census

• • Introduction to the Stars: A Celestial Census
  • A Stellar Census
  • Measuring Stellar Masses
  • Diameters of Stars
  • The H–R Diagram
  • For Further Exploration: The Stars: A Celestial Census
  • Exercises: The Stars: A Celestial Census

• Celestial Distances

• • Introduction to Celestial Distances
  • Fundamental Units of Distance
  • Surveying the Stars
  • Variable Stars: One Key to Cosmic Distances
  • The H–R Diagram and Cosmic Distances
  • For Further Exploration: Celestial Distances
  • Exercises: Celestial Distances

• Between the Stars: Gas and Dust in Space

• • Introduction to Between the Stars: Gas and Dust in Space
  • The Interstellar Medium
  • Interstellar Gas
  • Cosmic Dust
  • Cosmic Rays
  • The Life Cycle of Cosmic Material
  • Interstellar Matter around the Sun
  • For Further Exploration: Between the Stars: Gas and Dust in Space
  • Exercises: Between the Stars: Gas and Dust in Space

• The Birth of Stars and the Discovery of Planets outside the Solar System

• • Introduction to the Birth of Stars and the Discovery of Planets outside the Solar System
  • Star Formation
  • The H–R Diagram and the Study of Stellar Evolution
  • Evidence That Planets Form around Other Stars
  • Planets beyond the Solar System: Search and Discovery
  • Exoplanets Everywhere: What We Are Learning
  • New Perspectives on Planet Formation
  • For Further Exploration: The Birth of Stars and the Discovery of Planets outside the Solar System
  • Exercises: The Birth of Stars and the Discovery of Planets outside the Solar System

• Stars from Adolescence to Old Age

• • Introduction to Stars from Adolescence to Old Age
  • Evolution from the Main Sequence to Red Giants
  • Star Clusters
  • Checking Out the Theory
  • Further Evolution of Stars
  • The Evolution of More Massive Stars
  • For Further Exploration: Stars from Adolescence to Old Age
  • Exercises: Stars from Adolescence to Old Age

• The Death of Stars

• • Introduction to the Death of Stars
  • The Death of Low-Mass Stars
  • Evolution of Massive Stars: An Explosive Finish
  • Supernova Observations
  • Pulsars and the Discovery of Neutron Stars
  • The Evolution of Binary Star Systems
  • The Mystery of the Gamma-Ray Bursts
  • For Further Exploration: The Death of Stars
  • Exercises: The Death of Stars

• Black Holes and Curved Spacetime

• • Introduction to Black Holes and Curved Spacetime
  • Introducing General Relativity
  • Spacetime and Gravity
  • Tests of General Relativity
  • Time in General Relativity
  • Black Holes
  • Evidence for Black Holes
  • Gravitational Wave Astronomy
  • For Further Exploration: Black Holes and Curved Spacetime
  • Exercises: Black Holes and Curved Spacetime

• The Milky Way Galaxy

• • Introduction to the Milky Way Galaxy
  • The Architecture of the Galaxy
  • Spiral Structure
  • The Mass of the Galaxy
  • The Center of the Galaxy
  • Stellar Populations in the Galaxy
  • The Formation of the Galaxy
  • For Further Exploration: The Milky Way Galaxy
  • Exercises: The Milky Way Galaxy

• Galaxies

• • Introduction to Galaxies
  • The Discovery of Galaxies
  • Types of Galaxies
  • Properties of Galaxies
  • The Extragalactic Distance Scale
  • The Expanding Universe
  • For Further Exploration: Galaxies
  • Exercises: Galaxies

• Active Galaxies, Quasars, and Supermassive Black Holes

• • Introduction to Active Galaxies, Quasars, and Supermassive Black Holes
  • Quasars
  • Supermassive Black Holes: What Quasars Really Are
  • Quasars as Probes of Evolution in the Universe
  • For Further Exploration: Active Galaxies, Quasars, and Supermassive Black Holes
  • Exercises: Active Galaxies, Quasars, and Supermassive Black Holes

• The Evolution and Distribution of Galaxies

• • Introduction to the Evolution and Distribution of Galaxies
  • Observations of Distant Galaxies
  • Galaxy Mergers and Active Galactic Nuclei
  • The Distribution of Galaxies in Space
  • The Challenge of Dark Matter
  • The Formation and Evolution of Galaxies and Structure in the Universe
  • For Further Exploration: The Evolution and Distribution of Galaxies
  • Exercises: The Evolution and Distribution of Galaxies

• The Big Bang

• • Introduction to the Big Bang
  • The Age of the Universe
  • A Model of the Universe
  • The Beginning of the Universe
  • The Cosmic Microwave Background
  • What Is the Universe Really Made Of?
  • The Inflationary Universe
  • The Anthropic Principle
  • For Further Exploration: The Big Bang
  • Exercises: The Big Bang

• Life in the Universe

• • Introduction to Life in the Universe
  • The Cosmic Context for Life
  • Astrobiology
  • Searching for Life beyond Earth
  • The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence
  • For Further Exploration: Life in the Universe
  • Exercises: Life in the Universe

• Appendices

• • How to Study for an Introductory Astronomy Class
  • Astronomy Websites, Images, and Apps
  • Scientific Notation
  • Units Used in Science
  • Some Useful Constants for Astronomy
  • Physical and Orbital Data for the Planets
  • Selected Moons of the Planets
  • Future Total Eclipses
  • The Nearest Stars, Brown Dwarfs, and White Dwarfs
  • The Brightest Twenty Stars
  • The Chemical Elements
  • The Constellations
  • Star Chart and Sky Event Resources