{"id":69,"date":"2018-10-29T13:47:12","date_gmt":"2018-10-29T13:47:12","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-psychwork\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=69"},"modified":"2018-10-29T16:07:53","modified_gmt":"2018-10-29T16:07:53","slug":"4-success-begins-in-childhood","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/atd-herkimer-psychologyofwork\/chapter\/4-success-begins-in-childhood\/","title":{"raw":"4. Success Begins in Childhood","rendered":"4. Success Begins in Childhood"},"content":{"raw":"<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3719\/2018\/10\/29134608\/Chapter-4.pdf\">Chapter 4<\/a>\r\n\r\nIntroduction\r\nIs success at work based on childhood and adolescent experiences? What is the\r\ninfl uence of parents\u2019 expectations on one\u2019s career? The infl uence of childhood\r\nand adolescent experiences in relation to adult work success has not been widely\r\nstudied. As such, we wanted to begin the process of drawing back the curtain on\r\nthis theme through top workers\u2019 biographies.\r\nWe were interested in exploring those factors that Employees of the Year\r\nrecognised from their lives, especially from childhood and adolescence, as having\r\nenhanced their success. This is important if our aim is help people with their\r\nopportunities to fi nd a suitable occupation in which they can use their talents.\r\nExperiences and events taking place in childhood and adolescence can be crucial\r\nor can at least point people in the right direction.\r\nThe fi rst part of the chapter focuses on the top workers\u2019 childhood memories\r\nand the factors they recall as having infl uenced their careers. The second part of\r\nthe chapter then continues the analysis from the point of view of caring teacherhood.\r\nFindings from our leadership studies are also included in this chapter to\r\nshow how caring leadership in education can be used for promoting students\u2019\r\nsuccessful study paths. This contributes yet another viewpoint to factors promoting\r\nsuccess during children\u2019s and adolescents\u2019 school careers.\r\nSuccess starts from childhood?\r\nMagnusson and Mahoney ( 2006 ) have argued that positive development cannot\r\nbe defi ned with reference to an individual person and that the person\u2019s characteristics,\r\nresources and limits, as well as the cultural, physical and historical context\r\nin which the person lives, also matter. As such, positive development is a holistic\r\nprocess. This means that developmental processes form an entity that affects all\r\nlevels of the person-environment system. At the same time, all the elements\r\nwithin developmental processes interact. An individual\u2019s positive development\r\ndepends on how well the inner and outer functions of the organism are synchronised.\r\nInner processes are, for example, mental, biological and behavioural\r\nChapter 4\r\nSuccess begins in childhood\r\n58 Success begins in childhood\r\nfunctions while outer processes cover opportunities, demands and rules provided\r\nby one\u2019s environment. Therefore, the developmental process also varies between\r\nsociety and culture (Magnusson and Mahoney 2006 ).\r\nNumerous studies have focused on positive development, and they have often\r\ntaken a specifi c stand or approach to the theme. There are singular studies\r\nresearching various factors and relationships; for example, studies have found a\r\npositive relationship between adolescents\u2019 perceived autonomy and self-esteem\r\ntogether with a positive relationship with parents. Likewise, parents\u2019 socioeconomic\r\nstatus infl uences not only children\u2019s wellbeing but also intellectual attainment,\r\nsuch as education (for example, Bradley and Corwyn 2002 ). Furthermore,\r\nsocioeconomic factors are shown to be indirectly related to children\u2019s academic\r\nachievement through parents\u2019 beliefs and behaviours (Davis-Kean 2005 ). Similar\r\nfi ndings have been reported, for example, regarding parents\u2019 role in enhancing\r\ntheir children\u2019s acquisition of positive values, attitudes and behaviours towards\r\nsport hobbies (C\u00f4t\u00e9 1999 ). However, current approaches to the theme have begun\r\nadopting more and more holistic foci concentrating on factors that affect both\r\npositive and problem youth development (Catalano et al. 2005 ).\r\nSuccess is not just sunshine; it requires the ability to be fl exible, adjust, make\r\ncompromises and cope with failures and adversities. It is important to consider\r\nhow the home teaches and supports a child, including in circumstances in which\r\nhe or she does not achieve goals, i.e., the ways in which diffi culties are handled\r\nand how they are understood as an inevitable part of life (M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti\r\n2012a, 2012b, 2013), as well as how to develop a sense of oneself as an autonomous\r\nindividual (Eccles 1999 ). Therefore, the infl uence of family and upbringing\r\nis far from simple when it comes to children\u2019s success in later life (see, for example,\r\nAronson Fontes 2002 ; Elder et al . 1985 ; Rowe 1990 ). What might be the\r\nmost crucial aspect for this study is the manner in which people learn to interpret\r\ntheir experiences.\r\nIndeed, top workers do not develop independently; they are surrounded by\r\ntheir families, friends and relatives. According to Berscheid ( 2006 ), human\r\nbehaviour and development should always be understood as the result of living\r\nwithin the network and context of human relationships. It is crucial to explore\r\nhow these factors enhance the development of self and the use of human strengths\r\n(Caprara and Cervone 2006 ; Magnusson and Mahoney 2006 ). Indeed, love and\r\nattachment expressed in relationships that surround us are not simply about an\r\naffect or a passive inner emotion but an active aspiration to help the beloved grow\r\nand be happy (Maijala et al . 2012 ; M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti 2013 ).\r\nPerhaps no one aims for an Employee of the Year award, but the road to\r\nsuccess at work, from perspectives on childhood and adolescence, is likely to be\r\nsomething more indefi nable and general. Despite this, some people do achieve\r\nsuccess at work. Is their success traceable to their childhood, and what could be\r\nthe role of their childhood and adolescent experiences? The purpose of this chapter\r\nis to discuss the childhood experiences of top workers awarded Employee of\r\nthe Year and to explore what they regard as especially facilitating factors or\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 59\r\nobstacles in their childhood and adolescence that could explain their favourable\r\ngrowth and development toward success at work.\r\nFirst, we discuss the factors that the top workers considered benefi cial to their\r\ncareer development and success at work. As expected, many factors were highlighted,\r\nwhich were further categorised into (1) parents\u2019 support and upbringing,\r\n(2) idols, relatives and friends, and (3) careers counselling at school. Following\r\nthis, we take look at the hardships and obstacles faced by the top workers in their\r\nchildhood and adolescence.\r\nChildhood experiences as contributory factors\r\nin occupational choices\r\nSuccess at work can result from many factors. Snyder and Lopez ( 2002 ) discuss\r\nit as a process emphasising, for example, the infl uence of family, school, childhood\r\ndevelopment and good workplaces on the young people. The section will\r\nbegin by analysing parents\u2019 infl uence on top workers\u2019 career choices and their\r\nattitude to life, successes and hardships, and many characteristics needed for\r\nsuccess. Likewise, the role of idols, relatives and friends as bellwethers is\r\ndiscussed. Third, the signifi cance of careers\u2019 counselling at school is studied in\r\nthe context of the top workers\u2019 experiences.\r\nParental support and upbringing\r\nValues and educational goals that form the basis of upbringing refl ect an understanding\r\nof the meaning of life, in other words, what people want to achieve or\r\ndo in order to live a certain kind of life. Home is the most important environment\r\nfor children because every child is bound to a home and is under the infl uence of\r\nthe home environment. Attitudes to life and other people are adopted from home.\r\nThe infl uence of the home in upbringing is markedly signifi cant and, therefore,\r\nthe process of becoming a top worker can be traced to the childhood and adolescence\r\nof top workers.\r\nIn the interviews, top workers were asked to reminisce about events and factors\r\nthat have affected their career choices in one way or another and whether their\r\nparents had infl uenced them. The fi rst reaction was that their parents had not tried\r\nto infl uence them. However, according to Snyder and Lopez ( 2002 ), families do\r\ninfl uence their children\u2019s behaviour in later life by exemplifying how to explain\r\nadversities, how to set goals for the future, and how they strengthen hope in children.\r\nIndeed, according to the interview fi ndings, parents had infl uenced top\r\nworkers\u2019 attitude toward work rather than than their actual career choices.\r\nTop workers maintained that their parents emphasised the importance of\r\nhaving an occupation and earning one\u2019s keep during adulthood. Three of the\r\ninterviewees reported that their parents had some ideas about what they might\r\nwant their children to become, and two top workers stated that their parents\u2019\r\noccupation had infl uenced their career choices. For example, a farmer had\r\n60 Success begins in childhood\r\ncontinued the family farm. However, this career choice was not clear from the\r\nbeginning. The farmer described the situation as follows:\r\nSU: \u2018Was it always clear that you would continue with the family farm?\u2019\r\nEmployee of the Year: \u2018I don\u2019t know. It wasn\u2019t obvious\u2026 Of course, when\r\nrelatives visited, they would always talk about the young farmer, or they\r\nwould ask something else. But it wasn\u2019t clear to me\u2026 I think that it mattered\r\nthat I was away for about ten years. It broadened my mind and thoughts, and\r\neverything, surprisingly lot when you look around and see what people do\r\nelsewhere in the world. My parents never put pressure on me. Rather, they\r\nhave always asked about my situation. Certainly, these questions were asked\r\nmore often when my father\u2019s retirement got closer.\u2019\r\nAnother top worker was also given the opportunity to continue with his parents\u2019\r\nfarm, but this top worker was aware from an early age that this was not a suitable\r\npath. One of the interviewees spoke of hope quite concretely: the top worker\u2019s father\r\nhad wanted his child to become a chemist (in Finland, chemists are entrepreneurs and\r\nown pharmacies), but the top worker was not interested in this fi eld. The desire of\r\nthe parents was primarily driven by the security and profi tability of being a chemist.\r\nOne top worker stated that studying and having an occupation was strongly\r\nencouraged at home. Although parents did not infl uence this top worker\u2019s career\r\nchoice, his father\u2019s occupation had affected childhood and adolescence hobbies\r\nand the career choices of siblings:\r\n\u2018 My father was a musician\u2026 Being an artist, he downright demanded that we\r\ndo music and almost every one of us children had to play the piano or whatever.\r\nYou have probably heard these stories about compulsory hobbies. We did it, and\r\nsome of my siblings, two sisters are cantors and my brother too is a musician.\u2019\r\nOther top workers did consider that their parents had much infl uence on their\r\ncareers. The most important thing was to fi nd a fi eld that was pleasing and interesting,\r\nand parents did not try to restrict their children. Parents did not put pressure\r\nor demands on their children but helped them to think about the future, make\r\ntheir own choices in life, and perceive the possibilities, opportunities and wellbeing\r\nthat life could offer. What is relevant for success is the capability to learn how\r\nto get excited, set new goals, and the propensity to receive positive feedback and\r\nthus enhance one\u2019s own learning.\r\nFurthermore, disappointments are an important aspect of developing selfesteem\r\nand mental health (for example, Desjardins et al . 2008 ). In the safety of\r\nthe home, children can learn about those means that help them to handle disappointments\r\nand failures. When necessary, parents can protect their children from\r\nfeelings of anxiety and guilt. Successful rearing does not aim to rid hardships and\r\nobstacles but to help children learn how to confront, tolerate and conquer the\r\ninevitable diffi culties (McRee and Halpern 2010 ).\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 61\r\nIdols, relatives and friends\r\nOnly a few of the interviewees could name an idol who had infl uenced their\r\ncareer choice. However, three top workers acknowledged someone or some\r\npeople who had, in one way or another, helped them with their occupational\r\nchoices. The police offi cer maintained that patriotism in the family had infl uenced\r\nhis career dreams. Patriotism was based on respect for relatives who had gone to\r\nwar and they were considered the police offi cer top worker\u2019s idols. Although the\r\ntop worker realised that the police profession was not founded only on the basis\r\nof this ideology, it remained partially important.\r\nThe priest described how spiritual life was rooted in the family even if the\r\npriest\u2019s parents had had temporal occupations and there were no actual church\r\nemployees in the family. Nevertheless, the top worker\u2019s grandmother had run\r\nSunday school and the top worker had good memories of it.\r\nThese examples show that top workers\u2019 stories do not include absolute idols\r\nwho they would have followed in their lives. Therefore, it is not about admiration\r\nwith blind worshipping but, rather, that the factors infl uencing these idols were\r\nmanifested in attitudes such as patriotism and religiousness. These kinds of positive\r\nexperiences directed their career choices later in life.\r\nFriends can also have an infl uence on careers, and their effects are not always\r\nforeseen. Hence, one of the top workers stated that the decision to apply to a business\r\nschool was based on a discussion with a friend. They wanted to continue\r\nstudying together. This is a good example of how powerful an infl uence adolescent\r\nfriendships can have and that, therefore, the impact of the circle of friends\r\nshould never be underestimated. In a situation in which choosing a place of study\r\nis uncertain or diffi cult, the decision can easily be made with friends.\r\nCareers counselling at school\r\nThe previous sections have showed that top workers\u2019 career choices were not\r\ndirected by their families; their upbringing was directed in the sense of enhancing\r\ntheir overall positive attitudes to study and work. Therefore, it was also interesting\r\nto explore whether their schools had guided them and whether careers counselling\r\nin school had helped them with their occupational choice.\r\nThe signifi cance of school in upbringing becomes especially emphasised if the\r\nhome and family resources are insuffi cient or if children and adolescents do not\r\nreceive suffi cient information or stimuli at home. Their development can be\r\nsupported at school, too, by employing their strengths. The purpose of student\r\ncounselling at school is to support students\u2019 personal, social, moral and occupational\r\ndevelopment, and therefore it is quite wide-ranging and holistic (Sundvall-\r\nHuhtinen 2007 ) in nature. In Finnish schools, students have careers counselling,\r\nand practical training periods in real workplaces are also important.\r\nIn the interviews, top workers were asked to describe their experiences of\r\ncareers counselling at school. Their experiences varied from one extreme to the\r\n62 Success begins in childhood\r\nother. Every top worker remembered their school counsellor, but perceptions of\r\nhow meaningful the counselling had been varied considerably.\r\nThree top workers had experiences that could be regarded as positive. One\r\nremembered that various occupations were introduced to them, although this top\r\nworker attended school when Finnish schools did not yet have separate counsellors\r\nor practical training periods.\r\n\u2018I think careers counseling was appropriate. I cannot remember which one of\r\nthe teachers had to do it. It provided information about certain occupations\r\nand such, so that we could ponder it a bit. So, it was benefi cial at that moment.\u2019\r\nThis top worker did not choose his occupation on the basis of careers counselling\r\nbut did so later when performing army duties. However, the positive experience\r\nof careers counselling was based on the information provided about different\r\noccupations that many young people did not know beforehand.\r\nAnother top worker remembered that at school they had to familiarise themselves\r\nwith occupations in which they were the most interested. They were asked\r\nto write about how to study for and become employed in these fi elds. This top\r\nworker stated that he was already thinking about his current occupation at that\r\ntime. Thus, careers counselling equipped this top worker with the knowledge of\r\nhow to enter that profession.\r\nThe third positive experience differed somewhat from the previous two. This\r\ntop worker had sought professional careers counselling after graduating from\r\ngeneral upper secondary education. Careers counselling thus supported this top\r\nworker\u2019s occupational choice.\r\nTwo top workers had quite similar negative experiences of careers counselling\r\nin school. Their counsellor had advised them about who could apply for vocational\r\nschool and who could continue to general upper secondary education and\r\nthen to higher education. While the fi rst top worker\u2019s counsellor had not\r\nsupported the top worker\u2019s decision to go to vocational school, the other top\r\nworker\u2019s counsellor remained doubtful of the top worker\u2019s capability to continue\r\non to general upper secondary education. Therefore, careers counselling would\r\nhave directed them in directions other than what they had chosen and in which\r\nthey had succeeded. These two top workers were the youngest of the research\r\nparticipants and they also had practical training periods at school. Usually, they\r\nwould go to familiar, neighbourhood enterprises to familiarise themselves with\r\nreal work life.\r\n\u2018Yes, we had careers counseling in middle school. And I still remember what\r\nour counselor at the time told me, that my choice was a bad one. I tried to say\r\nthat I did not agree and tried to give reasons. And the counselor strongly\r\nencouraged me to continue with general upper secondary education. I did not.\r\nI did not think it would be my thing. I really remember it, and we had quite a\r\nlot of that counseling during the ninth grade.\u2019\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 63\r\nWhat is most interesting in the previous example, and in the one that follows,\r\nis that counsellors do not seem very interested in fi guring out what the youth is\r\ninterested in. At the very least, this was what the top workers remembered.\r\nStudents were divided into two groups; based on their grades, they would be suitable\r\nfor either general upper secondary education or vocational upper secondary\r\neducation after their compulsory education.\r\nEmployee of the Year: \u2018Those careers counseling lessons! Those were about\r\nrest and so on. I don\u2019t know whether I was just a silly youngster that I didn\u2019t\r\nunderstand the idea of counseling or whether it was because of those counselors.\r\nI remember that they were all already approaching their retirement age,\r\nso they were so far away from\u2026\u2019\r\nSU: \u2018\u2026yeah, the adolescents\u2019 life.\u2019\r\nEmployee of the Year: \u2018Yes. And then he looked at my records and wondered\r\nwhether I was really seriously going to pursue general upper secondary education.\u2019\r\nTwo top workers reported that careers counselling had not been signifi cant to\r\nthem at all. They both remembered it but had not personally benefi tted from it. In\r\nall, it can be concluded that the top workers had not found careers counselling\r\nvery important and, therefore, it cannot be seen as one of the key factors directly\r\ncontributing to their success, although, in fact, it could and should have the opposite\r\neffect.\r\nWhy did careers counselling not meet students\u2019 needs? One reason is probably\r\nthat top workers who participated in this research went to school in the\r\n1950s-1970s when careers counselling was completely differently organised than\r\nit is today. For example, Sundvall-Huhtinen ( 2007 ) points out that it was not until\r\nthe 1970s that the school system started to become more fl exible and personal\r\nstudy plans were developed. In addition to changes in the education system,\r\nchanges in society and especially work life have infl uenced on the development\r\nof careers counselling (Numminen et al . 2002 ).\r\nThe need for counselling and guidance has increased. At the same time, attitudes\r\nabout the future and future occupations have changed considerably; in the\r\n1960s-1980s\u2019 Finland, the starting point of studying and work was to make a\r\ncareer decision, pursue studies, fi nd a stable and secure career, and avoid making\r\nmistakes. This was also evident in the kind of advice that the top workers received\r\nat home from their parents. However, in the 1990s and 2000s, attitudes have\r\nchanged and emphasis is on having many options, life-long learning, enjoying\r\nlife, and learning from mistakes (Sundvall-Huhtinen 2007 ). Changes in the worldview,\r\nliving in insecure times, and the demand for constant updating and learning\r\nat work necessitate effi cient guidance that can support occupational development.\r\nTop workers also mentioned other factors that they thought enhanced their\r\ncareers. One talked about having a gap year between studies and after compulsory\r\n64 Success begins in childhood\r\nschool. This top worker had no idea about a suitable occupation at the time.\r\nDuring that particular year, the top worker worked in a retirement home for eight\r\nmonths and became familiarised with nursing. Although this top worker did not\r\napply for nursing education immediately afterwards, the top worker later realised\r\nthat positive work experiences from the retirement home would pave the way.\r\nEventually, the top worker studied and graduated as a nurse and has worked as\r\none ever since.\r\nHardships and obstacles\r\nTop workers were also asked to describe the kinds of hardships they faced in their\r\nlives and whether they considered these experiences as having impacted on their\r\ncareers. Some specifi c events were mentioned. For example, the police offi cer did\r\nnot get into cadet school, which was very disappointing. However, this top\r\nworker decided on the police profession and applied to police school, got in, and\r\nthis is how a fi ne career as a police offi cer got started. The setback turned into an\r\nadvantage, and plan B became a success story.\r\nVarious kinds of career-related hardships could be seen as mere sidetracks.\r\nThis is also because top workers were once clueless youngsters trying to fi nd their\r\nown paths. Two top workers experienced such sidetracks; after having acquired\r\nan education, they later realised that their pursued fi elds were misguided and\r\nunsuitable. Stories about sidetracks teach that one does not always decide upon\r\nthe right occupation without some level of stray. As a matter of fact, wrong\r\nchoices can even be considered advantageous as they may strengthen one\u2019s positive\r\nfeelings toward fi nding the right path; under such circumstances, one can\r\nmake solid comparisons between situations.\r\nEvery top worker had experienced turning points in which they had to decide\r\nwhere to go next. For example, two top workers had the opportunity to continue\r\nwith their parents\u2019 farm, but only one of them eventually did. Both of them\r\nbecame Employees of the Year awardees. What seems most important is to listen\r\nto oneself and choose the direction according to one\u2019s own feelings, thoughts and\r\nvalues. One of the top workers expressed this as follows:\r\n\u2018I do not know about those situations when you have to choose, whether the\r\nroad will go here or there, or will I take this or that. I have been wise enough\r\nto think of what I really want, what is worth investing in with my abilities and\r\ntalents. And even if something could be really interesting but not quite what\r\nis most suitable. I have always discussed these profoundly with myself. When\r\nit comes to my occupation, I have certainly been thinking about what are the\r\nbest use of my strengths. And that had led to such satisfaction and pleasure\r\nthat cannot be measured by money or respectability in relation to work.\u2019\r\nThis type of thinking reveals a multidimensional analysis of the mission, standards\r\nand performances expected in work (see also Gardner et al . 2001 ).\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 65\r\nImbibing brisk attitude and optimism from parents\r\nand educators?\r\nAccording to the results, top workers could not recall specifi c factors from their\r\nchildhood that could have been crucial in fi nding the right occupation. However, one\r\nimportant notion can be raised from their childhood, which is the attitude toward\r\neducation, work and life in general that was adopted from home. Although the top\r\nworkers\u2019 parents did not make career decisions for their children, they had encouraged\r\nthem to educate themselves, work hard, and have a positive attitude about the\r\nfuture. Indeed, it has been shown that childhood experiences do matter in later development\r\nand success in later life (for example, Hawkins et al . 2005; Larson, 2000).\r\nHow then can success be supported? Twenty years ago, Arnold et al . ( 1993 )\r\nemphasised that awareness of one\u2019s own strengths and weaknesses, values and\r\npoints of interest, and knowledge about different occupations are of primary\r\nimportance for career enhancement. According to the results of this study, none\r\nof the top workers had found their occupation through the careers counselling\r\nprovided at school, but some of them still appreciated the information about\r\noccupations given at counselling.\r\nThe latest research in the fi eld of positive psychology has further advanced the\r\nimportance of recognising one\u2019s strengths (Aspinwall and Staudinger 2006 ).\r\nThere is not simply one road to success at work, and every top worker is an individual.\r\nWhat was common among them was their ability and courage to listen to\r\nthemselves and be true to themselves. According to Gilligan ( 2000 ), childhoodrelated\r\nfactors that promote self-directedness or self-effi cacy include parents\u2019\r\nbelief in the child\u2019s own sense of control, responsiveness, consistency, warmth\r\nand praise, support, and encouraging the child to engage in his or her environment\r\nand surrounding people (see also Sroufe 2005 ; Young et al . 2001 ).\r\nTherefore, social skills learned from home can be crucial for the positive development\r\nin this sense (see, for example, Decovic and Janssens 1992 ).\r\nIt seemed that the most important criterion for success is to fi nd a career that\r\nis suitable and in which a person can become fulfi lled. Educators need imagination,\r\ncourage, and even the ability to take risks so that they can help growing and\r\nmaturing people test their own limits and abilities (Uusiautti 2008 ; Uusiautti and\r\nM\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 2013 ). Careers counselling can play an important role and should be\r\nfurther researched. Students need information about various occupations and\r\nwork tasks to be able to evaluate what they fi nd interesting and what they want\r\nor can do. Therefore, personal careers counselling also has to help a student\r\nrecognise his or her abilities and talents, but equally important is to fi nd out which\r\nschool subjects the student likes the best and what he or she likes to do. Questions\r\nrelated to career choice and occupational socialisation are surprisingly closely\r\nconnected with free-time activities (Driver 1982 ; Duffy and Dik 2009 ; Maljojoki\r\n1989 ; Middleton and Loughead 1993 ).\r\nIn addition, students have their own preconceptions of various occupations and\r\nthus it is crucial that the expectations in various professions are clarifi ed to\r\n66 Success begins in childhood\r\nstudents. Abundant practical experiences and examples from real work life\r\ncannot be suffi ciently emphasised. Furthermore, teachers and counsellors should\r\nbe aware of their prejudices and stereotypical conceptions of valuable and notso-\r\nvaluable occupations. Top workers who participated in this study attended\r\nschool four to six decades ago, and careers counselling was not as systematic as\r\nit is today, since societal interest in adolescent choices emerged in the late 1960s\r\nand early 1970s (Petersen 1988 ).\r\nIt is also worth remembering that, regardless of whether a student is a straight-\r\nA pupil or simply barely passes, every student needs careers counselling.\r\nTherefore, it is important to highlight the positive experiences of success and\r\nbeing capable \u2013 every student has and can have them. It would be interesting to\r\nknow how the future Employees of the Year perceive the role of careers counselling\r\nin school today.\r\nIn all, it became evident that researching the secrets of success from people\u2019s\r\nchildhood and adolescence was not straightforward. The phenomenon of success\r\ndoes not appear in the same way as failure and, therefore, it is not easy to think\r\nabout reasons for success (Isen 2001 ; Uusiautti and M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 2011 ). However, the\r\nrole of childhood experiences at school and at home should be interesting to\r\neducators. For example, M\u00e4kikangas ( 2007 ) has found that a sensitive and childcentered\r\nupbringing was connected to optimism in later phases of life (see also\r\nSroufe 2005 ). Top workers also displayed optimistic attitudes, which can be\r\nclosely related to the overall satisfaction of life, including satisfaction with one\u2019s\r\nwork and career choice.\r\nPerceiving the phenomenon of success from this perspective is relevant to\r\nmany areas of life, but especially remarkable is that the foundation of success can\r\nbe laid from childhood. Positive psychology has been interested in exploring and\r\ncreating optimal conditions for all children and students (Carruthers and Hood\r\n2005 ). Success is not just something that, for example, gifted people are entitled\r\nto but the concept could be used for enhancing everyone\u2019s success. If students\u2019\r\nmastery of information or skill leads to success, and if positive emotions are one\r\nof the cornerstones of successful learning, it would be reasonable to pay attention\r\nto this viewpoint in education (Chafouleas and Bray 2004 ). The purpose, therefore,\r\nis to research, defi ne and specify the human strengths and capacities that\r\nindividual people, families, communities and societies should aim to utilise.\r\nPositive human development should be encouraged (Dunn et al . 2008 ). Although\r\nthe viewpoint presented in this review is very individualistic, it is also worthy to\r\ncontinue the discussion from the collective perspective and to think about\r\nwhether these concepts can also be used for enhancing collective or communal\r\nsuccess.\r\nEducators should be ready to meet the challenge of providing children and\r\nstudents with such positive experiences of fi nding their own road and being able\r\nto fulfi l themselves. Lerner et al . ( 2002 ) use the word \u2018thriving\u2019 to discuss the\r\npositive development of youth. They emphasise \u2018the fi ve Cs of positive youth\r\ndevelopment: competence, confi dence, character, social connection, and caring\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 67\r\n(or compassion)\u2019 (p. 23), which work toward enhancing positive youth development.\r\nIndeed, in addition to the personal benefi ts of happiness that are achieved\r\nthrough utilising one\u2019s strengths (Seligman 2002; 2011), they are also socially\r\nbenefi cial as balanced, satisfi ed people are also better citizens (Gilpin 2008 ).\r\nCaring teacherhood as a means to success\r\nAs the childhood memories of top workers surfaced, it became evident that the\r\nconnection between counselling at school and one\u2019s capability of fi nding the right\r\noccupation was not that simple. As such, we want to spend a moment to discuss\r\nthe idea of caring teacherhood as a means to discovering pupils\u2019 strengths.\r\nWe consider teachers as caring leaders who can employ love-based methods that\r\nenhance pupils\u2019 ability to spot their strengths and thus improve their\r\nself-knowledge.\r\nCan pupils and students be led toward goodness\r\nand happiness \u2013 and wellbeing?\r\nAuthority is often addressed from pedagogical points of view and it has been\r\nstudied a great deal (Delpit 1988 ; Deutsch and Jones 2011 ; Pace and Hemmings\r\n2007 ). Nevertheless, it has been understood in a contradictory manner in relation\r\nto education and teaching (Langford 2010 ; Seidl and Friend 2002 ). Obviously,\r\nthe relationship between a teacher and a student is asymmetrical because the\r\nteacher possesses something that the pupil does not. According to Hare, the\r\nteacher does not have to think that the student is presently his or her equal, but\r\ndoes need to see the student as a potential equal (Hare 1993 ). The purpose of the\r\nlearning relationship is to make the pupil develop into an independent and\r\nresponsible autonomous individual. However, students cannot achieve this goal\r\nindependently; they need the educator\u2019s help and guidance and, therefore, the\r\nteacher is in a position of authority.\r\nvan Manen emphasised that an adult\u2019s ability to affect a pupil is genuine when\r\nthe authority does not rely on power, but on love and affection (van Manen 1991 ).\r\nHarjunen also defi nes pedagogical authority through pedagogical interaction\r\n(Harjunen 2009 ). According to the author, pedagogical interaction consists of\r\nsuch characteristics as \u2018trust building\u2019, \u2018treating students as human beings\u2019, and\r\nthe \u2018ethics of care and justice\u2019.\r\nWe have defi ned the connection between pedagogical love and authority in the\r\nfollowing manner:\r\nIf pedagogical love and pedagogical authority are based on expertise-based\r\nrespect, the learning atmosphere is warm and encouraging. Mutual respect\r\nsupports empathy; students respect the teacher because of his or her expertise\r\nand regard the teacher as a sort of safe mainstay that they can rely on. The\r\nteacher trusts and believes in the students\u2019 abilities, respects their individuality,\r\n68 Success begins in childhood\r\nand helps them to enhance their balanced development and fi nd their own\r\nstrengths.\r\n(M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti 2011b )\r\nWhat does this mean in the context of schooling and teaching? The existence of a\r\ngood human being can be considered problematic or even impossible because\r\n\u2018good\u2019 is usually confused with \u2018perfect\u2019. Being a good human being does not mean\r\nthat one should be totally irreproachable, moral and faultless, that is, non-human and\r\nprobably impossible to achieve anyway. We want to highlight love as the fundamental\r\nfactor in raising children to be good human beings and that this particular aim is\r\nthe ultimate purpose of all rearing. Love appears in teaching as guidance toward\r\ndisciplined work, but also as patience, trust and forgiveness. The purpose is not to\r\nmake learning fun, easy or pleasing but to create a setting for learning whereby\r\npupils can use and develop their own resources, eventually proceeding at the maximum\r\nof their own abilities. A loving teacher takes care that the learner does not lose\r\nhis or her trust in his or her own learning when faced with diffi culties. Therefore,\r\nlove appears as goal-oriented action: a teacher plans and implements learning situations\r\nthat enhance learning. Furthermore, a loving teacher takes a pupil\u2019s personal\r\nsituation into consideration (for example, Hatt 2005 ; van Manen 1991 ).\r\nPedagogical love is considered a working method that involves persistent interest\r\nand perseverance in supporting pupils\u2019 development for the sake of themselves\r\nand the whole society. In addition, teachers should fi nd a balance between\r\npedagogical love and pedagogical authority and combine them both in a studentspecifi\r\nc manner. Pedagogical tact is at its strongest in this ability. Dealing with\r\nvarious students requires fl exibility and sensitivity in the teacher\u2019s pedagogical\r\napproach. Some students need more intimacy while some others consider expertise\r\nespecially important. Moreover, the teaching content and learning objectives\r\nmay necessitate different kinds of procedures from the teacher \u2013 in other words,\r\na certain kind of tact (M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti 2011b ). Taking this viewpoint further,\r\nvan Manen points out that pedagogical tact is \u2018the language of surprising and\r\nunpredicted pedagogical action\u2019 that emerges from the genuine attachment to the\r\npupil (van Manen 1991 ). At the core, it is the children\u2019s vulnerability and\r\ndefenselessness that make the educator protect them.\r\nTools for employing strength-based approaches in school\r\nThe way we see it, the role of a teacher is primarily focused on encouraging and\r\nrewarding the multitude of talents and strengths a child has, by presenting opportunities\r\nfor displays of these talents and strengths each day. In practice, the means\r\nare quite simple: linking strengths to specifi c festivals and events throughout the\r\nschool calendar and activities such as the strengths-based classroom, victory logs\r\nand celebrations of \u2018what went well\u2019 (see Linley et al . 2009 ).\r\nIn practice, it is important that the teacher makes self-assessments. A teacher\r\ncan refl ect and observe his or her way of teaching and interacting with students\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 69\r\nand ask questions such as \u2018Do I listen to students\u2019 opinions in an open manner?\u2019,\r\n\u2018Do I encourage students to express their emotions or perceptions?\u2019, \u2018How do I\r\nhandle divergent opinions and criticism or feedback from students?\u2019, and \u2018Do I\r\ntreat students equally regardless of their background?\u2019 Becoming aware of one\u2019s\r\nown style and level of tact enables one to move from one quadrant to another,\r\ntoward an ideal state. It is about the teacher\u2019s tact and the capabilities of recognising\r\nvarious learners and personalities and of having situational fl exibility (see\r\nalso M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti 2012b ).\r\nIn addition to teachers\u2019 refl ective practice, it is crucial to include positivelyoriented\r\nand wellbeing-promoting actions toward pupils and students. Seligman\r\net al . ( 2009 ) describes simple exercises that aim to help students identify their\r\nsignature strengths and increase their use of these strengths in daily life.\r\nMoreover, this intervention was aimed at promoting resilience, positive emotions\r\nand students\u2019 sense of meaning or purpose. All goals were achieved, which made\r\nSeligman\u2019s research group conclude that wellbeing should and can be taught at\r\nschool. The positive focus seemed, according to the study by Seligman et al ., to\r\nconsist of relatively small things, such as changing speaking prompts (for example,\r\ninstead of asking students to describe negative events, teachers asked them\r\nto give a speech about when they were of value to others; religious education\r\nteachers asked students to explore the relationship between ethics and pleasure\r\nand what gives life purpose and meaning; geography teachers asked students to\r\nconsider how the criteria for wellbeing might differ between various countries;\r\nPE teachers focused on analysing the successes of past games before the next\r\ngame or lesson). The point here was that wellbeing could be taught and, with the\r\nteacher\u2019s lead, students would not only learn about it, but their own wellbeing\r\nwould increase as well.\r\nIt is important to discover one\u2019s signature strengths. In Seligman et al .\u2019s ( 2005 )\r\nstudy, long-term effects of increased happiness were perceived in exercises that\r\naimed to employ signature strengths in a new way and in which pupils were asked\r\nto name and explain three good things about their daily lives.\r\nFurthermore, the idea behind Appreciative Inquiry (AI) could also be employed\r\nin education by teachers who would like to utilise the idea of caring teacherhood.\r\nAppreciative Inquiry utilises a cycle of four processes that focuses on \u2018discover\u2019\r\n(the identifi cation of organisational processes that work well), \u2018dream\u2019 (the envisioning\r\nof processes that would work well in the future), \u2018design\u2019 (planning and\r\nprioritising processes that would work well), and \u2018destiny\u2019 (the implementation\r\n(execution) of the proposed design) (Cooperrider et al . 2008 ). Likewise, Ryan\r\net al . ( 1999 ) have advanced that AI is a suitable strategy for initiating an affective\r\nand analytical micro-level reform within a single school. The fundamental notion\r\nis that instead of concentrating on what was done wrong, AI helps with discovering\r\nwhat is done well and what more could be done.\r\nFurthermore, providing students with daily experiences of success is important.\r\nIf the mastery of information and skills is to lead to success, and if positive\r\nemotion is one of the keystones of learning, it would be reasonable to pay\r\n70 Success begins in childhood\r\nattention to this viewpoint in teaching (Chafouleas and Bray 2004 ). Fredrickson\u2019s\r\n( 2001 ) analysis on pride also falls into this category. By adjusting goals and\r\nobjectives and planning learning tasks in a way that each pupil can have the experience\r\nof achieving a goal, this kind of experience of success can be promoted.\r\nTeachers try to fi nd a balance between pupils\u2019 skills, work-related expectations\r\nand opportunities and challenges, which is likely to lead to better performance,\r\ncontentment, higher motivation and a sense of self-effi cacy.\r\nThe teacher as a caring leader or pedagogical authority has the capacity to help\r\nbring about the best in pupils. The process can then move forward \u2013 not only the\r\nprocess of learning and performing, but also the process of discovering and using\r\npupils\u2019 signature strengths, and promoting wellbeing and happiness, not only in\r\nthe current phase of life but also in prospective phases.\r\nAccording to Hare ( 1993 ), pedagogical love, caring in the classroom, humility,\r\ncommitment and hope are traits that constitute a \u2018good\u2019 teacher, although they are\r\nnot always easy to adhere to in modern schools. Therefore, pedagogical tact is the\r\nkey; this is because it, along with pedagogical goodness, illustrates the pedagogical\r\nrelationship and the fundamental idea that the adult is primarily working for the\r\nbenefi t of the child in this context (Saevi and Eilifsen 2008 ). The ability to create\r\nhappiness for life is an important skill for a good educator and teacher. Von Wright\r\nhas stated that to love the world we have to accept it and, therefore, to love students\r\nwe have to accept them and to refrain from wanting to change them and to prepare\r\nthem for changing the world in a particular and predefi ned way (von Wright 2009).\r\nEnhancing students\u2019 study success through\r\ncaring teacherhood\r\nCaring teacherhood can be the way of bringing out the best in children, but\r\ncaring, strength-based leading of learning does not need to end in compulsory\r\neducation. Similar guidance is needed also in higher education levels. Also, it is\r\nnot just teachers working in the classrooms that is important but the overall study\r\nenvironment that is created by the way the school or education institution is led;\r\nwhether the teachers are encouraged to focus on pupils\u2019 and students\u2019 strengths,\r\nwhether they are provided with suffi cient resources for teaching, and whether the\r\nstudents are appreciated at school. The school functions as an entity, and the\r\nstudent-centered, positively oriented approach is a pervasive element of education.\r\nHere, we introduce our fi ndings from Finnish and American universities as\r\nan example of how school can enhance students\u2019 success. The perspective on\r\nuniversity studies is not meant to overlook other education levels. Instead, we\r\nwanted to analyse our data and provide an example of the impact caring leadership\r\ncan make in education institutions. Thus, we argue that this viewpoint could\r\napply to, for example, vocational education schools and polytechnics as well as\r\nit seemingly does to the university-level education.\r\nEspecially at a time when increasing demands on effi cient and productive\r\nhigher education, high numbers of student drop-outs (see, for example, Kuh et al .\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 71\r\n2008 ; OECD 2010) and prolonged studies (OECD 2010; San Antonio 2008 ;\r\nSchoon et al . 2010 ) do not seem to point in the same direction, new ways of\r\nconsidering education are needed. How to make students\u2019 study paths smooth and\r\nhave them succeed in their studies?\r\nIn this section we will discuss how the goal of success could be achieved by\r\nemploying caring leadership in higher education. This section leans on the data\r\nobtained from Finnish and American university leaders. The ultimate idea of the\r\nstudy was that a particular positive and caring viewpoint could be something that\r\ntoday\u2019s higher education would need. For example, Cruce et al . ( 2006 ) suggest\r\nthat good practices in education have a unique, positive impact on student development\r\nas they can affect, for example, student engagement, which can be seen\r\nas one of the main pillars of successful and meaningful study paths. Kezar and\r\nKinzie ( 2006 ) have introduced features of a quality undergraduate education that\r\nhas been associated with student engagement; quality begins with an organisational\r\nculture that values high expectations, shows respect for diverse learning\r\nstyles, and has emphasis on the early years of study; a quality undergraduate\r\ncurriculum requires coherence in learning, synthesising experiences, on-going\r\npractice of learned skills, and integrating education with experience; and quality\r\nundergraduate instruction builds in active learning, assessment and prompt feedback,\r\ncollaboration, adequate time on task, and out-of-class contact with faculty\r\n(see also Kuh 2003 ). Likewise, Theilheimer ( 1991 ) has presented a detailed list\r\nof fi ve factors that contribute to a positive learning environment: (1) comfort\r\n(creating a feeling of safety, accommodating errors, giving students the freedom\r\nof expressing themselves without constraints, creating the feeling of belonging to\r\npeer group); (2) clarity (providing clear instructions, breaking down material to\r\nsmaller chunks to maintain the feeling of accomplishment, however small); (3)\r\nrespect (mutual respect between students and the teacher); (4) relationships\r\n(particularly caring relationships between the teacher and individual students,\r\nteacher attending each student individually); and (5) responsibility (giving\r\nstudents a degree of control over decisions concerning their learning).\r\nHere, our purpose was to analyse how caring leadership in higher education\r\ncan be employed to enhance students\u2019 success and study achievements, and what\r\nits relationship with other factors affecting students\u2019 study success is like.\r\nThe leaders\u2019 perspective is interesting when considering the effect of caring\r\nthat covers the institution, in this case, the university, through the select approach\r\nof the leader. Caldwell and Dixon ( 2010 ) have defi ned love, forgiveness and trust\r\nas organisational constructs that are freedom-producing, empowering and vital to\r\nenhancing followers\u2019 self-effi cacy. When leaders consistently exhibit love,\r\nforgiveness and trust in relationships, their followers \u2013 whether they were\r\nstudents or employees \u2013 respond to these behaviours with increased commitment\r\nand loyalty. Moreover, happiness can be directly translated into engagement,\r\nproductivity and satisfaction (Prewitt 2003 ; see also Rego et al . 2011 ). It has been\r\nargued that sensitive leaders develop a culture that demonstrates concern for\r\nindividual needs (Fairholm and Fairholm 2000 ; Popper and Amit 2009 ).\r\n72 Success begins in childhood\r\nHappiness not only produces a quantitative improvement by increasing effi ciency\r\nbut also a qualitative one by making a better product or outcome by virtue of\r\npride, belief and commitment. Emotions and emotional intelligence have even\r\nbeen considered as the heart of effective leadership (Goleman 2006 ). Furthermore,\r\nan ethic of caring establishes a moral touchstone for decision making (Hoyle\r\n2002 ) as leaders\u2019 elicitation of love regards other people as the cause, target or\r\nthird-party observer of these emotions (Fischer and van Kleef 2010 ).\r\nGiven this perspective on love and leadership, we were interested in researching\r\nhow university leaders talk about the connection between caring leadership\r\nand students\u2019 study success. This viewpoint contributes to the overall knowledge\r\nabout caring leadership practices, but specifi cally to the awareness of the multidimensional\r\nnature of higher education organisations and factors affecting the\r\nsmoothness of university students\u2019 study processes. Finally, the purpose is to\r\ndetermine how the love-based aspect might be used in elaborating research\r\nmodels for re-thinking and designing caring learning environments, students\u2019\r\npsychosocial wellbeing, and for developing the models of caring and love-based\r\nleadership in education context.\r\nAs the interviewees worked in universities, their work was closely connected\r\nto not only their followers but also to university students. Therefore, leaders\r\ndiscussed their leadership in relation to the study opportunities and conditions\r\namong students at their universities. We analysed how the university leaders actually\r\nperceived their role in promoting university students\u2019 study success and\r\nfl uent study processes. All their perceptions were fi rst categorised into themes\r\naccording to the way leadership was discussed in relation to students (for example,\r\nleadership actions for the students, providing resources and quality teaching).\r\nThen, the perceptions were re-categorised into three main categories that best\r\nrepresented the leaders\u2019 perceptions: using caring leadership for (1) providing\r\nresources for quality education, (2) seeing students, faculty or staff, and themselves\r\nas equal groups, and thus promoting a sense of solidarity, and (3) treating\r\nstudents as customers.\r\nCaring leaders provide resources for quality education\r\nThe fi rst category refers to the relationship between outer factors affecting education\r\nand the way that the education is realised in practice and provided to\r\nstudents. The current educational policies regarding funding in universities were\r\nrefl ected by the university leaders. They were aware of the pressure of doing\r\nresearch and having students graduate:\r\n\u2018The pressure within the public university environment has really focused\r\nmore and more around money. [Universities] have to be doing more research,\r\nthey have to be taking more students, they have to be generating more\r\nprograms.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 73\r\n\u2018At this level, in a university, those kinds of push for excellence and productivity\r\nmake it pretty diffi cult to be I think a loving leadership model.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nAlthough they realised that the demands of competition and productivity can\r\nmake it more diffi cult to employ caring leadership in universities, the university\r\nleaders could see their position and opportunities to utilise their leadership. They\r\nseemed to consider themselves responsible for ensuring the high quality education\r\nand support for students.\r\n\u2018I mean, your [the leader\u2019s] job is to make life better for all the faculty and\r\nstudents so they can do what they need to do: their research, their teaching,\r\nand the students, so they learn and get their degree, go out there and make us\r\nall proud. To do that, you got to be a leader.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\n\u2018A lot of times, that requires that you\u2019re going to make sure that the quality\r\nof the education that the students get is going to be the highest possible.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nIn practice, caring leadership appeared as a wish to guarantee as high a quality education\r\nfor students as possible by using the available resources in a purposeful manner,\r\nreallocating it to activities that would benefi t students\u2019 study processes (for example,\r\nby decreasing teachers\u2019 and professors\u2019 administrative work), and enhancing the\r\nspirit of everybody doing their share and their best for the students and the university.\r\n\u2018We have to guarantee such resources that the quality of education is considerably\r\nbetter than it is now, that the operation is meaningful, and that we can\r\ntake the best possible care of students. That will also benefi t work life.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\n\u2018I fi nd it surprising that we have so much administrative work at the university\u2026\r\nTeachers have to send emails to various pupils, and they do a little bit\r\nof this and that? That\u2019s administrative work. And if we had an employee to\r\ndo that work, it would be much more logical.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\nCaring leaders promote the sense of solidarity among\r\nstudents and faculty\r\nThe second viewpoint expressed by the university leaders was related to the\r\natmosphere at the unit. They considered it important for the students\u2019 study\r\nsuccess, commitment and overall satisfaction that the people at each unit and at\r\nthe university would share the sense of togetherness and solidarity.\r\n74 Success begins in childhood\r\n\u2018The caring that I have my organization, I got 700 employees, about 18,000\r\nstudents, the caring I have is for all of them, and so, everybody gets treated\r\nthat way.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\n\u2018You can have more family-orientation. We are only interested in our own\r\nresearch and we hardly ever collaborate. I think that at the individual level,\r\nyou know, I think working with your own doctoral students, we can have\r\nmore personal caring relationship. The stress of competition is not good but\r\nworking with individual students and dissertations, that\u2019s more satisfying,\r\nworking with students in the classroom.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nAs the latter of the aforementioned data excerpts show, the sense of togetherness\r\nwas also seen as the answer to the ever-increasing pressures of productivity and\r\nindividual success. Working together could benefi t not only students and the\r\nfaculty but the whole organisation. Moreover, the university leaders named actual\r\nmeasures that they themselves used in practice in order to improve the spirit of\r\ncollaboration at their units. The leaders talked about treating everyone equally\r\nand promoting open and informal interaction among the faculty and students.\r\n\u2018Our community; we have students who are equal members of this work unit\r\nin their own role, and we have the personnel\u2026 This [university] is quite a\r\nworld of its own compared to the normal units.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\n\u2018Management by walking around; and I think it is insane that teachers for\r\nexample sit in a separate cabinet away from students or where leaders sit on\r\na different table than employees. I can affect those daily situations in which I\r\ncan mold in the community and stick together with them.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\n\u2018We\u2019re trying to re-develop the area around the university to build more\r\ncoffee shops, restaurants, bars, music places \u2026 I think that leadership is all\r\nabout getting people to feel connected and engaged\u2026 A research university\r\nshould make a very clear connection with the practical world of the community\r\nand the faculty and the students.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nAccording to the fi ndings, the students\u2019 study processes could be enhanced by\r\nincreasing open interaction and collaboration in units. Caring leadership thus\r\ncould be seen to be the means of setting an example by spending time with\r\npeople, discussing problems, and initiating actual proposals for actions, be they\r\nsmall-scale collaborative actions such as the faculty and students having coffee at\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 75\r\nthe same table, or larger scale measures, such as improving offerings within the\r\noverall education environment. Thus, caring university leaders pay attention to\r\ntheir followers\u2019 and students\u2019 overall wellbeing. They realise that a wellfunctioning\r\nunit with a good and inspiring spirit can offer the best premises for\r\nstudents\u2019 study success and, through this, the success of the whole unit and the\r\nuniversity as well.\r\nCaring leaders perceive students as customers\r\nThe previous category described how the sense of solidarity could support\r\nstudents\u2019 study paths. The third category develops this thinking to the personal\r\nlevel by seeing students as the customers. According to the results, the university\r\nleaders\u2019 way of perceiving students resembles a whole new way of defi ning\r\ncustomership. It is not just demands expressed by the customers but merely\r\ncollaboration and desire to fi nd out what is the best for them through reciprocal\r\ninteraction: students as customers are simultaneously seen as partners too. From\r\nthis point of view, caring leadership was considered a means of paying attention\r\nto students as individuals, taking care of them at the personal level, and respecting\r\nthem as the most valuable part of the university. The university leaders\r\nexpressed this idea as follows:\r\n\u2018In academics, you need to be very careful that the students should come fi rst.\r\nAnd I think that\u2019s a big difference between academics, a leader in academics\r\nand a leader in industry. I really try to do what is best for the students fi rst.\r\nAnd then I try to do what is best for the faculty and the college.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\n\u2018Here, where you don\u2019t necessarily have a product, per se. You are not\r\nmaking televisions, but the other thing is: What is the product of higher education?\r\nYou might think the student, I\u2019m saying, no. You can\u2019t claim another\r\nhuman being as your product. No, the curriculum is your product. I just refuse\r\nto think, if you use business analogy and you\u2019re a dealer, a car dealer. It\u2019s not\r\nthe customer that\u2019s your product, it\u2019s your car. So, since when, if we look at\r\nthat, why not students are our customers.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nThe university leaders described that when students are perceived as customers\r\nof higher education, they can feel they are being supported and heard. Caring\r\nleadership was manifested in personal relationships with students:\r\n\u2018I have a good, direct, and open relationship with students. I hope, at least,\r\nand sense that I am easily approachable and they come to discuss their problems\r\nand studies, and quite openly have confi ded in me.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\n76 Success begins in childhood\r\nIn addition to direct interaction with students, some university leaders\r\nperceived their position as a possibility to support their followers, department\r\nchairs, professors and other faculty, in creating the favourable relationship with\r\nstudents and supporting them in their studies. Caring leaders thus could see their\r\nsupport and guidance they provide to their followers as the way of supporting\r\nstudents\u2019 study processes.\r\n\u2018[I want to] support the chairs really connecting with students.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\n\u2018From time to time, I\u2019ve sent them [the faculty] reminders about why we are\r\nworking here and how important it is to work together despite the fact that\r\nyour work loads are heavier because of the fi nancial times but remember why\r\nyou\u2019re here: It\u2019s the students\u2019 smile when they leave your offi ce. You know\r\nit\u2019s working and reminding them of that ultimate goal.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nThe way caring university leaders can show their support to their ultimate\r\ncustomers, students, is to make sure that people working at the unit are aware of\r\nthe purpose of their work. This was also related to the question of respecting\r\nstudents. One of the leaders described the situation by giving an example:\r\n\u2018If you have an offi ce and you open at 8, it\u2019s not just good at all, not good for\r\nthe students, not good for the whole college, if you\u2019re not there at 8 o\u2019clock.\r\nIf there is no one there, we are not respectful to them.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nThe leader continued with the example that he considered that it is also the caring\r\nleader\u2019s task to make sure that not only are his or her followers aware of their\r\nresponsibility for students and have accepted them as their customers, but also\r\nthat they have to fi nd meaning in their jobs. If they still do not fi nd their work\r\nmeaningful the leader\u2019s task, for the sake of the students and the employee\r\nhimself or herself, is to help the employee fi nd the meaning in the job or reconsider\r\nthe job description.\r\n\u2018If you say I don\u2019t like my work, I\u2019m just shuffl ing papers, then I can explain,\r\nOK, there\u2019s the reason why you\u2019re shuffl ing this paper, because the students\r\nneed this, the students. Maybe there are some forms that students need. But\r\nsometimes people are not in the jobs. You have an opportunity to identify that\r\nlike when you really explain why some things have to be done and still that\r\nindividual does not fi nd it meaningful, then I would engage in little better\r\nprofessional planning.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 77\r\nFactors behind students\u2019 success\r\nThe results of this study complement our previous studies of factors directing\r\nuniversity students\u2019 study processes (see, for example, M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti\r\n2011a ). We have previously described the teacher\/student\u2019s study process as a\r\nsum of factors at the student\u2019s personal level, the unit level and the overall regulations,\r\nvalues and cultural traditions that control education. Although they do not\r\nexplain a successful study process alone, their development and signifi cance\r\nshould be paid more and more attention at universities.\r\nFigure 4.1 illustrates the interconnectedness of students\u2019 study processes and\r\nfactors affecting it. We consider caring leadership the fundamental enabling and\r\nempowering element infl uencing all levels of study processes.\r\nWe analysed caring leadership in relation to students\u2019 study success. At the\r\npersonal level, students\u2019 study processes vary greatly depending on their backgrounds,\r\nstarting points, study skills and the experiences they get during their\r\neducation. Students have certain abilities and habits related to their learning\r\nhistory and experiences and that can strengthen their knowledge and self-effi cacy.\r\nThis conception is either strengthened or dashed at the university (Biggs 1987 ;\r\nCassidy and Eachus 2000 ; Gettinger and Seibert 2002 ; Lindblom-Yl\u00e4nne and\r\nCaring\r\nLeadership as\r\nthe Empowering\r\nElement\r\nUNIVERSITY TEACHER\r\n- Teaching and mentoring\r\nskills\r\n- Scientific and pedagogical\r\nproficiency\r\n- Engagement in teaching\r\nUNIVERSITY\r\nCOMMUNITY\r\n- Studying atmosphere\r\n- Student culture\r\n- Outward circumstances\r\n- University administration\r\nCURRICULUM\r\nSTUDENT\u2019S\r\nSTUDY\r\nPATH\r\n- The basic task and\r\nprofession of the\r\ndiscipline\/art\r\n- Skills and knowledge that\r\nhave to be learned\r\n- Goals for learning\r\n- Evaluation of\r\nlearning\r\nSTUDENT\r\n- Abilities, habits\r\n- Studying skills\r\n- Motivation\r\n- Relevant foreknowledge\r\n- Learning goals\r\n- Inner criteria for learning\r\n- Studying \u2013 other areas\r\nof life\r\nFigure 4.1 Core factors affecting students\u2019 success (adapted from M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti,\r\n2011: 52).\r\n78 Success begins in childhood\r\nPihlajam\u00e4ki 2003 ). On the other hand, we want to emphasise students\u2019 motivation,\r\nwhich refl ects in their way of seizing studies and persistence (Allen 1999 ; M\u00e4kinen\r\n2000 ). Certainly, outer rewards matter too. Receiving positive and encouraging\r\nfeedback about one\u2019s own progress is important as it improves one\u2019s receptiveness\r\nto new learning experiences and tolerance of failures, whereas a perceived feeling\r\nof insuffi ciency and a poor performance level, as well as teachers\u2019 inadequate\r\nguidance and disinterest, decrease motivation (Pajares 2001 ).\r\nThe viewpoint presented here also included an interesting notion; namely,\r\nuniversity leaders talked about considering students as customers. From the\r\nstudents\u2019 perspective, this means that they are valued and noticed at the university.\r\nThey received support and guidance when needed and felt respected as an\r\nimportant part of the university. In addition to suffi cient support and guidance,\r\nthere are other means to enhance students\u2019 wellbeing too. Studies should also be\r\nin balance with other areas of life; interesting hobbies, good human relationships\r\nand family life, versatile and relaxing leisure time act as a good counterbalance\r\nto studying (see, for example, Lowe and Gayle 2007 ). Some university leaders\r\ntalked about mutual free-time activities that could be provided at or nearby the\r\ncampus. Participating in these kinds of activities would also increase student\r\nengagement. For example, Kuh\u2019s ( 2003 ) framework for student engagement is\r\nbased on fi ve benchmarks: level of academic challenge, enriching educational\r\nexperiences, supportive campus environment, student-faculty interaction and\r\nactive and collaborative learning. Therefore, it seems that engagement is one\r\nbasic concept when considering successful studying.\r\nNaturally, everyone also perceives success in studies subjectively and evaluates\r\npersonal achievements in different ways (Maddux 2002 ). Expectations for the\r\nfuture affect greatly how people react on changes and challenges (Carver and\r\nScheier 2002 ) and there are various strategies that lie behind the one that leads to\r\nactive and meaningful studying. From the perspective of university students\u2019\r\nsuccess, it seems that caring leadership can function as a means to support students\r\nat their personal level and enable them to fi nd and employ their personal characteristics,\r\ntalents and strengths in the best possible manner during their studies.\r\nThe leaders in this research talked about the sense of solidarity and communality\r\namong the faculty and the students. At the unit level, the educators\u2019 pedagogical\r\nand scientifi c professionalism, curricula, and the atmosphere and\r\nconditions of the unit (see M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti 2011a ; Uusiautti and M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4\r\n2013 ) can be named as the core factors. Consequently, if the students were\r\nregarded as customers, the curriculum was named the product. It should fulfi ll the\r\npromises of education and thus be cutting-edge. Basically, the curriculum\r\nprovides both teachers and students with a clear goal. It answers the questions of\r\nwhat kind of expertise students will have after graduating from the training\r\nprogram and what kinds of courses are included in their studies.\r\nFive stages can be distinguished in curriculum work (see Alaoutinen et al .\r\n2009 ): (1) to defi ne the basic task and profession of the education\/discipline\/art,\r\nto evaluate the need for education; (2) to defi ne required competencies and\r\nSuccess begins in childhood 79\r\ngeneral goals of teaching; (3) to defi ne the model of curriculum; (4) to defi ne the\r\ngoals, contents, workload and methods for study entities and units; (5) to\r\ndetermine the communication in the curriculum; and (6) to evaluate the curriculum\r\nand the profi ciency produced by it and its constant development. Learning\r\ngoals in the curriculum tell what students are expected to know after taking a\r\ncertain study unit and they also direct working and the way learning, teaching and\r\nstudying are being evaluated.\r\nWhen pursuing the valued outcomes, students need special support and guidance.\r\nWhat became highlighted here was the importance of equal and open interaction\r\nbetween the faculty and students. This is how the idea of perceiving\r\nstudents as customers was manifested in leaders\u2019 thinking; their customership\r\nimplication appeared as a reciprocal relationship with students. Likewise, a positive\r\natmosphere was emphasised as a crucial element.\r\nMore detailed lists of the nature of support and guidance have also been\r\ncompiled (for example, Haapaniemi et al . 2001 ). M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 ( 2012 ) has divided the\r\nresources of a good supervisor into four dimensions that constitute the four\r\nfundamental features of supervision: (A) Will: a supervisor\u2019s commitment to\r\nsupervision; (B) Knowledge: substance knowledge and\/or the mastery and ability\r\nto comprehend the overall structure; (C) Actions: ensuring that the contents meet\r\nthe scientifi c quality requirements; and (D) Profi ciency: positive and supportive\r\nsupervision methods and personality. The emphasis that each element is given\r\nvaries according to a supervision situation. Nor does the emphasis always remain\r\nthe same. A supervisor can emphasise different features depending on his or her\r\nown style and on a student\u2019s work habits and needs. Supervision is not likely to\r\nsucceed if one of the aforementioned resources is completely missing.\r\nMany characteristics of a university community either enhance or hinder\r\nstudents\u2019 smooth processes. A study atmosphere can vary from open and vivid\r\ndealings between students and teachers and other personnel to distant, minimal\r\nand formal relationships between the above-mentioned groups. Indeed, the meaning\r\nof informal student-faculty contacts and learning outcomes has been noted\r\nalready three decades ago (see Pascarella 1980 ). Finding studying meaningful is\r\nshown to have a positive relationship with students\u2019 perceptions of academic\r\natmosphere at the unit (see, for example, Kezar and Kinzie 2006 ; Mayya and Roff\r\n2004 ; Pimparyon et al. 2000 ).\r\nUltimately, the completion of an academic degree is a student\u2019s responsibility\r\nbecause even the most skillful teacher cannot learn on a student\u2019s behalf. Yet, teaching\r\nskills and teachers\u2019 abilities to be in an appreciating interaction with students\r\nand to guide students make a salient impetus in university education. This was also\r\nnoted by the university leaders. Today\u2019s good university teachers bear the responsibility\r\nboth for their disciplines and are concerned for their students\u2019 success.\r\nAn ideal education institution naturally covers the outward conditions as well,\r\nincluding studying facilities and their location, the number of teachers in proportion\r\nto the number of students, social, economic and health services, library\r\nservices (the availability of books, opening times, etc.), ICT facilities and their\r\n80 Success begins in childhood\r\nsuffi ciency, the length of studying days, the accumulation of lectures versus even\r\ndivision by weekdays and time. It is a known fact (see, for example, Greenwald\r\net al . 1996 ) that a broad range of resources are positively related to student\r\noutcome (see also Atjonen 2007 ). Indeed, this resembles the third perspective\r\nbrought out by university leaders in this study. As the funding of universities\r\nstrongly depends on the number of graduates, research programs and publications,\r\nin other words measurable outcomes, the pressures of productivity is high.\r\nThe university leaders in this study considered these outer factors hindering the\r\nrealisation of caring leadership but considered it as the basic principle for making\r\ndecisions that would benefi t the students the most and allocating money for\r\npurposes that would ensure them with as high-quality education as possible.\r\nToward the adulthood success\r\nIn the modern world student groups are more heterogeneous than ever (see, for\r\nexample, San Antonio 2008 ; Zhao et al . 2008) and thus their study processes\r\nshould be paid attention to more than ever. Consequently, university educators\u2019\r\nwork is demanding and important, and requires resources, time and concentration.\r\nCaring leadership in higher education can enhance the students\u2019 study\r\nprocesses by highlighting some fundamental principles of higher education.\r\nDaniel Goleman ( 2006 : 81) has wisely said: \u2018Leading a school to create a\r\nwarmer and more connected school culture need not mean sacrifi cing academic\r\nrigor. Instead, socially intelligent leaders help schools better fulfi ll their main\r\nmission: teaching\u2019. This concerns every level of education. Also, based on the\r\nresults of our studies, we would like to continue Goleman\u2019s thought by adding that\r\nby using the leadership position for fulfi lling the teaching mission, caring leaders\r\nalso boost students\u2019 success. It can have a far-reaching infl uence on their consequent\r\nsuccess as workers, too, when entering adulthood and work life. 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( 2005 ). \u2018 A comparison of international student\r\nand American student engagement in effective educational practices \u2019. The Journal of\r\nHigher Education , 76 ( 2 ), pp. 209 \u2013 231","rendered":"<p><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3719\/2018\/10\/29134608\/Chapter-4.pdf\">Chapter 4<\/a><\/p>\n<p>Introduction<br \/>\nIs success at work based on childhood and adolescent experiences? What is the<br \/>\ninfl uence of parents\u2019 expectations on one\u2019s career? The infl uence of childhood<br \/>\nand adolescent experiences in relation to adult work success has not been widely<br \/>\nstudied. As such, we wanted to begin the process of drawing back the curtain on<br \/>\nthis theme through top workers\u2019 biographies.<br \/>\nWe were interested in exploring those factors that Employees of the Year<br \/>\nrecognised from their lives, especially from childhood and adolescence, as having<br \/>\nenhanced their success. This is important if our aim is help people with their<br \/>\nopportunities to fi nd a suitable occupation in which they can use their talents.<br \/>\nExperiences and events taking place in childhood and adolescence can be crucial<br \/>\nor can at least point people in the right direction.<br \/>\nThe fi rst part of the chapter focuses on the top workers\u2019 childhood memories<br \/>\nand the factors they recall as having infl uenced their careers. The second part of<br \/>\nthe chapter then continues the analysis from the point of view of caring teacherhood.<br \/>\nFindings from our leadership studies are also included in this chapter to<br \/>\nshow how caring leadership in education can be used for promoting students\u2019<br \/>\nsuccessful study paths. This contributes yet another viewpoint to factors promoting<br \/>\nsuccess during children\u2019s and adolescents\u2019 school careers.<br \/>\nSuccess starts from childhood?<br \/>\nMagnusson and Mahoney ( 2006 ) have argued that positive development cannot<br \/>\nbe defi ned with reference to an individual person and that the person\u2019s characteristics,<br \/>\nresources and limits, as well as the cultural, physical and historical context<br \/>\nin which the person lives, also matter. As such, positive development is a holistic<br \/>\nprocess. This means that developmental processes form an entity that affects all<br \/>\nlevels of the person-environment system. At the same time, all the elements<br \/>\nwithin developmental processes interact. An individual\u2019s positive development<br \/>\ndepends on how well the inner and outer functions of the organism are synchronised.<br \/>\nInner processes are, for example, mental, biological and behavioural<br \/>\nChapter 4<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood<br \/>\n58 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\nfunctions while outer processes cover opportunities, demands and rules provided<br \/>\nby one\u2019s environment. Therefore, the developmental process also varies between<br \/>\nsociety and culture (Magnusson and Mahoney 2006 ).<br \/>\nNumerous studies have focused on positive development, and they have often<br \/>\ntaken a specifi c stand or approach to the theme. There are singular studies<br \/>\nresearching various factors and relationships; for example, studies have found a<br \/>\npositive relationship between adolescents\u2019 perceived autonomy and self-esteem<br \/>\ntogether with a positive relationship with parents. Likewise, parents\u2019 socioeconomic<br \/>\nstatus infl uences not only children\u2019s wellbeing but also intellectual attainment,<br \/>\nsuch as education (for example, Bradley and Corwyn 2002 ). Furthermore,<br \/>\nsocioeconomic factors are shown to be indirectly related to children\u2019s academic<br \/>\nachievement through parents\u2019 beliefs and behaviours (Davis-Kean 2005 ). Similar<br \/>\nfi ndings have been reported, for example, regarding parents\u2019 role in enhancing<br \/>\ntheir children\u2019s acquisition of positive values, attitudes and behaviours towards<br \/>\nsport hobbies (C\u00f4t\u00e9 1999 ). However, current approaches to the theme have begun<br \/>\nadopting more and more holistic foci concentrating on factors that affect both<br \/>\npositive and problem youth development (Catalano et al. 2005 ).<br \/>\nSuccess is not just sunshine; it requires the ability to be fl exible, adjust, make<br \/>\ncompromises and cope with failures and adversities. It is important to consider<br \/>\nhow the home teaches and supports a child, including in circumstances in which<br \/>\nhe or she does not achieve goals, i.e., the ways in which diffi culties are handled<br \/>\nand how they are understood as an inevitable part of life (M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti<br \/>\n2012a, 2012b, 2013), as well as how to develop a sense of oneself as an autonomous<br \/>\nindividual (Eccles 1999 ). Therefore, the infl uence of family and upbringing<br \/>\nis far from simple when it comes to children\u2019s success in later life (see, for example,<br \/>\nAronson Fontes 2002 ; Elder et al . 1985 ; Rowe 1990 ). What might be the<br \/>\nmost crucial aspect for this study is the manner in which people learn to interpret<br \/>\ntheir experiences.<br \/>\nIndeed, top workers do not develop independently; they are surrounded by<br \/>\ntheir families, friends and relatives. According to Berscheid ( 2006 ), human<br \/>\nbehaviour and development should always be understood as the result of living<br \/>\nwithin the network and context of human relationships. It is crucial to explore<br \/>\nhow these factors enhance the development of self and the use of human strengths<br \/>\n(Caprara and Cervone 2006 ; Magnusson and Mahoney 2006 ). Indeed, love and<br \/>\nattachment expressed in relationships that surround us are not simply about an<br \/>\naffect or a passive inner emotion but an active aspiration to help the beloved grow<br \/>\nand be happy (Maijala et al . 2012 ; M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti 2013 ).<br \/>\nPerhaps no one aims for an Employee of the Year award, but the road to<br \/>\nsuccess at work, from perspectives on childhood and adolescence, is likely to be<br \/>\nsomething more indefi nable and general. Despite this, some people do achieve<br \/>\nsuccess at work. Is their success traceable to their childhood, and what could be<br \/>\nthe role of their childhood and adolescent experiences? The purpose of this chapter<br \/>\nis to discuss the childhood experiences of top workers awarded Employee of<br \/>\nthe Year and to explore what they regard as especially facilitating factors or<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 59<br \/>\nobstacles in their childhood and adolescence that could explain their favourable<br \/>\ngrowth and development toward success at work.<br \/>\nFirst, we discuss the factors that the top workers considered benefi cial to their<br \/>\ncareer development and success at work. As expected, many factors were highlighted,<br \/>\nwhich were further categorised into (1) parents\u2019 support and upbringing,<br \/>\n(2) idols, relatives and friends, and (3) careers counselling at school. Following<br \/>\nthis, we take look at the hardships and obstacles faced by the top workers in their<br \/>\nchildhood and adolescence.<br \/>\nChildhood experiences as contributory factors<br \/>\nin occupational choices<br \/>\nSuccess at work can result from many factors. Snyder and Lopez ( 2002 ) discuss<br \/>\nit as a process emphasising, for example, the infl uence of family, school, childhood<br \/>\ndevelopment and good workplaces on the young people. The section will<br \/>\nbegin by analysing parents\u2019 infl uence on top workers\u2019 career choices and their<br \/>\nattitude to life, successes and hardships, and many characteristics needed for<br \/>\nsuccess. Likewise, the role of idols, relatives and friends as bellwethers is<br \/>\ndiscussed. Third, the signifi cance of careers\u2019 counselling at school is studied in<br \/>\nthe context of the top workers\u2019 experiences.<br \/>\nParental support and upbringing<br \/>\nValues and educational goals that form the basis of upbringing refl ect an understanding<br \/>\nof the meaning of life, in other words, what people want to achieve or<br \/>\ndo in order to live a certain kind of life. Home is the most important environment<br \/>\nfor children because every child is bound to a home and is under the infl uence of<br \/>\nthe home environment. Attitudes to life and other people are adopted from home.<br \/>\nThe infl uence of the home in upbringing is markedly signifi cant and, therefore,<br \/>\nthe process of becoming a top worker can be traced to the childhood and adolescence<br \/>\nof top workers.<br \/>\nIn the interviews, top workers were asked to reminisce about events and factors<br \/>\nthat have affected their career choices in one way or another and whether their<br \/>\nparents had infl uenced them. The fi rst reaction was that their parents had not tried<br \/>\nto infl uence them. However, according to Snyder and Lopez ( 2002 ), families do<br \/>\ninfl uence their children\u2019s behaviour in later life by exemplifying how to explain<br \/>\nadversities, how to set goals for the future, and how they strengthen hope in children.<br \/>\nIndeed, according to the interview fi ndings, parents had infl uenced top<br \/>\nworkers\u2019 attitude toward work rather than than their actual career choices.<br \/>\nTop workers maintained that their parents emphasised the importance of<br \/>\nhaving an occupation and earning one\u2019s keep during adulthood. Three of the<br \/>\ninterviewees reported that their parents had some ideas about what they might<br \/>\nwant their children to become, and two top workers stated that their parents\u2019<br \/>\noccupation had infl uenced their career choices. For example, a farmer had<br \/>\n60 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\ncontinued the family farm. However, this career choice was not clear from the<br \/>\nbeginning. The farmer described the situation as follows:<br \/>\nSU: \u2018Was it always clear that you would continue with the family farm?\u2019<br \/>\nEmployee of the Year: \u2018I don\u2019t know. It wasn\u2019t obvious\u2026 Of course, when<br \/>\nrelatives visited, they would always talk about the young farmer, or they<br \/>\nwould ask something else. But it wasn\u2019t clear to me\u2026 I think that it mattered<br \/>\nthat I was away for about ten years. It broadened my mind and thoughts, and<br \/>\neverything, surprisingly lot when you look around and see what people do<br \/>\nelsewhere in the world. My parents never put pressure on me. Rather, they<br \/>\nhave always asked about my situation. Certainly, these questions were asked<br \/>\nmore often when my father\u2019s retirement got closer.\u2019<br \/>\nAnother top worker was also given the opportunity to continue with his parents\u2019<br \/>\nfarm, but this top worker was aware from an early age that this was not a suitable<br \/>\npath. One of the interviewees spoke of hope quite concretely: the top worker\u2019s father<br \/>\nhad wanted his child to become a chemist (in Finland, chemists are entrepreneurs and<br \/>\nown pharmacies), but the top worker was not interested in this fi eld. The desire of<br \/>\nthe parents was primarily driven by the security and profi tability of being a chemist.<br \/>\nOne top worker stated that studying and having an occupation was strongly<br \/>\nencouraged at home. Although parents did not infl uence this top worker\u2019s career<br \/>\nchoice, his father\u2019s occupation had affected childhood and adolescence hobbies<br \/>\nand the career choices of siblings:<br \/>\n\u2018 My father was a musician\u2026 Being an artist, he downright demanded that we<br \/>\ndo music and almost every one of us children had to play the piano or whatever.<br \/>\nYou have probably heard these stories about compulsory hobbies. We did it, and<br \/>\nsome of my siblings, two sisters are cantors and my brother too is a musician.\u2019<br \/>\nOther top workers did consider that their parents had much infl uence on their<br \/>\ncareers. The most important thing was to fi nd a fi eld that was pleasing and interesting,<br \/>\nand parents did not try to restrict their children. Parents did not put pressure<br \/>\nor demands on their children but helped them to think about the future, make<br \/>\ntheir own choices in life, and perceive the possibilities, opportunities and wellbeing<br \/>\nthat life could offer. What is relevant for success is the capability to learn how<br \/>\nto get excited, set new goals, and the propensity to receive positive feedback and<br \/>\nthus enhance one\u2019s own learning.<br \/>\nFurthermore, disappointments are an important aspect of developing selfesteem<br \/>\nand mental health (for example, Desjardins et al . 2008 ). In the safety of<br \/>\nthe home, children can learn about those means that help them to handle disappointments<br \/>\nand failures. When necessary, parents can protect their children from<br \/>\nfeelings of anxiety and guilt. Successful rearing does not aim to rid hardships and<br \/>\nobstacles but to help children learn how to confront, tolerate and conquer the<br \/>\ninevitable diffi culties (McRee and Halpern 2010 ).<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 61<br \/>\nIdols, relatives and friends<br \/>\nOnly a few of the interviewees could name an idol who had infl uenced their<br \/>\ncareer choice. However, three top workers acknowledged someone or some<br \/>\npeople who had, in one way or another, helped them with their occupational<br \/>\nchoices. The police offi cer maintained that patriotism in the family had infl uenced<br \/>\nhis career dreams. Patriotism was based on respect for relatives who had gone to<br \/>\nwar and they were considered the police offi cer top worker\u2019s idols. Although the<br \/>\ntop worker realised that the police profession was not founded only on the basis<br \/>\nof this ideology, it remained partially important.<br \/>\nThe priest described how spiritual life was rooted in the family even if the<br \/>\npriest\u2019s parents had had temporal occupations and there were no actual church<br \/>\nemployees in the family. Nevertheless, the top worker\u2019s grandmother had run<br \/>\nSunday school and the top worker had good memories of it.<br \/>\nThese examples show that top workers\u2019 stories do not include absolute idols<br \/>\nwho they would have followed in their lives. Therefore, it is not about admiration<br \/>\nwith blind worshipping but, rather, that the factors infl uencing these idols were<br \/>\nmanifested in attitudes such as patriotism and religiousness. These kinds of positive<br \/>\nexperiences directed their career choices later in life.<br \/>\nFriends can also have an infl uence on careers, and their effects are not always<br \/>\nforeseen. Hence, one of the top workers stated that the decision to apply to a business<br \/>\nschool was based on a discussion with a friend. They wanted to continue<br \/>\nstudying together. This is a good example of how powerful an infl uence adolescent<br \/>\nfriendships can have and that, therefore, the impact of the circle of friends<br \/>\nshould never be underestimated. In a situation in which choosing a place of study<br \/>\nis uncertain or diffi cult, the decision can easily be made with friends.<br \/>\nCareers counselling at school<br \/>\nThe previous sections have showed that top workers\u2019 career choices were not<br \/>\ndirected by their families; their upbringing was directed in the sense of enhancing<br \/>\ntheir overall positive attitudes to study and work. Therefore, it was also interesting<br \/>\nto explore whether their schools had guided them and whether careers counselling<br \/>\nin school had helped them with their occupational choice.<br \/>\nThe signifi cance of school in upbringing becomes especially emphasised if the<br \/>\nhome and family resources are insuffi cient or if children and adolescents do not<br \/>\nreceive suffi cient information or stimuli at home. Their development can be<br \/>\nsupported at school, too, by employing their strengths. The purpose of student<br \/>\ncounselling at school is to support students\u2019 personal, social, moral and occupational<br \/>\ndevelopment, and therefore it is quite wide-ranging and holistic (Sundvall-<br \/>\nHuhtinen 2007 ) in nature. In Finnish schools, students have careers counselling,<br \/>\nand practical training periods in real workplaces are also important.<br \/>\nIn the interviews, top workers were asked to describe their experiences of<br \/>\ncareers counselling at school. Their experiences varied from one extreme to the<br \/>\n62 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\nother. Every top worker remembered their school counsellor, but perceptions of<br \/>\nhow meaningful the counselling had been varied considerably.<br \/>\nThree top workers had experiences that could be regarded as positive. One<br \/>\nremembered that various occupations were introduced to them, although this top<br \/>\nworker attended school when Finnish schools did not yet have separate counsellors<br \/>\nor practical training periods.<br \/>\n\u2018I think careers counseling was appropriate. I cannot remember which one of<br \/>\nthe teachers had to do it. It provided information about certain occupations<br \/>\nand such, so that we could ponder it a bit. So, it was benefi cial at that moment.\u2019<br \/>\nThis top worker did not choose his occupation on the basis of careers counselling<br \/>\nbut did so later when performing army duties. However, the positive experience<br \/>\nof careers counselling was based on the information provided about different<br \/>\noccupations that many young people did not know beforehand.<br \/>\nAnother top worker remembered that at school they had to familiarise themselves<br \/>\nwith occupations in which they were the most interested. They were asked<br \/>\nto write about how to study for and become employed in these fi elds. This top<br \/>\nworker stated that he was already thinking about his current occupation at that<br \/>\ntime. Thus, careers counselling equipped this top worker with the knowledge of<br \/>\nhow to enter that profession.<br \/>\nThe third positive experience differed somewhat from the previous two. This<br \/>\ntop worker had sought professional careers counselling after graduating from<br \/>\ngeneral upper secondary education. Careers counselling thus supported this top<br \/>\nworker\u2019s occupational choice.<br \/>\nTwo top workers had quite similar negative experiences of careers counselling<br \/>\nin school. Their counsellor had advised them about who could apply for vocational<br \/>\nschool and who could continue to general upper secondary education and<br \/>\nthen to higher education. While the fi rst top worker\u2019s counsellor had not<br \/>\nsupported the top worker\u2019s decision to go to vocational school, the other top<br \/>\nworker\u2019s counsellor remained doubtful of the top worker\u2019s capability to continue<br \/>\non to general upper secondary education. Therefore, careers counselling would<br \/>\nhave directed them in directions other than what they had chosen and in which<br \/>\nthey had succeeded. These two top workers were the youngest of the research<br \/>\nparticipants and they also had practical training periods at school. Usually, they<br \/>\nwould go to familiar, neighbourhood enterprises to familiarise themselves with<br \/>\nreal work life.<br \/>\n\u2018Yes, we had careers counseling in middle school. And I still remember what<br \/>\nour counselor at the time told me, that my choice was a bad one. I tried to say<br \/>\nthat I did not agree and tried to give reasons. And the counselor strongly<br \/>\nencouraged me to continue with general upper secondary education. I did not.<br \/>\nI did not think it would be my thing. I really remember it, and we had quite a<br \/>\nlot of that counseling during the ninth grade.\u2019<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 63<br \/>\nWhat is most interesting in the previous example, and in the one that follows,<br \/>\nis that counsellors do not seem very interested in fi guring out what the youth is<br \/>\ninterested in. At the very least, this was what the top workers remembered.<br \/>\nStudents were divided into two groups; based on their grades, they would be suitable<br \/>\nfor either general upper secondary education or vocational upper secondary<br \/>\neducation after their compulsory education.<br \/>\nEmployee of the Year: \u2018Those careers counseling lessons! Those were about<br \/>\nrest and so on. I don\u2019t know whether I was just a silly youngster that I didn\u2019t<br \/>\nunderstand the idea of counseling or whether it was because of those counselors.<br \/>\nI remember that they were all already approaching their retirement age,<br \/>\nso they were so far away from\u2026\u2019<br \/>\nSU: \u2018\u2026yeah, the adolescents\u2019 life.\u2019<br \/>\nEmployee of the Year: \u2018Yes. And then he looked at my records and wondered<br \/>\nwhether I was really seriously going to pursue general upper secondary education.\u2019<br \/>\nTwo top workers reported that careers counselling had not been signifi cant to<br \/>\nthem at all. They both remembered it but had not personally benefi tted from it. In<br \/>\nall, it can be concluded that the top workers had not found careers counselling<br \/>\nvery important and, therefore, it cannot be seen as one of the key factors directly<br \/>\ncontributing to their success, although, in fact, it could and should have the opposite<br \/>\neffect.<br \/>\nWhy did careers counselling not meet students\u2019 needs? One reason is probably<br \/>\nthat top workers who participated in this research went to school in the<br \/>\n1950s-1970s when careers counselling was completely differently organised than<br \/>\nit is today. For example, Sundvall-Huhtinen ( 2007 ) points out that it was not until<br \/>\nthe 1970s that the school system started to become more fl exible and personal<br \/>\nstudy plans were developed. In addition to changes in the education system,<br \/>\nchanges in society and especially work life have infl uenced on the development<br \/>\nof careers counselling (Numminen et al . 2002 ).<br \/>\nThe need for counselling and guidance has increased. At the same time, attitudes<br \/>\nabout the future and future occupations have changed considerably; in the<br \/>\n1960s-1980s\u2019 Finland, the starting point of studying and work was to make a<br \/>\ncareer decision, pursue studies, fi nd a stable and secure career, and avoid making<br \/>\nmistakes. This was also evident in the kind of advice that the top workers received<br \/>\nat home from their parents. However, in the 1990s and 2000s, attitudes have<br \/>\nchanged and emphasis is on having many options, life-long learning, enjoying<br \/>\nlife, and learning from mistakes (Sundvall-Huhtinen 2007 ). Changes in the worldview,<br \/>\nliving in insecure times, and the demand for constant updating and learning<br \/>\nat work necessitate effi cient guidance that can support occupational development.<br \/>\nTop workers also mentioned other factors that they thought enhanced their<br \/>\ncareers. One talked about having a gap year between studies and after compulsory<br \/>\n64 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\nschool. This top worker had no idea about a suitable occupation at the time.<br \/>\nDuring that particular year, the top worker worked in a retirement home for eight<br \/>\nmonths and became familiarised with nursing. Although this top worker did not<br \/>\napply for nursing education immediately afterwards, the top worker later realised<br \/>\nthat positive work experiences from the retirement home would pave the way.<br \/>\nEventually, the top worker studied and graduated as a nurse and has worked as<br \/>\none ever since.<br \/>\nHardships and obstacles<br \/>\nTop workers were also asked to describe the kinds of hardships they faced in their<br \/>\nlives and whether they considered these experiences as having impacted on their<br \/>\ncareers. Some specifi c events were mentioned. For example, the police offi cer did<br \/>\nnot get into cadet school, which was very disappointing. However, this top<br \/>\nworker decided on the police profession and applied to police school, got in, and<br \/>\nthis is how a fi ne career as a police offi cer got started. The setback turned into an<br \/>\nadvantage, and plan B became a success story.<br \/>\nVarious kinds of career-related hardships could be seen as mere sidetracks.<br \/>\nThis is also because top workers were once clueless youngsters trying to fi nd their<br \/>\nown paths. Two top workers experienced such sidetracks; after having acquired<br \/>\nan education, they later realised that their pursued fi elds were misguided and<br \/>\nunsuitable. Stories about sidetracks teach that one does not always decide upon<br \/>\nthe right occupation without some level of stray. As a matter of fact, wrong<br \/>\nchoices can even be considered advantageous as they may strengthen one\u2019s positive<br \/>\nfeelings toward fi nding the right path; under such circumstances, one can<br \/>\nmake solid comparisons between situations.<br \/>\nEvery top worker had experienced turning points in which they had to decide<br \/>\nwhere to go next. For example, two top workers had the opportunity to continue<br \/>\nwith their parents\u2019 farm, but only one of them eventually did. Both of them<br \/>\nbecame Employees of the Year awardees. What seems most important is to listen<br \/>\nto oneself and choose the direction according to one\u2019s own feelings, thoughts and<br \/>\nvalues. One of the top workers expressed this as follows:<br \/>\n\u2018I do not know about those situations when you have to choose, whether the<br \/>\nroad will go here or there, or will I take this or that. I have been wise enough<br \/>\nto think of what I really want, what is worth investing in with my abilities and<br \/>\ntalents. And even if something could be really interesting but not quite what<br \/>\nis most suitable. I have always discussed these profoundly with myself. When<br \/>\nit comes to my occupation, I have certainly been thinking about what are the<br \/>\nbest use of my strengths. And that had led to such satisfaction and pleasure<br \/>\nthat cannot be measured by money or respectability in relation to work.\u2019<br \/>\nThis type of thinking reveals a multidimensional analysis of the mission, standards<br \/>\nand performances expected in work (see also Gardner et al . 2001 ).<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 65<br \/>\nImbibing brisk attitude and optimism from parents<br \/>\nand educators?<br \/>\nAccording to the results, top workers could not recall specifi c factors from their<br \/>\nchildhood that could have been crucial in fi nding the right occupation. However, one<br \/>\nimportant notion can be raised from their childhood, which is the attitude toward<br \/>\neducation, work and life in general that was adopted from home. Although the top<br \/>\nworkers\u2019 parents did not make career decisions for their children, they had encouraged<br \/>\nthem to educate themselves, work hard, and have a positive attitude about the<br \/>\nfuture. Indeed, it has been shown that childhood experiences do matter in later development<br \/>\nand success in later life (for example, Hawkins et al . 2005; Larson, 2000).<br \/>\nHow then can success be supported? Twenty years ago, Arnold et al . ( 1993 )<br \/>\nemphasised that awareness of one\u2019s own strengths and weaknesses, values and<br \/>\npoints of interest, and knowledge about different occupations are of primary<br \/>\nimportance for career enhancement. According to the results of this study, none<br \/>\nof the top workers had found their occupation through the careers counselling<br \/>\nprovided at school, but some of them still appreciated the information about<br \/>\noccupations given at counselling.<br \/>\nThe latest research in the fi eld of positive psychology has further advanced the<br \/>\nimportance of recognising one\u2019s strengths (Aspinwall and Staudinger 2006 ).<br \/>\nThere is not simply one road to success at work, and every top worker is an individual.<br \/>\nWhat was common among them was their ability and courage to listen to<br \/>\nthemselves and be true to themselves. According to Gilligan ( 2000 ), childhoodrelated<br \/>\nfactors that promote self-directedness or self-effi cacy include parents\u2019<br \/>\nbelief in the child\u2019s own sense of control, responsiveness, consistency, warmth<br \/>\nand praise, support, and encouraging the child to engage in his or her environment<br \/>\nand surrounding people (see also Sroufe 2005 ; Young et al . 2001 ).<br \/>\nTherefore, social skills learned from home can be crucial for the positive development<br \/>\nin this sense (see, for example, Decovic and Janssens 1992 ).<br \/>\nIt seemed that the most important criterion for success is to fi nd a career that<br \/>\nis suitable and in which a person can become fulfi lled. Educators need imagination,<br \/>\ncourage, and even the ability to take risks so that they can help growing and<br \/>\nmaturing people test their own limits and abilities (Uusiautti 2008 ; Uusiautti and<br \/>\nM\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 2013 ). Careers counselling can play an important role and should be<br \/>\nfurther researched. Students need information about various occupations and<br \/>\nwork tasks to be able to evaluate what they fi nd interesting and what they want<br \/>\nor can do. Therefore, personal careers counselling also has to help a student<br \/>\nrecognise his or her abilities and talents, but equally important is to fi nd out which<br \/>\nschool subjects the student likes the best and what he or she likes to do. Questions<br \/>\nrelated to career choice and occupational socialisation are surprisingly closely<br \/>\nconnected with free-time activities (Driver 1982 ; Duffy and Dik 2009 ; Maljojoki<br \/>\n1989 ; Middleton and Loughead 1993 ).<br \/>\nIn addition, students have their own preconceptions of various occupations and<br \/>\nthus it is crucial that the expectations in various professions are clarifi ed to<br \/>\n66 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\nstudents. Abundant practical experiences and examples from real work life<br \/>\ncannot be suffi ciently emphasised. Furthermore, teachers and counsellors should<br \/>\nbe aware of their prejudices and stereotypical conceptions of valuable and notso-<br \/>\nvaluable occupations. Top workers who participated in this study attended<br \/>\nschool four to six decades ago, and careers counselling was not as systematic as<br \/>\nit is today, since societal interest in adolescent choices emerged in the late 1960s<br \/>\nand early 1970s (Petersen 1988 ).<br \/>\nIt is also worth remembering that, regardless of whether a student is a straight-<br \/>\nA pupil or simply barely passes, every student needs careers counselling.<br \/>\nTherefore, it is important to highlight the positive experiences of success and<br \/>\nbeing capable \u2013 every student has and can have them. It would be interesting to<br \/>\nknow how the future Employees of the Year perceive the role of careers counselling<br \/>\nin school today.<br \/>\nIn all, it became evident that researching the secrets of success from people\u2019s<br \/>\nchildhood and adolescence was not straightforward. The phenomenon of success<br \/>\ndoes not appear in the same way as failure and, therefore, it is not easy to think<br \/>\nabout reasons for success (Isen 2001 ; Uusiautti and M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 2011 ). However, the<br \/>\nrole of childhood experiences at school and at home should be interesting to<br \/>\neducators. For example, M\u00e4kikangas ( 2007 ) has found that a sensitive and childcentered<br \/>\nupbringing was connected to optimism in later phases of life (see also<br \/>\nSroufe 2005 ). Top workers also displayed optimistic attitudes, which can be<br \/>\nclosely related to the overall satisfaction of life, including satisfaction with one\u2019s<br \/>\nwork and career choice.<br \/>\nPerceiving the phenomenon of success from this perspective is relevant to<br \/>\nmany areas of life, but especially remarkable is that the foundation of success can<br \/>\nbe laid from childhood. Positive psychology has been interested in exploring and<br \/>\ncreating optimal conditions for all children and students (Carruthers and Hood<br \/>\n2005 ). Success is not just something that, for example, gifted people are entitled<br \/>\nto but the concept could be used for enhancing everyone\u2019s success. If students\u2019<br \/>\nmastery of information or skill leads to success, and if positive emotions are one<br \/>\nof the cornerstones of successful learning, it would be reasonable to pay attention<br \/>\nto this viewpoint in education (Chafouleas and Bray 2004 ). The purpose, therefore,<br \/>\nis to research, defi ne and specify the human strengths and capacities that<br \/>\nindividual people, families, communities and societies should aim to utilise.<br \/>\nPositive human development should be encouraged (Dunn et al . 2008 ). Although<br \/>\nthe viewpoint presented in this review is very individualistic, it is also worthy to<br \/>\ncontinue the discussion from the collective perspective and to think about<br \/>\nwhether these concepts can also be used for enhancing collective or communal<br \/>\nsuccess.<br \/>\nEducators should be ready to meet the challenge of providing children and<br \/>\nstudents with such positive experiences of fi nding their own road and being able<br \/>\nto fulfi l themselves. Lerner et al . ( 2002 ) use the word \u2018thriving\u2019 to discuss the<br \/>\npositive development of youth. They emphasise \u2018the fi ve Cs of positive youth<br \/>\ndevelopment: competence, confi dence, character, social connection, and caring<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 67<br \/>\n(or compassion)\u2019 (p. 23), which work toward enhancing positive youth development.<br \/>\nIndeed, in addition to the personal benefi ts of happiness that are achieved<br \/>\nthrough utilising one\u2019s strengths (Seligman 2002; 2011), they are also socially<br \/>\nbenefi cial as balanced, satisfi ed people are also better citizens (Gilpin 2008 ).<br \/>\nCaring teacherhood as a means to success<br \/>\nAs the childhood memories of top workers surfaced, it became evident that the<br \/>\nconnection between counselling at school and one\u2019s capability of fi nding the right<br \/>\noccupation was not that simple. As such, we want to spend a moment to discuss<br \/>\nthe idea of caring teacherhood as a means to discovering pupils\u2019 strengths.<br \/>\nWe consider teachers as caring leaders who can employ love-based methods that<br \/>\nenhance pupils\u2019 ability to spot their strengths and thus improve their<br \/>\nself-knowledge.<br \/>\nCan pupils and students be led toward goodness<br \/>\nand happiness \u2013 and wellbeing?<br \/>\nAuthority is often addressed from pedagogical points of view and it has been<br \/>\nstudied a great deal (Delpit 1988 ; Deutsch and Jones 2011 ; Pace and Hemmings<br \/>\n2007 ). Nevertheless, it has been understood in a contradictory manner in relation<br \/>\nto education and teaching (Langford 2010 ; Seidl and Friend 2002 ). Obviously,<br \/>\nthe relationship between a teacher and a student is asymmetrical because the<br \/>\nteacher possesses something that the pupil does not. According to Hare, the<br \/>\nteacher does not have to think that the student is presently his or her equal, but<br \/>\ndoes need to see the student as a potential equal (Hare 1993 ). The purpose of the<br \/>\nlearning relationship is to make the pupil develop into an independent and<br \/>\nresponsible autonomous individual. However, students cannot achieve this goal<br \/>\nindependently; they need the educator\u2019s help and guidance and, therefore, the<br \/>\nteacher is in a position of authority.<br \/>\nvan Manen emphasised that an adult\u2019s ability to affect a pupil is genuine when<br \/>\nthe authority does not rely on power, but on love and affection (van Manen 1991 ).<br \/>\nHarjunen also defi nes pedagogical authority through pedagogical interaction<br \/>\n(Harjunen 2009 ). According to the author, pedagogical interaction consists of<br \/>\nsuch characteristics as \u2018trust building\u2019, \u2018treating students as human beings\u2019, and<br \/>\nthe \u2018ethics of care and justice\u2019.<br \/>\nWe have defi ned the connection between pedagogical love and authority in the<br \/>\nfollowing manner:<br \/>\nIf pedagogical love and pedagogical authority are based on expertise-based<br \/>\nrespect, the learning atmosphere is warm and encouraging. Mutual respect<br \/>\nsupports empathy; students respect the teacher because of his or her expertise<br \/>\nand regard the teacher as a sort of safe mainstay that they can rely on. The<br \/>\nteacher trusts and believes in the students\u2019 abilities, respects their individuality,<br \/>\n68 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\nand helps them to enhance their balanced development and fi nd their own<br \/>\nstrengths.<br \/>\n(M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti 2011b )<br \/>\nWhat does this mean in the context of schooling and teaching? The existence of a<br \/>\ngood human being can be considered problematic or even impossible because<br \/>\n\u2018good\u2019 is usually confused with \u2018perfect\u2019. Being a good human being does not mean<br \/>\nthat one should be totally irreproachable, moral and faultless, that is, non-human and<br \/>\nprobably impossible to achieve anyway. We want to highlight love as the fundamental<br \/>\nfactor in raising children to be good human beings and that this particular aim is<br \/>\nthe ultimate purpose of all rearing. Love appears in teaching as guidance toward<br \/>\ndisciplined work, but also as patience, trust and forgiveness. The purpose is not to<br \/>\nmake learning fun, easy or pleasing but to create a setting for learning whereby<br \/>\npupils can use and develop their own resources, eventually proceeding at the maximum<br \/>\nof their own abilities. A loving teacher takes care that the learner does not lose<br \/>\nhis or her trust in his or her own learning when faced with diffi culties. Therefore,<br \/>\nlove appears as goal-oriented action: a teacher plans and implements learning situations<br \/>\nthat enhance learning. Furthermore, a loving teacher takes a pupil\u2019s personal<br \/>\nsituation into consideration (for example, Hatt 2005 ; van Manen 1991 ).<br \/>\nPedagogical love is considered a working method that involves persistent interest<br \/>\nand perseverance in supporting pupils\u2019 development for the sake of themselves<br \/>\nand the whole society. In addition, teachers should fi nd a balance between<br \/>\npedagogical love and pedagogical authority and combine them both in a studentspecifi<br \/>\nc manner. Pedagogical tact is at its strongest in this ability. Dealing with<br \/>\nvarious students requires fl exibility and sensitivity in the teacher\u2019s pedagogical<br \/>\napproach. Some students need more intimacy while some others consider expertise<br \/>\nespecially important. Moreover, the teaching content and learning objectives<br \/>\nmay necessitate different kinds of procedures from the teacher \u2013 in other words,<br \/>\na certain kind of tact (M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti 2011b ). Taking this viewpoint further,<br \/>\nvan Manen points out that pedagogical tact is \u2018the language of surprising and<br \/>\nunpredicted pedagogical action\u2019 that emerges from the genuine attachment to the<br \/>\npupil (van Manen 1991 ). At the core, it is the children\u2019s vulnerability and<br \/>\ndefenselessness that make the educator protect them.<br \/>\nTools for employing strength-based approaches in school<br \/>\nThe way we see it, the role of a teacher is primarily focused on encouraging and<br \/>\nrewarding the multitude of talents and strengths a child has, by presenting opportunities<br \/>\nfor displays of these talents and strengths each day. In practice, the means<br \/>\nare quite simple: linking strengths to specifi c festivals and events throughout the<br \/>\nschool calendar and activities such as the strengths-based classroom, victory logs<br \/>\nand celebrations of \u2018what went well\u2019 (see Linley et al . 2009 ).<br \/>\nIn practice, it is important that the teacher makes self-assessments. A teacher<br \/>\ncan refl ect and observe his or her way of teaching and interacting with students<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 69<br \/>\nand ask questions such as \u2018Do I listen to students\u2019 opinions in an open manner?\u2019,<br \/>\n\u2018Do I encourage students to express their emotions or perceptions?\u2019, \u2018How do I<br \/>\nhandle divergent opinions and criticism or feedback from students?\u2019, and \u2018Do I<br \/>\ntreat students equally regardless of their background?\u2019 Becoming aware of one\u2019s<br \/>\nown style and level of tact enables one to move from one quadrant to another,<br \/>\ntoward an ideal state. It is about the teacher\u2019s tact and the capabilities of recognising<br \/>\nvarious learners and personalities and of having situational fl exibility (see<br \/>\nalso M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti 2012b ).<br \/>\nIn addition to teachers\u2019 refl ective practice, it is crucial to include positivelyoriented<br \/>\nand wellbeing-promoting actions toward pupils and students. Seligman<br \/>\net al . ( 2009 ) describes simple exercises that aim to help students identify their<br \/>\nsignature strengths and increase their use of these strengths in daily life.<br \/>\nMoreover, this intervention was aimed at promoting resilience, positive emotions<br \/>\nand students\u2019 sense of meaning or purpose. All goals were achieved, which made<br \/>\nSeligman\u2019s research group conclude that wellbeing should and can be taught at<br \/>\nschool. The positive focus seemed, according to the study by Seligman et al ., to<br \/>\nconsist of relatively small things, such as changing speaking prompts (for example,<br \/>\ninstead of asking students to describe negative events, teachers asked them<br \/>\nto give a speech about when they were of value to others; religious education<br \/>\nteachers asked students to explore the relationship between ethics and pleasure<br \/>\nand what gives life purpose and meaning; geography teachers asked students to<br \/>\nconsider how the criteria for wellbeing might differ between various countries;<br \/>\nPE teachers focused on analysing the successes of past games before the next<br \/>\ngame or lesson). The point here was that wellbeing could be taught and, with the<br \/>\nteacher\u2019s lead, students would not only learn about it, but their own wellbeing<br \/>\nwould increase as well.<br \/>\nIt is important to discover one\u2019s signature strengths. In Seligman et al .\u2019s ( 2005 )<br \/>\nstudy, long-term effects of increased happiness were perceived in exercises that<br \/>\naimed to employ signature strengths in a new way and in which pupils were asked<br \/>\nto name and explain three good things about their daily lives.<br \/>\nFurthermore, the idea behind Appreciative Inquiry (AI) could also be employed<br \/>\nin education by teachers who would like to utilise the idea of caring teacherhood.<br \/>\nAppreciative Inquiry utilises a cycle of four processes that focuses on \u2018discover\u2019<br \/>\n(the identifi cation of organisational processes that work well), \u2018dream\u2019 (the envisioning<br \/>\nof processes that would work well in the future), \u2018design\u2019 (planning and<br \/>\nprioritising processes that would work well), and \u2018destiny\u2019 (the implementation<br \/>\n(execution) of the proposed design) (Cooperrider et al . 2008 ). Likewise, Ryan<br \/>\net al . ( 1999 ) have advanced that AI is a suitable strategy for initiating an affective<br \/>\nand analytical micro-level reform within a single school. The fundamental notion<br \/>\nis that instead of concentrating on what was done wrong, AI helps with discovering<br \/>\nwhat is done well and what more could be done.<br \/>\nFurthermore, providing students with daily experiences of success is important.<br \/>\nIf the mastery of information and skills is to lead to success, and if positive<br \/>\nemotion is one of the keystones of learning, it would be reasonable to pay<br \/>\n70 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\nattention to this viewpoint in teaching (Chafouleas and Bray 2004 ). Fredrickson\u2019s<br \/>\n( 2001 ) analysis on pride also falls into this category. By adjusting goals and<br \/>\nobjectives and planning learning tasks in a way that each pupil can have the experience<br \/>\nof achieving a goal, this kind of experience of success can be promoted.<br \/>\nTeachers try to fi nd a balance between pupils\u2019 skills, work-related expectations<br \/>\nand opportunities and challenges, which is likely to lead to better performance,<br \/>\ncontentment, higher motivation and a sense of self-effi cacy.<br \/>\nThe teacher as a caring leader or pedagogical authority has the capacity to help<br \/>\nbring about the best in pupils. The process can then move forward \u2013 not only the<br \/>\nprocess of learning and performing, but also the process of discovering and using<br \/>\npupils\u2019 signature strengths, and promoting wellbeing and happiness, not only in<br \/>\nthe current phase of life but also in prospective phases.<br \/>\nAccording to Hare ( 1993 ), pedagogical love, caring in the classroom, humility,<br \/>\ncommitment and hope are traits that constitute a \u2018good\u2019 teacher, although they are<br \/>\nnot always easy to adhere to in modern schools. Therefore, pedagogical tact is the<br \/>\nkey; this is because it, along with pedagogical goodness, illustrates the pedagogical<br \/>\nrelationship and the fundamental idea that the adult is primarily working for the<br \/>\nbenefi t of the child in this context (Saevi and Eilifsen 2008 ). The ability to create<br \/>\nhappiness for life is an important skill for a good educator and teacher. Von Wright<br \/>\nhas stated that to love the world we have to accept it and, therefore, to love students<br \/>\nwe have to accept them and to refrain from wanting to change them and to prepare<br \/>\nthem for changing the world in a particular and predefi ned way (von Wright 2009).<br \/>\nEnhancing students\u2019 study success through<br \/>\ncaring teacherhood<br \/>\nCaring teacherhood can be the way of bringing out the best in children, but<br \/>\ncaring, strength-based leading of learning does not need to end in compulsory<br \/>\neducation. Similar guidance is needed also in higher education levels. Also, it is<br \/>\nnot just teachers working in the classrooms that is important but the overall study<br \/>\nenvironment that is created by the way the school or education institution is led;<br \/>\nwhether the teachers are encouraged to focus on pupils\u2019 and students\u2019 strengths,<br \/>\nwhether they are provided with suffi cient resources for teaching, and whether the<br \/>\nstudents are appreciated at school. The school functions as an entity, and the<br \/>\nstudent-centered, positively oriented approach is a pervasive element of education.<br \/>\nHere, we introduce our fi ndings from Finnish and American universities as<br \/>\nan example of how school can enhance students\u2019 success. The perspective on<br \/>\nuniversity studies is not meant to overlook other education levels. Instead, we<br \/>\nwanted to analyse our data and provide an example of the impact caring leadership<br \/>\ncan make in education institutions. Thus, we argue that this viewpoint could<br \/>\napply to, for example, vocational education schools and polytechnics as well as<br \/>\nit seemingly does to the university-level education.<br \/>\nEspecially at a time when increasing demands on effi cient and productive<br \/>\nhigher education, high numbers of student drop-outs (see, for example, Kuh et al .<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 71<br \/>\n2008 ; OECD 2010) and prolonged studies (OECD 2010; San Antonio 2008 ;<br \/>\nSchoon et al . 2010 ) do not seem to point in the same direction, new ways of<br \/>\nconsidering education are needed. How to make students\u2019 study paths smooth and<br \/>\nhave them succeed in their studies?<br \/>\nIn this section we will discuss how the goal of success could be achieved by<br \/>\nemploying caring leadership in higher education. This section leans on the data<br \/>\nobtained from Finnish and American university leaders. The ultimate idea of the<br \/>\nstudy was that a particular positive and caring viewpoint could be something that<br \/>\ntoday\u2019s higher education would need. For example, Cruce et al . ( 2006 ) suggest<br \/>\nthat good practices in education have a unique, positive impact on student development<br \/>\nas they can affect, for example, student engagement, which can be seen<br \/>\nas one of the main pillars of successful and meaningful study paths. Kezar and<br \/>\nKinzie ( 2006 ) have introduced features of a quality undergraduate education that<br \/>\nhas been associated with student engagement; quality begins with an organisational<br \/>\nculture that values high expectations, shows respect for diverse learning<br \/>\nstyles, and has emphasis on the early years of study; a quality undergraduate<br \/>\ncurriculum requires coherence in learning, synthesising experiences, on-going<br \/>\npractice of learned skills, and integrating education with experience; and quality<br \/>\nundergraduate instruction builds in active learning, assessment and prompt feedback,<br \/>\ncollaboration, adequate time on task, and out-of-class contact with faculty<br \/>\n(see also Kuh 2003 ). Likewise, Theilheimer ( 1991 ) has presented a detailed list<br \/>\nof fi ve factors that contribute to a positive learning environment: (1) comfort<br \/>\n(creating a feeling of safety, accommodating errors, giving students the freedom<br \/>\nof expressing themselves without constraints, creating the feeling of belonging to<br \/>\npeer group); (2) clarity (providing clear instructions, breaking down material to<br \/>\nsmaller chunks to maintain the feeling of accomplishment, however small); (3)<br \/>\nrespect (mutual respect between students and the teacher); (4) relationships<br \/>\n(particularly caring relationships between the teacher and individual students,<br \/>\nteacher attending each student individually); and (5) responsibility (giving<br \/>\nstudents a degree of control over decisions concerning their learning).<br \/>\nHere, our purpose was to analyse how caring leadership in higher education<br \/>\ncan be employed to enhance students\u2019 success and study achievements, and what<br \/>\nits relationship with other factors affecting students\u2019 study success is like.<br \/>\nThe leaders\u2019 perspective is interesting when considering the effect of caring<br \/>\nthat covers the institution, in this case, the university, through the select approach<br \/>\nof the leader. Caldwell and Dixon ( 2010 ) have defi ned love, forgiveness and trust<br \/>\nas organisational constructs that are freedom-producing, empowering and vital to<br \/>\nenhancing followers\u2019 self-effi cacy. When leaders consistently exhibit love,<br \/>\nforgiveness and trust in relationships, their followers \u2013 whether they were<br \/>\nstudents or employees \u2013 respond to these behaviours with increased commitment<br \/>\nand loyalty. Moreover, happiness can be directly translated into engagement,<br \/>\nproductivity and satisfaction (Prewitt 2003 ; see also Rego et al . 2011 ). It has been<br \/>\nargued that sensitive leaders develop a culture that demonstrates concern for<br \/>\nindividual needs (Fairholm and Fairholm 2000 ; Popper and Amit 2009 ).<br \/>\n72 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\nHappiness not only produces a quantitative improvement by increasing effi ciency<br \/>\nbut also a qualitative one by making a better product or outcome by virtue of<br \/>\npride, belief and commitment. Emotions and emotional intelligence have even<br \/>\nbeen considered as the heart of effective leadership (Goleman 2006 ). Furthermore,<br \/>\nan ethic of caring establishes a moral touchstone for decision making (Hoyle<br \/>\n2002 ) as leaders\u2019 elicitation of love regards other people as the cause, target or<br \/>\nthird-party observer of these emotions (Fischer and van Kleef 2010 ).<br \/>\nGiven this perspective on love and leadership, we were interested in researching<br \/>\nhow university leaders talk about the connection between caring leadership<br \/>\nand students\u2019 study success. This viewpoint contributes to the overall knowledge<br \/>\nabout caring leadership practices, but specifi cally to the awareness of the multidimensional<br \/>\nnature of higher education organisations and factors affecting the<br \/>\nsmoothness of university students\u2019 study processes. Finally, the purpose is to<br \/>\ndetermine how the love-based aspect might be used in elaborating research<br \/>\nmodels for re-thinking and designing caring learning environments, students\u2019<br \/>\npsychosocial wellbeing, and for developing the models of caring and love-based<br \/>\nleadership in education context.<br \/>\nAs the interviewees worked in universities, their work was closely connected<br \/>\nto not only their followers but also to university students. Therefore, leaders<br \/>\ndiscussed their leadership in relation to the study opportunities and conditions<br \/>\namong students at their universities. We analysed how the university leaders actually<br \/>\nperceived their role in promoting university students\u2019 study success and<br \/>\nfl uent study processes. All their perceptions were fi rst categorised into themes<br \/>\naccording to the way leadership was discussed in relation to students (for example,<br \/>\nleadership actions for the students, providing resources and quality teaching).<br \/>\nThen, the perceptions were re-categorised into three main categories that best<br \/>\nrepresented the leaders\u2019 perceptions: using caring leadership for (1) providing<br \/>\nresources for quality education, (2) seeing students, faculty or staff, and themselves<br \/>\nas equal groups, and thus promoting a sense of solidarity, and (3) treating<br \/>\nstudents as customers.<br \/>\nCaring leaders provide resources for quality education<br \/>\nThe fi rst category refers to the relationship between outer factors affecting education<br \/>\nand the way that the education is realised in practice and provided to<br \/>\nstudents. The current educational policies regarding funding in universities were<br \/>\nrefl ected by the university leaders. They were aware of the pressure of doing<br \/>\nresearch and having students graduate:<br \/>\n\u2018The pressure within the public university environment has really focused<br \/>\nmore and more around money. [Universities] have to be doing more research,<br \/>\nthey have to be taking more students, they have to be generating more<br \/>\nprograms.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 73<br \/>\n\u2018At this level, in a university, those kinds of push for excellence and productivity<br \/>\nmake it pretty diffi cult to be I think a loving leadership model.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nAlthough they realised that the demands of competition and productivity can<br \/>\nmake it more diffi cult to employ caring leadership in universities, the university<br \/>\nleaders could see their position and opportunities to utilise their leadership. They<br \/>\nseemed to consider themselves responsible for ensuring the high quality education<br \/>\nand support for students.<br \/>\n\u2018I mean, your [the leader\u2019s] job is to make life better for all the faculty and<br \/>\nstudents so they can do what they need to do: their research, their teaching,<br \/>\nand the students, so they learn and get their degree, go out there and make us<br \/>\nall proud. To do that, you got to be a leader.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\n\u2018A lot of times, that requires that you\u2019re going to make sure that the quality<br \/>\nof the education that the students get is going to be the highest possible.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nIn practice, caring leadership appeared as a wish to guarantee as high a quality education<br \/>\nfor students as possible by using the available resources in a purposeful manner,<br \/>\nreallocating it to activities that would benefi t students\u2019 study processes (for example,<br \/>\nby decreasing teachers\u2019 and professors\u2019 administrative work), and enhancing the<br \/>\nspirit of everybody doing their share and their best for the students and the university.<br \/>\n\u2018We have to guarantee such resources that the quality of education is considerably<br \/>\nbetter than it is now, that the operation is meaningful, and that we can<br \/>\ntake the best possible care of students. That will also benefi t work life.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\n\u2018I fi nd it surprising that we have so much administrative work at the university\u2026<br \/>\nTeachers have to send emails to various pupils, and they do a little bit<br \/>\nof this and that? That\u2019s administrative work. And if we had an employee to<br \/>\ndo that work, it would be much more logical.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\nCaring leaders promote the sense of solidarity among<br \/>\nstudents and faculty<br \/>\nThe second viewpoint expressed by the university leaders was related to the<br \/>\natmosphere at the unit. They considered it important for the students\u2019 study<br \/>\nsuccess, commitment and overall satisfaction that the people at each unit and at<br \/>\nthe university would share the sense of togetherness and solidarity.<br \/>\n74 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\n\u2018The caring that I have my organization, I got 700 employees, about 18,000<br \/>\nstudents, the caring I have is for all of them, and so, everybody gets treated<br \/>\nthat way.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\n\u2018You can have more family-orientation. We are only interested in our own<br \/>\nresearch and we hardly ever collaborate. I think that at the individual level,<br \/>\nyou know, I think working with your own doctoral students, we can have<br \/>\nmore personal caring relationship. The stress of competition is not good but<br \/>\nworking with individual students and dissertations, that\u2019s more satisfying,<br \/>\nworking with students in the classroom.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nAs the latter of the aforementioned data excerpts show, the sense of togetherness<br \/>\nwas also seen as the answer to the ever-increasing pressures of productivity and<br \/>\nindividual success. Working together could benefi t not only students and the<br \/>\nfaculty but the whole organisation. Moreover, the university leaders named actual<br \/>\nmeasures that they themselves used in practice in order to improve the spirit of<br \/>\ncollaboration at their units. The leaders talked about treating everyone equally<br \/>\nand promoting open and informal interaction among the faculty and students.<br \/>\n\u2018Our community; we have students who are equal members of this work unit<br \/>\nin their own role, and we have the personnel\u2026 This [university] is quite a<br \/>\nworld of its own compared to the normal units.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\n\u2018Management by walking around; and I think it is insane that teachers for<br \/>\nexample sit in a separate cabinet away from students or where leaders sit on<br \/>\na different table than employees. I can affect those daily situations in which I<br \/>\ncan mold in the community and stick together with them.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\n\u2018We\u2019re trying to re-develop the area around the university to build more<br \/>\ncoffee shops, restaurants, bars, music places \u2026 I think that leadership is all<br \/>\nabout getting people to feel connected and engaged\u2026 A research university<br \/>\nshould make a very clear connection with the practical world of the community<br \/>\nand the faculty and the students.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nAccording to the fi ndings, the students\u2019 study processes could be enhanced by<br \/>\nincreasing open interaction and collaboration in units. Caring leadership thus<br \/>\ncould be seen to be the means of setting an example by spending time with<br \/>\npeople, discussing problems, and initiating actual proposals for actions, be they<br \/>\nsmall-scale collaborative actions such as the faculty and students having coffee at<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 75<br \/>\nthe same table, or larger scale measures, such as improving offerings within the<br \/>\noverall education environment. Thus, caring university leaders pay attention to<br \/>\ntheir followers\u2019 and students\u2019 overall wellbeing. They realise that a wellfunctioning<br \/>\nunit with a good and inspiring spirit can offer the best premises for<br \/>\nstudents\u2019 study success and, through this, the success of the whole unit and the<br \/>\nuniversity as well.<br \/>\nCaring leaders perceive students as customers<br \/>\nThe previous category described how the sense of solidarity could support<br \/>\nstudents\u2019 study paths. The third category develops this thinking to the personal<br \/>\nlevel by seeing students as the customers. According to the results, the university<br \/>\nleaders\u2019 way of perceiving students resembles a whole new way of defi ning<br \/>\ncustomership. It is not just demands expressed by the customers but merely<br \/>\ncollaboration and desire to fi nd out what is the best for them through reciprocal<br \/>\ninteraction: students as customers are simultaneously seen as partners too. From<br \/>\nthis point of view, caring leadership was considered a means of paying attention<br \/>\nto students as individuals, taking care of them at the personal level, and respecting<br \/>\nthem as the most valuable part of the university. The university leaders<br \/>\nexpressed this idea as follows:<br \/>\n\u2018In academics, you need to be very careful that the students should come fi rst.<br \/>\nAnd I think that\u2019s a big difference between academics, a leader in academics<br \/>\nand a leader in industry. I really try to do what is best for the students fi rst.<br \/>\nAnd then I try to do what is best for the faculty and the college.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\n\u2018Here, where you don\u2019t necessarily have a product, per se. You are not<br \/>\nmaking televisions, but the other thing is: What is the product of higher education?<br \/>\nYou might think the student, I\u2019m saying, no. You can\u2019t claim another<br \/>\nhuman being as your product. No, the curriculum is your product. I just refuse<br \/>\nto think, if you use business analogy and you\u2019re a dealer, a car dealer. It\u2019s not<br \/>\nthe customer that\u2019s your product, it\u2019s your car. So, since when, if we look at<br \/>\nthat, why not students are our customers.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nThe university leaders described that when students are perceived as customers<br \/>\nof higher education, they can feel they are being supported and heard. Caring<br \/>\nleadership was manifested in personal relationships with students:<br \/>\n\u2018I have a good, direct, and open relationship with students. I hope, at least,<br \/>\nand sense that I am easily approachable and they come to discuss their problems<br \/>\nand studies, and quite openly have confi ded in me.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\n76 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\nIn addition to direct interaction with students, some university leaders<br \/>\nperceived their position as a possibility to support their followers, department<br \/>\nchairs, professors and other faculty, in creating the favourable relationship with<br \/>\nstudents and supporting them in their studies. Caring leaders thus could see their<br \/>\nsupport and guidance they provide to their followers as the way of supporting<br \/>\nstudents\u2019 study processes.<br \/>\n\u2018[I want to] support the chairs really connecting with students.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\n\u2018From time to time, I\u2019ve sent them [the faculty] reminders about why we are<br \/>\nworking here and how important it is to work together despite the fact that<br \/>\nyour work loads are heavier because of the fi nancial times but remember why<br \/>\nyou\u2019re here: It\u2019s the students\u2019 smile when they leave your offi ce. You know<br \/>\nit\u2019s working and reminding them of that ultimate goal.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nThe way caring university leaders can show their support to their ultimate<br \/>\ncustomers, students, is to make sure that people working at the unit are aware of<br \/>\nthe purpose of their work. This was also related to the question of respecting<br \/>\nstudents. One of the leaders described the situation by giving an example:<br \/>\n\u2018If you have an offi ce and you open at 8, it\u2019s not just good at all, not good for<br \/>\nthe students, not good for the whole college, if you\u2019re not there at 8 o\u2019clock.<br \/>\nIf there is no one there, we are not respectful to them.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nThe leader continued with the example that he considered that it is also the caring<br \/>\nleader\u2019s task to make sure that not only are his or her followers aware of their<br \/>\nresponsibility for students and have accepted them as their customers, but also<br \/>\nthat they have to fi nd meaning in their jobs. If they still do not fi nd their work<br \/>\nmeaningful the leader\u2019s task, for the sake of the students and the employee<br \/>\nhimself or herself, is to help the employee fi nd the meaning in the job or reconsider<br \/>\nthe job description.<br \/>\n\u2018If you say I don\u2019t like my work, I\u2019m just shuffl ing papers, then I can explain,<br \/>\nOK, there\u2019s the reason why you\u2019re shuffl ing this paper, because the students<br \/>\nneed this, the students. Maybe there are some forms that students need. But<br \/>\nsometimes people are not in the jobs. You have an opportunity to identify that<br \/>\nlike when you really explain why some things have to be done and still that<br \/>\nindividual does not fi nd it meaningful, then I would engage in little better<br \/>\nprofessional planning.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 77<br \/>\nFactors behind students\u2019 success<br \/>\nThe results of this study complement our previous studies of factors directing<br \/>\nuniversity students\u2019 study processes (see, for example, M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti<br \/>\n2011a ). We have previously described the teacher\/student\u2019s study process as a<br \/>\nsum of factors at the student\u2019s personal level, the unit level and the overall regulations,<br \/>\nvalues and cultural traditions that control education. Although they do not<br \/>\nexplain a successful study process alone, their development and signifi cance<br \/>\nshould be paid more and more attention at universities.<br \/>\nFigure 4.1 illustrates the interconnectedness of students\u2019 study processes and<br \/>\nfactors affecting it. We consider caring leadership the fundamental enabling and<br \/>\nempowering element infl uencing all levels of study processes.<br \/>\nWe analysed caring leadership in relation to students\u2019 study success. At the<br \/>\npersonal level, students\u2019 study processes vary greatly depending on their backgrounds,<br \/>\nstarting points, study skills and the experiences they get during their<br \/>\neducation. Students have certain abilities and habits related to their learning<br \/>\nhistory and experiences and that can strengthen their knowledge and self-effi cacy.<br \/>\nThis conception is either strengthened or dashed at the university (Biggs 1987 ;<br \/>\nCassidy and Eachus 2000 ; Gettinger and Seibert 2002 ; Lindblom-Yl\u00e4nne and<br \/>\nCaring<br \/>\nLeadership as<br \/>\nthe Empowering<br \/>\nElement<br \/>\nUNIVERSITY TEACHER<br \/>\n&#8211; Teaching and mentoring<br \/>\nskills<br \/>\n&#8211; Scientific and pedagogical<br \/>\nproficiency<br \/>\n&#8211; Engagement in teaching<br \/>\nUNIVERSITY<br \/>\nCOMMUNITY<br \/>\n&#8211; Studying atmosphere<br \/>\n&#8211; Student culture<br \/>\n&#8211; Outward circumstances<br \/>\n&#8211; University administration<br \/>\nCURRICULUM<br \/>\nSTUDENT\u2019S<br \/>\nSTUDY<br \/>\nPATH<br \/>\n&#8211; The basic task and<br \/>\nprofession of the<br \/>\ndiscipline\/art<br \/>\n&#8211; Skills and knowledge that<br \/>\nhave to be learned<br \/>\n&#8211; Goals for learning<br \/>\n&#8211; Evaluation of<br \/>\nlearning<br \/>\nSTUDENT<br \/>\n&#8211; Abilities, habits<br \/>\n&#8211; Studying skills<br \/>\n&#8211; Motivation<br \/>\n&#8211; Relevant foreknowledge<br \/>\n&#8211; Learning goals<br \/>\n&#8211; Inner criteria for learning<br \/>\n&#8211; Studying \u2013 other areas<br \/>\nof life<br \/>\nFigure 4.1 Core factors affecting students\u2019 success (adapted from M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti,<br \/>\n2011: 52).<br \/>\n78 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\nPihlajam\u00e4ki 2003 ). On the other hand, we want to emphasise students\u2019 motivation,<br \/>\nwhich refl ects in their way of seizing studies and persistence (Allen 1999 ; M\u00e4kinen<br \/>\n2000 ). Certainly, outer rewards matter too. Receiving positive and encouraging<br \/>\nfeedback about one\u2019s own progress is important as it improves one\u2019s receptiveness<br \/>\nto new learning experiences and tolerance of failures, whereas a perceived feeling<br \/>\nof insuffi ciency and a poor performance level, as well as teachers\u2019 inadequate<br \/>\nguidance and disinterest, decrease motivation (Pajares 2001 ).<br \/>\nThe viewpoint presented here also included an interesting notion; namely,<br \/>\nuniversity leaders talked about considering students as customers. From the<br \/>\nstudents\u2019 perspective, this means that they are valued and noticed at the university.<br \/>\nThey received support and guidance when needed and felt respected as an<br \/>\nimportant part of the university. In addition to suffi cient support and guidance,<br \/>\nthere are other means to enhance students\u2019 wellbeing too. Studies should also be<br \/>\nin balance with other areas of life; interesting hobbies, good human relationships<br \/>\nand family life, versatile and relaxing leisure time act as a good counterbalance<br \/>\nto studying (see, for example, Lowe and Gayle 2007 ). Some university leaders<br \/>\ntalked about mutual free-time activities that could be provided at or nearby the<br \/>\ncampus. Participating in these kinds of activities would also increase student<br \/>\nengagement. For example, Kuh\u2019s ( 2003 ) framework for student engagement is<br \/>\nbased on fi ve benchmarks: level of academic challenge, enriching educational<br \/>\nexperiences, supportive campus environment, student-faculty interaction and<br \/>\nactive and collaborative learning. Therefore, it seems that engagement is one<br \/>\nbasic concept when considering successful studying.<br \/>\nNaturally, everyone also perceives success in studies subjectively and evaluates<br \/>\npersonal achievements in different ways (Maddux 2002 ). Expectations for the<br \/>\nfuture affect greatly how people react on changes and challenges (Carver and<br \/>\nScheier 2002 ) and there are various strategies that lie behind the one that leads to<br \/>\nactive and meaningful studying. From the perspective of university students\u2019<br \/>\nsuccess, it seems that caring leadership can function as a means to support students<br \/>\nat their personal level and enable them to fi nd and employ their personal characteristics,<br \/>\ntalents and strengths in the best possible manner during their studies.<br \/>\nThe leaders in this research talked about the sense of solidarity and communality<br \/>\namong the faculty and the students. At the unit level, the educators\u2019 pedagogical<br \/>\nand scientifi c professionalism, curricula, and the atmosphere and<br \/>\nconditions of the unit (see M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 and Uusiautti 2011a ; Uusiautti and M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4<br \/>\n2013 ) can be named as the core factors. Consequently, if the students were<br \/>\nregarded as customers, the curriculum was named the product. It should fulfi ll the<br \/>\npromises of education and thus be cutting-edge. Basically, the curriculum<br \/>\nprovides both teachers and students with a clear goal. It answers the questions of<br \/>\nwhat kind of expertise students will have after graduating from the training<br \/>\nprogram and what kinds of courses are included in their studies.<br \/>\nFive stages can be distinguished in curriculum work (see Alaoutinen et al .<br \/>\n2009 ): (1) to defi ne the basic task and profession of the education\/discipline\/art,<br \/>\nto evaluate the need for education; (2) to defi ne required competencies and<br \/>\nSuccess begins in childhood 79<br \/>\ngeneral goals of teaching; (3) to defi ne the model of curriculum; (4) to defi ne the<br \/>\ngoals, contents, workload and methods for study entities and units; (5) to<br \/>\ndetermine the communication in the curriculum; and (6) to evaluate the curriculum<br \/>\nand the profi ciency produced by it and its constant development. Learning<br \/>\ngoals in the curriculum tell what students are expected to know after taking a<br \/>\ncertain study unit and they also direct working and the way learning, teaching and<br \/>\nstudying are being evaluated.<br \/>\nWhen pursuing the valued outcomes, students need special support and guidance.<br \/>\nWhat became highlighted here was the importance of equal and open interaction<br \/>\nbetween the faculty and students. This is how the idea of perceiving<br \/>\nstudents as customers was manifested in leaders\u2019 thinking; their customership<br \/>\nimplication appeared as a reciprocal relationship with students. Likewise, a positive<br \/>\natmosphere was emphasised as a crucial element.<br \/>\nMore detailed lists of the nature of support and guidance have also been<br \/>\ncompiled (for example, Haapaniemi et al . 2001 ). M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 ( 2012 ) has divided the<br \/>\nresources of a good supervisor into four dimensions that constitute the four<br \/>\nfundamental features of supervision: (A) Will: a supervisor\u2019s commitment to<br \/>\nsupervision; (B) Knowledge: substance knowledge and\/or the mastery and ability<br \/>\nto comprehend the overall structure; (C) Actions: ensuring that the contents meet<br \/>\nthe scientifi c quality requirements; and (D) Profi ciency: positive and supportive<br \/>\nsupervision methods and personality. The emphasis that each element is given<br \/>\nvaries according to a supervision situation. Nor does the emphasis always remain<br \/>\nthe same. A supervisor can emphasise different features depending on his or her<br \/>\nown style and on a student\u2019s work habits and needs. Supervision is not likely to<br \/>\nsucceed if one of the aforementioned resources is completely missing.<br \/>\nMany characteristics of a university community either enhance or hinder<br \/>\nstudents\u2019 smooth processes. A study atmosphere can vary from open and vivid<br \/>\ndealings between students and teachers and other personnel to distant, minimal<br \/>\nand formal relationships between the above-mentioned groups. Indeed, the meaning<br \/>\nof informal student-faculty contacts and learning outcomes has been noted<br \/>\nalready three decades ago (see Pascarella 1980 ). Finding studying meaningful is<br \/>\nshown to have a positive relationship with students\u2019 perceptions of academic<br \/>\natmosphere at the unit (see, for example, Kezar and Kinzie 2006 ; Mayya and Roff<br \/>\n2004 ; Pimparyon et al. 2000 ).<br \/>\nUltimately, the completion of an academic degree is a student\u2019s responsibility<br \/>\nbecause even the most skillful teacher cannot learn on a student\u2019s behalf. Yet, teaching<br \/>\nskills and teachers\u2019 abilities to be in an appreciating interaction with students<br \/>\nand to guide students make a salient impetus in university education. This was also<br \/>\nnoted by the university leaders. Today\u2019s good university teachers bear the responsibility<br \/>\nboth for their disciplines and are concerned for their students\u2019 success.<br \/>\nAn ideal education institution naturally covers the outward conditions as well,<br \/>\nincluding studying facilities and their location, the number of teachers in proportion<br \/>\nto the number of students, social, economic and health services, library<br \/>\nservices (the availability of books, opening times, etc.), ICT facilities and their<br \/>\n80 Success begins in childhood<br \/>\nsuffi ciency, the length of studying days, the accumulation of lectures versus even<br \/>\ndivision by weekdays and time. It is a known fact (see, for example, Greenwald<br \/>\net al . 1996 ) that a broad range of resources are positively related to student<br \/>\noutcome (see also Atjonen 2007 ). Indeed, this resembles the third perspective<br \/>\nbrought out by university leaders in this study. As the funding of universities<br \/>\nstrongly depends on the number of graduates, research programs and publications,<br \/>\nin other words measurable outcomes, the pressures of productivity is high.<br \/>\nThe university leaders in this study considered these outer factors hindering the<br \/>\nrealisation of caring leadership but considered it as the basic principle for making<br \/>\ndecisions that would benefi t the students the most and allocating money for<br \/>\npurposes that would ensure them with as high-quality education as possible.<br \/>\nToward the adulthood success<br \/>\nIn the modern world student groups are more heterogeneous than ever (see, for<br \/>\nexample, San Antonio 2008 ; Zhao et al . 2008) and thus their study processes<br \/>\nshould be paid attention to more than ever. Consequently, university educators\u2019<br \/>\nwork is demanding and important, and requires resources, time and concentration.<br \/>\nCaring leadership in higher education can enhance the students\u2019 study<br \/>\nprocesses by highlighting some fundamental principles of higher education.<br \/>\nDaniel Goleman ( 2006 : 81) has wisely said: \u2018Leading a school to create a<br \/>\nwarmer and more connected school culture need not mean sacrifi cing academic<br \/>\nrigor. Instead, socially intelligent leaders help schools better fulfi ll their main<br \/>\nmission: teaching\u2019. This concerns every level of education. Also, based on the<br \/>\nresults of our studies, we would like to continue Goleman\u2019s thought by adding that<br \/>\nby using the leadership position for fulfi lling the teaching mission, caring leaders<br \/>\nalso boost students\u2019 success. 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