{"id":79,"date":"2018-10-29T15:55:09","date_gmt":"2018-10-29T15:55:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-psychwork\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=79"},"modified":"2018-10-29T15:59:16","modified_gmt":"2018-10-29T15:59:16","slug":"5-exogenous-success-factors","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/atd-herkimer-psychologyofwork\/chapter\/5-exogenous-success-factors\/","title":{"raw":"5. Exogenous Success Factors","rendered":"5. Exogenous Success Factors"},"content":{"raw":"<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3719\/2018\/10\/29155258\/Chapter-5.pdf\">Chapter 5<\/a>\r\n\r\n<strong>Success and the influence of\u00a0exogenous factors in adulthood<\/strong>\r\n\r\nIntroduction\r\nThis chapter continues the analysis of the top workers\u2019 biographies. We learned\r\nin the last chapter that many factors in childhood can lead to the right track in the\r\nlight of the process of success at work. However, there are many elements in\r\nadulthood life too that can infl uence the process.\r\nThe fi rst purpose of this chapter is to discuss the role of social relationships in\r\nsuccess at work. Especially interesting is to make comparisons with research on\r\nhappy and long-lasting marriages and solutions that top workers have considered\r\nfunctional. Are there commonalities between these groups?\r\nSecond, we glance at the signifi cance of hobbies. In positive psychology the\r\nrole of activities that provide refreshment and pleasure has been long acknowledged.\r\nIn this book we will view how the top workers describe the importance of\r\ntheir hobbies for their success at work.\r\nFinally, we will discuss the role of leadership. Can leaders enhance employees\u2019\r\nchances of success at work? What if they themselves could also benefi t from the\r\ncapability of enhancing employees\u2019 chances of success?\r\nA successful combination of work and marriage\r\nWhen moving further from the school world, dating and romantic relationship\r\nbegin to take place. In this section we will discuss how success at work is\r\nconnected with family and marital life. The relationship between work and\r\nfamily life has been studied mostly from the perspective of negative confl ict\r\n(Greenhouse et al . 1987 ). It is obvious that the interplay between these two areas\r\nof life has positive consequences (Barnett 2004 ; Leiter and Durup 1996 ), and the\r\npositive experiences and solutions are also worth studying (see, for example.\r\nMahoney 2002 ).\r\nThe combination of work and family life has been increasingly studied since\r\nwomen started to work outside the home (Barnett 2004 ; see also Aryee et al .\r\n2005 ). At the same time, in the past few decades, men have been spending more\r\nand more time attending to housework and childcare (Barnett 2004 ). In Finland,\r\nChapter 5\r\nSuccess and the infl uence of\r\nexogenous factors in adulthood\r\n88 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\nsocial policies have also been used to encourage the possibility of combining\r\nwork and family (Salmi 2004b ). Indeed, fi nancial matters are essential to this\r\nphenomenon (see, for example, Barnett 2004 ; Barnett and Lundgren 1998 ).\r\nBarnett and Lundgren ( 1998 ) illustrate issues that spouses need to solve when\r\nmaking work-related decisions. Fundamentally, the decisions are based on\r\neconomic and social factors and, for example, on gender-related attitudes to\r\nwork. In addition, the situation in a workplace (for example, the continuation of\r\nemployment) and individual factors play their respective roles in decisionmaking.\r\nIn an ideal situation, spouses refl ect upon their own and each other\u2019s\r\nbiological, psychological and economic needs. They may end up with an arrangement\r\nwhereby (1) both work full-time, standard work schedules; (2) both work\r\nfull-time, non-standard work schedules; (3) one works full-time, one works\r\nreduced hours; or (4) both work reduced hours (Barnett and Lundgren 1998 ).\r\nFrom the marital point of view, whether or not spouses work together (i.e., in the\r\nsame workplace) is also signifi cant.\r\nHowever, the most signifi cant issue, from our point of view, is to understand\r\nthe question of combining work and family as related to wellbeing and overall\r\nhappiness and success. Special attention was being paid to how the Employees of\r\nthe Year solved this question as well as to the descriptions of the long-married\r\ncouples\u2019 successful solutions. Salmi (2004a, 2004b) suggests that the most\r\nproductive perspective would be the one that refl ects the phenomenon from the\r\nperspective of the entirety of life.\r\nThe interaction between work and family\r\nThe interaction between individuals\u2019 work and family responsibilities has\r\nbecome a concern of practical as well as theoretical signifi cance (Clark 2000 ).\r\nAccording to Berscheid ( 2006 ), an understanding of human behaviour has\r\nsuffered because of the propensity to forget the fact that people live in a net of\r\nhuman relationships for their entire lives and that most behaviour takes place in\r\nthe context of human relationships. When studying successful behaviour, it is\r\nimportant to examine how environmental factors and people\u2019s mutual relationships\r\naffect the development of self-concept (Caprara and Cervone 2006 ;\r\nMagnusson and Mahoney 2006 ).\r\nIn addition, Aspinwall and Staudinger ( 2006 ) note that many human strengths\r\nare based on the person\u2019s relationships with others; in other words, they are relational\r\nor collective by nature. For example, one\u2019s ability to understand and cope\r\nwith various problematic life situations is strengthened if one has an opportunity\r\nto discuss the problem at hand with a close friend, swap opinions and refl ect on\r\nthe issues from new perspectives.\r\nSocial roles play a signifi cant part in an individual\u2019s life. Frone ( 2003 ) refers\r\nto family-work balance in this matter. Imbalance between social roles may\r\nproduce stress that further affects different areas of life as well as the individual\u2019s\r\nhealth and wellbeing. Most studies have focused on the work-family confl ict;\r\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 89\r\nhowever, Frone ( 2003 ), for example, defi nes work-family balance as a lack of\r\nconfl ict or interference between work and family roles.\r\nAccording to Clark\u2019s ( 2000 ) theory about work and family balance, people are\r\ndaily border-crossers between the domains of work and family. The theory\r\naddresses how domain integration and segmentation, border creation and\r\nmanagement, border-crosser participation, and relationships between bordercrossers\r\nand others at work and home infl uence work-family balance. Concepts,\r\nsuch as permeability, fl exibility and blending are used to describe the border\r\nbetween work and family. Permeability refers to the degree to which elements\r\nfrom one domain enter the other. Flexibility is the extent to which a border may\r\ncontract or expand depending on the demands of one domain or the other. When\r\na great deal of permeability and fl exibility occurs around the border, blending\r\nboth work and family creates a borderland that cannot be called by either domain\r\n(Clark 2000 ).\r\nIn considerations of the connection between work and family, it is important to\r\nrefl ect both on how work infl uences family life and the kind of infl uence that\r\nfamily life has on work (Frone et al . 1992 ; Gutek et al . 1991 ), whether it is\r\nstrengthening or confl icting (see, for example, Aryee et al . 2005 ). The hypothesis\r\nof the strengthening effect of multiple roles (see, for example, Rantanen and\r\nKinnunen 2005 ) is of great contemporary interest as it concerns both genders \u2013 as\r\nwell as other family members. Recent studies have shown that it is not just about\r\nmaking compromises but, for example, that positive paternal involvement infl uences\r\nthe multiple domains of children\u2019s lives from birth through adolescence\r\n(see, for example, Hawkins et al . 2008 ).\r\nWe combine here the results of two independent studies in order to refl ect the\r\nsuccessful combination of work and family, and to discover the kinds of solutions\r\nthat are adopted by couples who have been married for more than ten years\r\n(M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 2005 ) and by the top workers who have been nominated as Employees\r\nof the Year in their own occupation (Uusiautti 2008 ). By uniting these two\r\nperspectives, the purpose is to give a unique description of how both family and\r\nwork roles can be combined in order to facilitate success both at work and in\r\nfamily life.\r\nThe magnitude of shared worlds\r\nCrucial among solutions employed by happily married couples in relation to their\r\ntime division between work and family was their willingness to make compromises\r\nin the face of different kinds of aspirations and foci. This can be defi ned as\r\nthe magnitude of their shared world. It covers all the thoughts, feelings, activities\r\nand happenings that spouses share. The magnitude of this world depends on the\r\nextent to which spouses occupy the other worlds, and how much and in what way\r\nthey appreciate and value their relationship compared with their other activities,\r\nsuch as their own friends and hobbies, and whether or not these activities are\r\ncommon between them. The solidity of a relationship derives from mutually\r\n90 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\nshared activities; the stronger and more frequent the interaction between spouses,\r\nthe more solid their relationship will be. Nevertheless, solidity does not result\r\nfrom activities that suppress or fail to appeal to either one of the spouses.\r\nShuttling between work and family was one of the salient issues disclosed by\r\nthe Employees of the Year. Everyone had to make choices and come up with solutions\r\nof some kind in relation to this matter. The best situation was when a balance\r\nwas found between these two areas of life. Thus, the Employees of the Year\r\nconsidered their intimate relationships and family as one of the most important\r\nfactors enhancing their success at work. Some differences could be found in the\r\ntop workers\u2019 experiences of how work and family could be successfully combined.\r\nThese solutions depended a great deal on whether the couple had children or not.\r\nThe balance between family and work according to\r\nlong-lasting and happily married couples\r\nMarried couples could be divided into three categories based on the time they\r\nspend together and the feeling of togetherness they share. The fi rst one represents\r\nan intimate, family-oriented relationship that can be called \u2018Our Marriage\u2019. The\r\nspouses had a strong affi nity to each other; they were well integrated and spent\r\ntheir spare time with their family, made decisions together, and were willing to\r\nmake the effort to solve and\/or avoid disagreements. Their relationship was\r\nepitomised emotional intimacy; they enjoyed each other and being together.\r\n\u2018Our happiness is often based on work as we are surely able to collaborate.\u2019\r\n\u2018The existence of the other is unquestionably important, and we are able to\r\nsupport each other.\u2019\r\n\u2018A shared hobby makes us closer, and it is nice to discuss the subject at home\r\nwith your spouse.\u2019\r\nThis is in line with previous research as well. It has been found that the perceived\r\nsuperiority of one\u2019s own marriage is also strongly related to marital satisfaction\r\n(Buunk and van der Eijnden 1997 ).\r\nThe second category consists of couples that are happy together but as individuals.\r\nThis kind of marriage of two individuals can be described as \u2018Our\r\nMarriage of Two Individuals\u2019. They are integrated, but they tend not to avoid\r\ndisagreements and do not endeavour to achieve a consensus. They spend a great\r\ndeal of their leisure time together and have a high opinion of each other, but they\r\nalso have personal interests outside of the family, such as their work. Despite\r\nbeing interdependent, they also emphasise their independence.\r\n\u2018We got married 12 years ago and being a wife of a traveling worker, I have\r\nto be strong-minded and believe, hope and love, forgive, and stretch, too\u2026 To\r\nbe honest, sometimes it is nice for both of us to be alone from time to time.\u2019\r\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 91\r\nThe third relationship model represented a marriage that lacked interdependence\r\nor shared activities. This kind of relationship could be called \u2018The Marriage of\r\nTwo Individuals\u2019. There was no communication between the individuals, and\r\nthey were unwilling to make compromises in confl ict situations. These kinds of\r\ncouples tended to stay together because of habit and convenience or because of\r\ntheir inability or reluctance to start divorce proceedings. They might have thought\r\nthat this way of life would perhaps be better than living alone.\r\n\u2018My husband is a workaholic, whose home is his workplace \u2013 I am a mother\r\nwhose home is her whole life. External issues, happenings, or people have\r\nnot threatened our marriage; but time and everyday life have fl attened and\r\nfaded the fl ush of love. We have seldom been anywhere together because we\r\nhave children and \u201cwe do not have time\u201d. \u2019\r\nWork-family balance from the perspective of employees of the year\r\nCombining work and family is mostly instantiated through the organisation of\r\nschedules. In everyday life, this has to do with the number of hours that one\r\nworks and how much time is being spent at home with family. The Employees of\r\nthe Year alluded to various solutions based on their situation at home: whether\r\nthey had children and of what age; whether their spouses worked; or whether they\r\neven had a spouse. The results introduce three categories with examples of the\r\ntop worker\u2019s decisions concerning work-family balance.\r\nFamily-oriented top workers made decisions in relation to organising more\r\ntime with their small children. One top worker had a brilliant career before having\r\nchildren but stayed at home while the children were very young. Returning to\r\nwork was diffi cult and the emotions were inconsistent. The support and conversational\r\ncompanionship that her spouse provided was the most important factor\r\nenhancing her return to work. This top worker had also discussed her work\r\nopenly at home, which had consciously made these two areas of life apparent to\r\nall of family members.\r\n\u2018I thought that both my work and being at home were important. The whole\r\nrigmarole, which lasted ten years when the children were small, is something\r\nthat I do not even remember well. And eventually, it did not matter whether\r\nyou were at work or at home. I think that my spouse\u2019s support and our communication\r\nwere signifi cant. He is smart and does not want to control my life.\r\nI allow every family member to become acquainted with my work because\r\nI wanted them to be part of it, and vice versa, in a way that my work would\r\nnot be an area of life that my family knew nothing about. And I hope that this\r\nhas enriched their knowledge of work life too.\u2019\r\nThe other top worker had a business of his own and worked from home. The\r\nreason for this arrangement was that he wanted to be available for his children\r\n92 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\nwhile also making a living. He became highly appreciated in his fi eld, but his\r\nwork never threatened his family as he always considered his family as the fi rst\r\npriority. He emphasised that these two areas of life should be in balance. Of\r\ncourse, this negatively affected the family\u2019s incomes, but on the other hand, this\r\ntop worker preferred having his life in his own hands and did not want to sell his\r\nprinciples for money.\r\n\u2018Basically, I have been at home all the time. When the children came home\r\nfrom school, I was here... But sometimes, it was fi nancially tight. I have never\r\nwanted to work day and night. I can surely stretch but I do not want to sacrifi\r\nce all my life for work. People should understand that too and not just strive\r\nfor profi ts all the time. People should think about what they want to do with\r\ntheir lives.\u2019\r\nThe relationship between work and family can also be described with the use of\r\nmodels that focus on multiple roles. The hypothesis of the burdening effect of\r\nmultiple roles is based on an assumption of scarcity. Accordingly, the resources\r\nthat an individual possesses are limited thus, multiple roles exhaust these\r\nresources. This implies that the resources spent at work diminish those that can\r\nbe used at home and vice versa. On the opposite end of the spectrum is the\r\nhypothesis of the strengthening effect. According to this, an individual\u2019s\r\nresources tend to recur and increase particularly as a result of new roles.\r\nConsequently, both roles (work and family) are seen as enhancing capacity in\r\nboth areas of life. This aptly describes the previous top workers\u2019 actions.\r\nTwo of the top workers had positive experiences with the combination of work\r\nand family \u2013 \u2018having them both\u2019. Both of them were dedicated to a demanding\r\njob with irregular working hours. The solution to combine work and family was\r\ntwofold: fi rstly, they wanted to give priority to their small children, and secondly,\r\nthey planned their schedules in unison with their spouses. As they had irregular\r\nworking hours, they tried to adjust their schedules with their spouses in a way that\r\neither one of them was at home with their children during their free time.\r\nTherefore, everything was based on mutual agreement, and they were strict about\r\nprearranged schedules.\r\n\u2018When my children were young, we had a system. They were in part-time day\r\ncare, only ten days a month. I spent all my days off at home, as did my\r\nspouse, though not at the same time as I did. It went quite well like that. And\r\nwe spent a lot of time with our children.\u2019\r\n\u2018We made the effort to plan schedules together. I had irregular working hours but\r\nmy spouse had standard ones. He was at home during my busiest seasons at work.\u2019\r\nIndeed, couples who value and strive for egalitarian relationships are often faced\r\nwith new challenges upon the birth of their fi rst child (Koivunen et al . 2009 ).\r\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 93\r\nAlthough combining work and family in this way may seem diffi cult, the\r\nEmployees of the Year were content with their solutions because they enabled\r\nboth spouses to work and take care of the home. Barnett and Hyde ( 2001 ) champion\r\nsuch solutions as they are of the opinion that versatile roles (i.e., work and\r\nfamily roles) benefi t our psychological, physical and social health; and this is true\r\nfor both sexes. A strong commitment in one role does not inhibit a similar\r\ncommitment in the other.\r\nAdditionally, this solution has an effect on several other processes too: the\r\nfamily\u2019s income level increases, the experiential spheres of both spouses widen\r\nand the chances to succeed increase. Last, but not least, their work and family life\r\nexperiences become similar.\r\nNotwithstanding, some of the Employees of the Year wanted to keep these\r\nareas of life separate from each other; they were clearly \u2018work-oriented\u2019. They\r\nhad the possibility to concentrate on their careers and their spouses took care of\r\nthe home. They emphasised that the solution was jointly agreed with their\r\nspouses and that their spouses understood the nature of their demanding job.\r\n\u2018I have not had any problems\u2026 My spouse is at home and this is a sort of a\r\nback rest for me, enabling me to work. And I have had support and encouragement\r\nfrom home and my spouse takes care of everything at home so well.\r\nI do not have to worry about whether everything is fi ne at home or not. I can\r\nconcentrate on my work fully.\r\nMy family has been understanding; even the kids have, in their own way\u2026\r\nI am married to my work as much as I am to my spouse.\u2019\r\nOne of the top workers was in a similar situation but he had no children. He too\r\nhad a demanding job with irregular working hours, which could have been be a\r\nstrain on the relationship. However, that was not the case as his spouse was in a\r\nsimilar situation, having started a new business and being busy with that. The\r\nirregular rhythm of life was thus a matter of course for them and they did not\r\nconsider it problematic or burdening to their relationship.\r\nOne of the top workers was single so he did not have similar experiences, nor\r\ndid he have solutions to consider like his Employees of the Year counterparts.\r\nInstead, he found it occasionally diffi cult to separate work and leisure as his\r\npresent circumstances meant that it was relatively easy to dedicate himself\r\ncompletely to work; work days tended to be prolonged and some tasks were done\r\nat home. This shows that spouses and families do not only demand time and effort\r\nbut they also require balance and contentment that does not involve work.\r\nAbility to compromise\r\nOne thing was certain; all Employees of the Year had succeeded in their work and\r\nwere rewarded for excellence. Additionally, they considered consensus and\r\nconcordance with their spouses more important than enhancing their careers as\r\n94 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\nfeelings of guilt frequently pervaded their thoughts when they worked long days\r\ninstead of being at home. Further refl ection on the data on married couples\r\nrevealed that the only common feature was that they had been married for a long\r\ntime, over ten years, whereas marital happiness and satisfaction varied according\r\nto their mutual appreciation and respect for their marriage and togetherness. This\r\nappreciation and respectful attitude toward each other and their relationship\r\nappeared to connect the two studies.\r\nWhereas the married couples were categorised according to those who were\r\ntightly bonded to each other and those who lived together but as individuals, the\r\ntop workers were located between the dimensions of family-oriented and workoriented\r\nindividuals. In considerations of successful marriage, on the one hand,\r\nand a successful combination of work and family, on the other, one fundamental\r\ndimension comes to the fore namely, the ability to compromise.\r\nIt is not easy to draw conclusions of marital happiness from Employees\u2019 of the\r\nYear narratives. Who would not want to succeed at both work and family life?\r\nThis is, however, easier said than done. The solutions may vary but fundamentally\r\nit is all about fi nding one that satisfi es both spouses. There is no single\r\nmodel, however. It is crucial to determine the kinds of compromises that spouses\r\nare willing to make and whether one has different hopes and emphases than the\r\nother. The ability to be realistic is also relevant here; the understanding that one\r\ncannot have everything appears pertinent to success in both work and marriage.\r\nThus, the ability to take pleasure in the achievements and best sides of work and\r\nfamily life eases the compromises. It is the ability to bend and adjust \u2013 without\r\nforfeiting anything of primary value. None of the top workers wanted to become\r\na martyr in the process of making compromises. It was not about neglecting\r\noneself but a realistic and practical weighting of the possibilities and promises of\r\nlife. The level of intrinsic motivation that the Employees of the Year experienced\r\nin their work due to favourable working conditions (such as the experience of\r\nmeaning, responsibility for outcomes and knowledge of results) may also have\r\nenhanced their ability to make compromises and appreciate the other at home and\r\nin the marriage (see, for example, Oh and Lewis 2009 ).\r\nCombining work and family responsibilities is a topic of considerable current\r\ninterest, which also concerned the Employees of the Year. Many theories describe\r\ncareer-related solutions more as individual decisions (Barnett and Lundgren\r\n1998 ), not as shared with spouses or the family as a whole. Employees of the\r\nYear disagreed with this; they thought that it was crucial to make career-related\r\ndecisions together with their families. All solutions were unique, varying from\r\nequal division of labour between spouses to a situation in which one was working\r\nand the other took care of the home. Regardless of the solution, the main point\r\nwas that it was made jointly by considering the aspirations and situations of both\r\nso that neither partner had to sacrifi ce his or her career for the other. The same\r\nphenomenon can also be seen as a prerequisite for a successful marriage. Couples\r\nwho made an effort to listen to each other and who tried to fi nd a common ground\r\nappeared happiest.\r\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 95\r\nA study conducted in Sweden (Evertson and Nermo 2007 ) suggests that\r\ncompromises relating to the sharing of housework remained unusual; despite the\r\nincreasing involvement of women in work outside the home they continue to\r\nperform the majority of household tasks, and a woman\u2019s economic dependency\r\non her spouse is related to her share of the housework \u2013 this may also lead to\r\ndecreased levels of marital satisfaction (see also Koivunen et al . 2009 ).\r\nFurthermore, for men in the dual-earner couples, the relationship satisfaction was\r\nassociated with positive family-to-work spillover whereas satisfaction with the\r\nhousework arrangement was related to women\u2019s positive spillover. With both\r\nmen and women engaging in more non-traditional gender roles in work and\r\nfamily domains, there is great need to understand the impact of these roles on\r\neach domain (Perrone et al . 2009 ).\r\nHaving a family does not prevent one from also having a successful career. It\r\nseems that more important is the readiness to make compromises and to take both\r\nspouses\u2019 hopes into consideration. According to our interpretation, the most plausible\r\nand successful solution is not necessarily to share all duties equally. Neither do the\r\nspouses have to always be together. Both spouses can maintain some level of individualism\r\nin marriage (see also Frisco and Williams 2003 ; Judkins and Presser 2008 ).\r\nTime for hobbies\r\nIn considerations of wellbeing and success at work, hobbies and free-time activities\r\noften take the backseat. Leisure is not considered as important as other areas\r\nof life, such as work and family life. Moreover, Csikszentmihalyi ( 2008 : 159)\r\nasks cleverly why people usually would like to work less and spend more time in\r\nleisure given that: \u2018on the job people feel skillful and challenged, and therefore\r\nfeel more happy, strong, creative, and satisfi ed. In their free time people feel that\r\nthere is generally not much to do and their skills are not being used\u2019.\r\nIn this section, we want to analyse the importance of hobbies and leisure for\r\nsuccess at work. Our fundamental assumption is that the pleasure of doing and\r\npositive emotions are quite important to one\u2019s holistic, daily wellbeing \u2013 and freetime\r\nactivities offer an excellent context for these experiences. One reason for\r\nthis is that activities done in free time are usually voluntary; people do what they\r\nfi nd enjoyable (Carruthers and Hood 2005 ).\r\nLikewise, positive psychology wants to pay more attention to the signifi cance\r\nof hobbies from the point of view of deriving pleasure and positive emotions.\r\nPositive emotions are connected to physical health (for example, the prevention\r\nof physical stress symptoms), mental health (for example, positive coping strategies),\r\nand social health (for example, friendships and social support), which refers\r\nto the fact that happy people are more likely to build happy and reciprocal human\r\nrelationships than unhappy people (Carruthers and Hood 2005 ).\r\nThe conclusion is that if one\u2019s hobby provides positive experiences and thus\r\nenhances happy and balanced life, it will also promote success at work \u2013 indeed,\r\nphysical, mental and social health are needed in work life too. This is also\r\n96 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\nacknowledged in many workplaces internationally, as McGillivray\u2019s ( 2005 )\r\nshows that health and fi tness programmes, for example, now make up a signifi -\r\ncant component of wider organisational wellness or workplace wellness\r\nprograms \u2013 although their positive infl uence seems to focus more on physical\r\nhealth than on mental health (see, for example, Griffi ths 1996 ). Instead, Tuomi\r\net al . ( 2001 ) fi nd that in addition to favourable work characteristics (such as\r\nautonomy and opportunities for personal development), support for physical\r\nactivities and hobbies, as well as possibilities for development and training both\r\nat work and during leisure, infl uence higher work ability and, furthermore, higher\r\nquality of work and the enjoyment of staying in one\u2019s job. Among older workers,\r\nthese features were also connected to active and meaningful retirement.\r\nMyers and Diener ( 1995 : 15) remind us in their study on \u2018Who is Happy?\u2019 that\r\nwhile work provides this \u2018sense of pride and belonging to a group\u2019, which helps\r\n\u2018people construct their social identity\u2019, work is not always satisfying; people can\r\nbecome overwhelmed or underwhelmed. The type of fl ow described in earlier chapters\r\nof this book is not always guaranteed in top workers\u2019 jobs either. Therefore, a\r\nlife-balancing hobby can become an important part of the life of successful people.\r\nHobbies provide counterbalance\r\nHowever, the signifi cance of leisure was not completely absent from top workers\u2019\r\nnarratives. The Employees of the Year tried to unwind from their arduous work\r\nschedules and emphasised the signifi cance of a good hobby. Hobbies were seen\r\nnot only as a counterbalance to work but also as an activity that provided\r\nresources for work. Notwithstanding this, counterbalance was no less important;\r\nin fact, a positive relation between feeling recovered during leisure time and job\r\nperformance over time has been proven (Binnewies et al . 2009 ).\r\nFor one top worker, a hobby turned into a profession; he was a handicraft artist.\r\nIn this case, his hobby had considerably infl uenced his career choices. According\r\nto this top worker\u2019s interview, he had never been interested in studying and\r\nschooling. Instead, he enjoyed practical stuff. Therefore, after compulsory education,\r\nhe found it natural to have his artistic hobby as a profession.\r\n\u2018Basically, I chose my occupation after somehow fi nishing basic education.\r\nNot then however, who, at least not I, would think that handicraft could be or\r\nbecome a profession. You know, I did not like going to school, so I saw an\r\nopportunity there. I could have a better occupation by entering this side door\r\nwithout studying. I did not want to go to school at all. I had been doing this\r\never since my early childhood, because my dad had a small hobby carpenter\u2019s\r\nshop. I did quite a lot of work there.\u2019\r\nThree other top workers described their hobbies and recognised the importance\r\nof these hobbies in their lives. Those who mentioned their hobbies seemed to take\r\nthem seriously. Hobbies can enrich work, offer a balance to demanding work or\r\nbecome an option for an alternate profession.\r\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 97\r\nFor example, the priest enjoyed reading and writing both novels and poems in\r\nhis leisure time. This also enhanced the writing skills needed for his work, such\r\nas writing sermons, speeches, articles, etc. In addition, the priest found that reading\r\nboth professional and fi ction works was very important for his profession.\r\nHowever, writing was the priest\u2019s most important hobby. It also offered a loophole\r\nin case a change of profession felt sensible at some point.\r\nAnother top worker described her long-term commitment to voluntary work.\r\nShe considered this hobby as a counterbalance for work. Furthermore, as her\r\nretirement age was quite close at the time of the interview, she also regarded\r\nvoluntary work as her prospective substitute for paid work. After retirement, she\r\nwas planning to devote her time to voluntary work.\r\nA third top worker had a different kind of hobby; he sang and played in a band,\r\neven gigging. However, this hobby had benefi tted his work too because it had\r\nbrought him publicity and coverage. Through his band, he participated in the\r\nplanning of the theme year for his union; he composed a theme song, etc. Partly,\r\nhe thought that all this activity could have played a role in him being rewarded\r\nEmployee of the Year. At the same time, he recognised all the other benefi ts,\r\nsome more important than others (such as wide social networks), for his day job.\r\n\u20182005 was the theme year. And I participated quite a lot in the planning. So\r\nI was very visibly a part of this thing. And I have this band too. Our band\r\ncomposed the theme song\u2026.\u2019\r\nHobbies can expand your competence\r\nThe aforementioned descriptions seem to speak to the importance of good\r\nhobbies as a component of success at work. A good hobby does not only help to\r\nrelieve work-related pressure or direct thoughts away from work; it can have\r\nother, even surprising, benefi ts for work and life outside work. Hobbies provide\r\nresources for coping, but they can also help create and maintain social relationships\r\nand networks, as the third example above gives reason to believe.\r\nIn addition, hobbies may provide a way of increasing one\u2019s competence, skills\r\nor knowledge in a pleasant manner. As with any other employees, top workers\u2019\r\nexpertise develops incrementally and skills learned in leisure can eventually\r\nboost learning and development at work in a considerable manner. Achor (2010)\r\ntalks about a \u2018Zorro circle\u2019, referring to ways in which we can achieve goals in\r\njobs, careers and personal lives. By fi rst limiting the scope of efforts and accumulating\r\nresources, knowledge and confi dence to expand the circle, success can be\r\nachieved. This progress is similar in all hobbies; even if you jog as a hobby, you\r\nwill have to gradually build your physical stamina, learn how to regulate your\r\nspeed and select suitable clothes so that it can become pleasant and rewarding.\r\nThe same behaviour can be adapted for work and, if the hobby employs similar\r\nskills used at work, it seems natural to think that the benefi ts are multiplied.\r\nHobbies also help to regulate negative emotions and moods as they ignite and\r\nstrengthen positive emotions. In addition, hobbies are often social in nature and\r\n98 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\nare usually enjoyed with other people. Therefore, they strengthen social relationships\r\nand provide support from a social perspective (Reed and Buck 2009 ).\r\nPerhaps relating to the point of view of success at work, it is important to note\r\nthat employees can adopt new useful skills, widen awareness and self-knowledge,\r\nor even create better social networks. All these can help them face and seize challenges\r\nand opportunities at work and in life in general (Carver et al . 2009 ).\r\nCaring leaders encourage employees to succeed\r\nNext, we want to turn our attention to leaders and their chances of enhancing or\r\nsupporting employees\u2019 success. We argue that leaders have the possibility of\r\ncreating such work conditions and atmosphere as enhance positivity in workplaces.\r\nThis viewpoint is based on our studies on the ideology of love-based\r\nleadership; but in this section we will focus on it from the particular viewpoint of\r\nsuccess.\r\nThe role of emotions in the leadership process has attracted increasing interest\r\nin recent years and leaders\u2019 emotional expressions are typically more important\r\nto followers than the objective content of their communication (see Glas\u00f8, and\r\nEinarsen 2008). Emotions and emotional intelligence can even be considered as\r\nthe heart of effective leadership.\r\nFurthermore, an ethic of caring establishes a moral touchstone for decisionmaking\r\nas opposed to guiding principles that one blindly follows (Hoyle 2002 ).\r\nIt has also been argued that when leaders consistently exhibit love, forgiveness\r\nand trust in relationships their employees respond with increased commitment\r\nand loyalty.\r\nBass ( 2000 ) describes the important role that emotions play in contemporary\r\nleadership by contrasting \u2018transactional\u2019 leaders with \u2018transformational\u2019 leaders.\r\nTraditional transactional leaders focus more on mutual transactions and the\r\nexchange of rewards for performance and efforts between the employee and the\r\nemployer instead of considering affective experiences. Transformational leaders\r\nproject a vision that their followers believe in, inspire and support the followers,\r\nand make them feel wanted and valuable to the organisation. The latter leadership\r\ntype corresponds to our conception of a loving leader.\r\nCurrent understanding that wellbeing is not only valuable because it feels good\r\nbut also because it has benefi cial consequences makes a loving management\r\nimperative in the workplaces. According to Rego et al . ( 2011), fostering organisational\r\nvirtuousness (for example, through honesty, interpersonal respect and\r\ncompassion; combining high standards of performance with a culture of forgiveness\r\nand learning from mistakes) improves employees\u2019 affective wellbeing and promotes\r\na more committed workforce. Considering these fi ndings and mirroring the growing\r\ncontributions of positive psychology (for example, Buss 2000 ; Gable and Haidt\r\n2005; Seligman et al . 2005 ), it seems clear that a \u2018positive-people-management\u2019\r\nperspective should be considered internationally by both practitioners and scholars\r\n(see Calori 1995).\r\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 99\r\nSensitive and loving leaders develop a culture that demonstrates concern for\r\nindividual needs in the workplace (Fairholm and Fairholm 2000 ), but consider\r\nand support their followers\u2019 personal lives as well (Ransford et al . 2008 ). Yet,\r\nan organisation in which employees are happy should also make a profi t in the\r\neconomic sense. However, these two factors are not mutually exclusive. It has\r\nbeen shown that effective leaders are sensitive and responsive to their followers\u2019\r\nneeds by providing advice, guidance, as well as emotional and instrumental\r\nresources, by supporting employees\u2019 creativity, initiative, autonomy and the\r\ndesire to meet new challenges and develop and acquire new professional skills,\r\nthus enhancing their self-worth and self-effi cacy (for example, Popper and\r\nAmit 2009 ).\r\nHappiness not only results in a quantitative improvement by increasing effi -\r\nciency but also a qualitative one by making a better product or outcome by virtue\r\nof pride, belief and commitment to one\u2019s job. Happy employees exhibit higher\r\nlevels of job-related performance behaviours than do unhappy employees\r\n(Wright 2004 ).\r\nTherefore, emotions are also given prominence in leadership (Campbell 2007 ).\r\nIt has also been stated that authentic leaders are \u2018as guided by the qualities of the\r\nheart (passion and compassion) as by the qualities of the mind\u2019 (Avolio et al .\r\n2004 : 805).\r\nLove in leaders\u2019 work can also be considered from the perspective of the interpersonal\r\nnature of emotions. According to Fischer and van Kleef ( 2010 ), it is\r\nindisputable that emotions are mostly reactions to other people, that emotions\r\ntake place in settings where other people are present, that emotions are expressed\r\ntoward other people and are regulated because of other people: therefore, the\r\nelicitation of love by understanding other people as the cause, target or third-party\r\nobserver of these emotions is necessary for leaders.\r\nHow do leaders describe love-based leadership?\r\nFinnish and American university leaders (for example, deans, department heads,\r\netc.) were interviewed as a part of the Love-Based Leadership research project.\r\nThey maintained that their role in turning a vision about the state or future of the\r\norganisation or work unit into reality was very satisfying when they could attain\r\na caring leadership style. On the other hand, the process of attaining caring leadership\r\ndid not necessarily have to be that lengthy or be related to a vision. Some\r\nuniversity leaders found positive experiences in their daily work, and derived a\r\nfeeling of success from the smallest accomplishments:\r\n\u2018I think that I get plenty of positive experiences, and they keep me going as\r\nan employee. Without these experiences, I couldn\u2019t do this job, really. At\r\ntimes, I\u2019m quite frustrated \u2026 so sometimes you can enjoy the simplest\r\nsuccesses.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\n100 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\nLikewise, they described taking active and prompt action when they saw something\r\nthat should be done or corrected:\r\n\u2018Three people were emailing each other quite blood-and-thunder messages,\r\nand so I intervened. It seemed to me that I had to solve it and we did, at least\r\nfor a while.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\n\u2018It\u2019s action, all right. You don\u2019t just sit there and ponder, like, oh my God,\r\nwhat am I going to do? You just go over there and say, hey, what\u2019s wrong,\r\nwhat are we doing wrong? \u2026 and say, this is what I understand we\u2019re doing\r\nwrong. You go and make it right. It\u2019s all about action. So I think that\u2019s the\r\nthing I probably did best.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nLeaders\u2019 actions brought about the types of positive feelings that one may experience\r\nafter active, motivated and engaged effort. In addition, when a leader handles\r\nissues in an active way, he or she simultaneously sets an example for followers\r\nwho may fi nd the action energizing. One of the leaders noted this as follows:\r\n\u2018When I was a dean at XXX University, I actually had breakfast in XX, lunch\r\nin the middle of the state, and dinner at the far end of the state. And I came back\r\nthat night. Once my staff knew what I was doing that day, it energized them.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nThe third category covers experiences of success that relate to working for\r\nothers or for the common good. Leaders can consider their position as an opportunity\r\nto enhance work conditions and employees\u2019 positive development and\r\nthriving \u2013 this can improve their own wellbeing too, not to mention the effi -\r\nciency of work units.\r\n\u2018I was the person in this faculty who attended every meeting and brought out\r\nthe faculty\u2019s and students\u2019 voices. I noticed that afterwards everything turned\r\nout as I had hoped, so I could say I succeeded in that way.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\n\u2018I guess the greatest successes that come to mind fi rst have something to do\r\nwith organizational development and the handling of confl icts among staff.\r\nHaving discussions with people and reorganizing duties within the organization,\r\nI have made at least half a dozen people so happy that they are never\r\nabsent. And they sort of fi nd their work valuable and meaningful and feel that\r\nthey are being heard and treated well, and they feel good. I think these things\r\nmake me proudest.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 101\r\nWhat was emphasised in these interviews was a sort of humane, caring leadership,\r\nthe core of which was the leader\u2019s authenticity and self-knowledge. One of\r\nthe US interviewees talked about servant leadership; another referred to caring\r\nleadership; and a Finnish leader described it as dialogic leadership. However, this\r\nkind of leadership was seen as a means of achieving benefi t for all.\r\nEmployees\u2019 success is the leader\u2019s success as well\r\nThe fi ndings here are in line with those of Kinnunen et al . ( 2008 ) who maintain\r\nthat increasing the rewarding aspects of work is an effective means of both\r\nreducing staff turnover and increasing engagement among leaders. Moreover,\r\nSchunk and Pajares ( 2005 ) have noted that a positive perception of one\u2019s effi -\r\ncacy improves one\u2019s performance and wellbeing in numerous ways. The positive\r\nexperiences of leadership reported in this study can also be compared with\r\nthose described in a study by Hakanen et al . ( 2008 ). They fi nd that job resources\r\n(for example, autonomy, immediate feedback and rewards) are crucial to true\r\nwellbeing and motivation at work, or work engagement, as it is sometimes\r\ncalled.\r\nWhen everyone in a team is excited and inspired by the task and reaches for a\r\ncommon goal, a successful outcome may produce the most delightful experience\r\n(see also Losada and Heaphy 2004 ). Naturally, workplaces are replete with problems\r\nand confl icts, and the purpose is not to turn a blind eye to these facts. Rather,\r\nwe seek to highlight the power of positive experiences. Seligman (2002: xi\u2013xii)\r\nhas wisely stated: \u2018There is not a shred of evidence that strength and virtue are\r\nderived from negative motivation\u2026. Experiences that induce positive emotion\r\ncause negative emotion to dissipate rapidly. The strengths and virtues function to\r\nbuffer against misfortune and against psychological disorders\u2019.\r\nThe leaders in our study emphasised working for the good and the use of reciprocal\r\nfeedback practices that enhance positivity in others (see also Avey et al .\r\n2011 ). This view shows the signifi cance of caring leadership in action; it may be\r\ndirectly connected to productivity among followers as a result of leaders creating\r\na positive and encouraging working environment; it may also have this effect\r\namong leaders themselves (see, for example, Hoyle 2002 ).\r\n\u2018I try to empower my team of chairs. They\u2019re the ones that I really want out\r\nthere leading\u2026 So I try to work through them, and I\u2019ve spent a lot of time\r\npruning that group, developing that group, trying to coach those people. And\r\nI see their success as really my success.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nLeaders\u2019 flow as the booster of everyone\u2019s success\r\nMihaly Csikszentmihalyi ( 2008 ) begins his comments on fl ow at work by saying\r\nthat \u2018Like other animals, we must spend a large part of our existence making a\r\n102 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\nliving\u2019 (p. 143), but continues \u2018Because work is so universal, yet so varied, it\r\nmakes a tremendous difference to one\u2019s overall contentment whether what one\r\ndoes for a living is enjoyable or not\u2019 (p. 144). He is talking about an ultimate\r\nphenomenon that can occur in various areas of life; that is an autotelic experience;\r\na total feeling of becoming absorbed by one\u2019s doing and which contributes\r\nto one\u2019s perception of satisfaction with life.\r\nThe concept of fl ow starts to be quite a familiar one among researchers of\r\nbehavioural sciences, and yet, it is extremely adjustable with new positively\r\ntoned research trends such as, for example and especially, under the umbrella\r\nparadigm of positive psychology (Hakanen et al . 2008 ; Isen and Reeve 2006 ;\r\nSnyder and Lopez 2002 ). In this section, we discuss the phenomenon in workplace\r\nenvironments through a new leadership concept, love-based leadership,\r\nand analyse the connection between fl ow and success at work. The viewpoint is\r\nunique; here, we address the state of fl ow through leaders\u2019 experiences. The\r\nultimate purpose is to view how the positive work conditions can occur in\r\nworkplaces, how leaders can enhance this kind of absorption to work, and how\r\nleaders\u2019 fl ow is connected to the overall satisfaction and wellbeing at\r\nworkplaces.\r\nOur purpose here is to analyse the concept of fl ow from the point of view of\r\npositive psychology and its core concepts, happiness, wellbeing and positivity.\r\nThis particular study focused on the positive experiences and the manifestation of\r\nfl ow as a part of love-based leadership. Csikszentmihalyi\u2019s ( 2008 ) list of the eight\r\nelements of fl ow was used when analysing the leaders\u2019 positive experiences\r\nbecause it also provides illustrative examples of the multidimensional nature of\r\nfl ow; being absorbent in one\u2019s doing consists of many factors and fl ow can occur\r\nfor numerous reasons. In order to be called fl ow, one or more of the following\r\nelements should typify the experience.\r\nChallenging activity that requires skills\r\nIn fl ow it is important that one\u2019s skills and abilities match the work at hand. It has\r\nbeen shown that the optimal work experience can lead to high motivation and\r\nactivity in work. A leader\u2019s work is something that obviously has high psychological\r\ndemands (Kinnunen et al . 2008 ) and, as a result, it can provide numerous\r\nvaried opportunities for high-level use of one\u2019s skills. However, not everyone is\r\na leader instinctively but one has to fi nd the position suitable to oneself. This fi t\r\nwas emphasised by the leaders.\r\n\u2018Well, I think some people don\u2019t really like the political dimension of leadership.\r\nAnd I think your reason for going into leadership has a lot to do with\r\nthat. But I think that some people don\u2019t feel comfortable in the political role.\r\nThey don\u2019t feel comfortable in the public eye.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 103\r\n\u2018You as a leader have to have quite a strong self-esteem with what you are\r\ndoing. Always when leading other people you face the fact that everyone is\r\nnot satisfi ed and you have to make diffi cult decisions. That is your job.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\nIndeed, leadership is a strength (Seligman et al . 2005 ) that is more peculiar to some\r\npeople than others. The leaders interviewed in our study referred to the political\r\nnature of leadership and that one being in such a position has to feel comfortable\r\nin it. From this perspective, the position can be seen as a combination of leadership\r\nstrengths, categorised by Rath and Conchie ( 2008 ) as execution (making things\r\nhappen), infl uence (selling ideas inside and out of the organisation), relationship\r\nbuilding (being the glue that holds teams together), and strategic thinking (focusing\r\non the big picture and the future). When the leader\u2019s skills match with these\r\nkinds of challenging activities involved in leadership work, fl ow can occur.\r\nMerging of action and awareness\r\nAs mentioned earlier, fl ow occurs as experiences of being absorbed. This means\r\nthat one concentrates fully on what one is doing instead of thinking about something\r\nelse; the level of the focus of attention at work is the key in this element of fl ow\r\n(see, for example, Gardner et al . 1989 ). Clarity of goals and immediate feedback,\r\nwhich will be discussed next in this section, lay the foundation of this experience.\r\n\u2018It\u2019s action, all right. You don\u2019t just sit there and ponder, like, oh my God,\r\nwhat am I going to do?\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nUniversity leaders described events like this by talking about processes they\r\nhad followed persistently or about the nature of their action as leaders. Their\r\nworkload is, naturally, heavy, which means that they have to consciously\r\nfocus on their tasks at hand. The leaders in this study described taking active\r\nand prompt action when they saw something that should be done or\r\ncorrected. At their best, these actions provided leaders with satisfactory\r\nwork experiences.\r\n\u2018I was really happy that I handled that issue so quickly.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\nClear goals\r\nIn fl ow, one always knows what has to be done, and an enjoyable job always has\r\nclear goals (see also Maier and Brunstein 2001 ). The work leaders doing is\r\nspecial by nature when it comes to the goals of their work. Often they are the ones\r\n104 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\nwho have to defi ne or have the possibility of defi ning the goals not only of their\r\nown work but for that of their followers too.\r\n\u2018I have a particular vision of what a research university should be like. I\u2019ve\r\ntried to invest in activities that will make the vision more real.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nThe university leaders in the data described situations that had successful endings\r\nor outcomes due to them having used their leadership skills. They were able to\r\ngive many examples of such situations or chains of events in which the foci or\r\ngoals of the action were at the center. These kinds of positive experiences were\r\ndescribed as follows:\r\n\u2018It is a long process fi nding the right direction. When we are able to discuss\r\nand change course in a direction that leads to a good outcome and we are all\r\nsatisfi ed with it; those are the best experiences of success.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\nImmediate feedback\r\nIn addition to the fact that one knows what has to be done (the goals), fl ow always\r\nrequires information about how well one is doing. Immediate and clear feedback\r\nshould be, therefore, received usually from the activity itself, allowing the person\r\nto know he or she is succeeding in the set goal (see, for example, Jackson and\r\nMarsh 1996 ), whereas maintaining fl ow in an unresponsive work unit can be diffi -\r\ncult or impossible. Positive feedback received from others was very much appreciated.\r\nHowever, regardless of how positive or negative the feedback provided by\r\nco-workers was, more important is that it should be given in context and related to\r\ntheir actions. The university leaders liked positive feedback because it boosted\r\nintrinsic motivation (see also Isen 2001 ; Isen and Reeve 2006 ; Ryan and Deci\r\n2000 ).The fact that feedback had to correspond the university leaders\u2019 intrinsic\r\nconception of their work tells us that the leaders could also provide feedback to\r\nthemselves. Actually, this is in line with the conditions of fl ow too.\r\n\u2018So, I had almost hundred percent positive feedback all the way. It\u2019s fl attering;\r\nthey don\u2019t even know what they\u2019re talking about.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nConcentration on the task at hand\r\nAfter the merging of action and awareness, distracting issues do not bother when\r\ndoing the task at hand. Leaders emphasised the ability to focus on the person\r\ncoming to talk to you or on the event they have to handle as leaders. The ability\r\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 105\r\nto exclude distractions was seen as important in leader\u2019s work, especially when it\r\ncame to the love-based action. This means that leaders wanted to show their\r\nconcern and willingness to understand and to see the employee\u2019s perspective by\r\nbeing present in the situation of talking with others.\r\n\u2018You have to be able to be present in situation.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\nThe leaders also expressed their willingness to do their share and raise the spirit\r\nat the work unit by showing the way through their own work:\r\n\u2018Once my staff knew what I was doing that day, it energized them.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nOn the other hand, the process of attaining caring leadership can emerge from\r\nvery small accomplishments in leaders\u2019 work:\r\n\u2018It doesn\u2019t have to be anything more than just fi nishing some paper or email.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\nAll of the afore-mentioned examples show the range of elements in leaders\u2019 work\r\nrequiring concentration. In addition, they show that if the leaders fi nd the pleasure\r\nfrom accomplishing these tasks, and if they openly show their excitement to their\r\nfollowers, the positive state can contribute to the work spirit of the workplace.\r\nPerceiving this positive outcome can act as a signifi cant component of fl ow as well.\r\nThe paradox of control\r\nThe most enjoyable experiences allow people to exercise a sense of control over\r\ntheir actions. This means that rather than thinking of the actual doing, they feel\r\nthe possibility of control. In a leadership position, it can manifest itself as a\r\nleader\u2019s perception of how action can infl uence in the big picture; the feeling of\r\npower can even become addictive. The leader\u2019s feeling of capability and being in\r\nthe right job assures about the leader\u2019s profi ciency \u2013 and the feeling of control.\r\n\u2018So, we\u2019d meet and talk about how things are to move and I don\u2019t go on down\r\nand telling people that this is the way it\u2019s gonna be. You know, I want them\r\nto know that the whole pattern needs to fl ow through the organization.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nTransformation of time\r\nOne of the most common descriptions of optimal experiences is the perception of\r\ntime and how it does not seem to pass in a way that it ordinarily does. Many\r\n106 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\npeople have experienced these changes in time. This was common to the university\r\nleaders too, but merely through the realisation that leadership was something\r\ndemanding and time-consuming, and that in order to be a good leader one has to\r\nbecome free \u2018from the tyranny of time\u2019 (Csikszentmihalyi 2008 : 67).\r\n\u2018Good leadership takes time. You just can\u2019t do it, you can\u2019t be on a clock.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nThis notion was also manifested through negative leadership experiences. The\r\nleaders reported how they would like to have more time to do their work properly,\r\nespecially in people management.\r\n\u2018I think a good leader needs to spend time and talk with people and also listen\r\nto them. You know, not just talk at them.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nThe loss of self-consciousness\r\nThe loss of self-consciousness is an interesting part of fl ow because it eventually\r\nleads to increased self-awareness. The foundation of the loss of self-consciousness\r\nis in the clear goals, stable rules and suitable challenges and, therefore, they\r\ninvolve a low risk of the self being threatened.\r\n\u2018I think every leadership position that I\u2019ve had just made me feel more alive.\u2019\r\n(American leader)\r\nAt the same time, when being wrapped up in one\u2019s doing, fl ow requires a very\r\nactive role for the self. This means that in order to fully employ one\u2019s abilities,\r\nand even exceed one\u2019s skills, one has to have a good self-conception, a profound\r\nunderstanding of one\u2019s self (see also M\u00e4kikangas 2007 ). When considered from\r\nthe point of view of leadership, this idea actually comes close to the concept of\r\nauthentic leadership. The university leaders described the meaning of authenticity\r\nand self-awareness as follows:\r\n\u2018You lead people more or less with your personality.\u2019\r\n(Finnish leader)\r\nCould leaders\u2019 flow be spread among employees?\r\nWhy is it necessary to study fl ow and, better yet, why study leaders\u2019 fl ow? The\r\nfi rst reason is that whenever people are in fl ow, they report it as a much more\r\npositive experience than the times they are not in fl ow (Csikszentmihalyi 2008 ).\r\nIn addition, Csikszentmihalyi ( 2008 ) reports that managers and supervisors\r\nwould experience fl ow at work more frequently than, for example, clerical or\r\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 107\r\nblue-collar workers. Therefore, our leader data functioned well as the foundation\r\nof analysing fl ow states from the point of view of success at work. However, we\r\nalso wanted to expand the perspective and contemplate whether leaders\u2019 fl ow\r\ncould also contribute to the success of others at work.\r\nThe reason is that we wanted to analyse its manifestation in relation to the\r\ncaring leadership. As the previous descriptions of fl ow-like leadership experience\r\nshowed, as the leaders surfaced caring leadership practices and their experiences,\r\nthey also described enjoyment in leaders\u2019 work.\r\nEarlier in this chapter, we defi ned caring leadership as \u2018a process accomplished\r\nsuccessfully through the exercise of one\u2019s leadership; individual successful\r\nevents and the accomplishment of everyday duties; the leader\u2019s own actions that\r\npromote mutual good; and timely feedback given in context\u2019 (see also Uusiautti\r\n2013 ). This all leads to the \u2018perceived meaningfulness\u2019, one of the basic tenets of\r\npositive psychology (Seligman 2002 ), and one connected to fl ow as well, enhancing\r\npeople\u2019s productivity, engagement (Hakanen et al . 2008 ), problem-solving\r\nskills (Carver and Scheier 2005 ), wellbeing (Judge et al . 1997 ) and stability\r\n(Kinnunen et al . 2008 ).\r\nMost importantly, fl ow is also involved with one\u2019s skills, which is also closely\r\nconnected with the sense of meaningful doing. Actually, the connection between\r\nthe fi nding of one\u2019s strengths and perceived happiness is based on the feeling of\r\nmeaningfulness (Seligman 2002 ).\r\nFurthermore, the emergence of fl ow is dependent on how well one has recognised\r\none\u2019s strengths, thus being a question of self-awareness and authenticity.\r\nTo fi nd pleasure from leadership and act in a love-based manner as a leader, one\r\nhas to be ready for self-disclosure and increasing self-awareness (Gardner et al .\r\n2005 ). Love-based leadership might contribute to leaders\u2019 work by providing\r\nthem with positive experiences, initial excitement and perceived successes as\r\nwell as a positive means to contribute, for example, to the work unit performance,\r\nemployee retention and job satisfaction as was shown in Peterson and Luthans\u2019s\r\n( 2003 ) study on hopeful leaders. Such positive action described in this section\r\ncan, at its best, enhance optimism, hope, perseverance, wisdom, happiness and\r\ncreativity \u2013 and fl ow.\r\nThe salient conclusion is, however, that love-based leadership might contribute\r\nnot only to leaders\u2019 optimal performances, but also to employees\u2019 work by\r\nproviding them with positive work experiences, initial excitement and perceived\r\nsuccesses. These enhance positive feelings in the workplace (see also Isen and\r\nReeve 2006 ), which are vital for the emergence of fl ow states.\r\nThrough this kind of leadership, leaders set an example at the workplace; they\r\ncan encourage employees to seize new challenges boldly and not back away from\r\nthe challenges (see, for example, Diener, Oishi, and Lucas, 2009 ) in order to fi nd\r\nthe meaning in their work. According to the ideology of love-based leadership,\r\nleaders can enhance employees\u2019 ability to utilise their own strengths through various\r\nlove-based leadership practices in the workplace. The fundamental assumption\r\nis that leaders can act as guides, motivators and examples, as well as\r\n108 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood\r\norganisers of meaningful and enthusiastic doing at work (see also Rutledge\r\n2009 ). This is how everyone can achieve top performances and the sense of using\r\ntheir abilities to the fullest.\r\nOur viewpoint here also offers one way of analysing the positive impact leaders\r\nmay have on performance challenges facing today\u2019s organisations (see also\r\nPeterson and Luthans 2003 ). Caring leaders try to fi nd the road to better work\r\nconditions, development, performance, contentment, higher motivation, and the\r\nsense of self-effi cacy in themselves and their employees \u2013 because success is also\r\nabout a sense of meaning and pleasure, the best manifested by the state of fl ow.\r\nReferences\r\nAchor , S. ( 2010 ) The Happiness Advantage . The Seven Principles of Positive Psychology\r\nthat Fuel Success and Performance at Work . New York, NY : Crown Business\r\nAryee , S. , Srinivas , E. S. and Hoon Tan , H. ( 2005 ) \u2018 Rhythms of life: Antecedents and\r\noutcomes of work-family balance in employed parents \u2019. Journal of Applied Psychology ,\r\n90 ( 1 ), pp. 132 \u2013 146\r\nAspinwall , L. G. and Staudinger , U. M. ( 2006 ) \u2018 Ihmisen vahvuuksien psykologia: kehittyv\u00e4n\r\ntutkimuskent\u00e4n kysymyksi\u00e4 [Psychology of human strengths: Questions from\r\ndeveloping fi eld of study] \u2019 pp. 21 \u2013 33 in Aspinwall , L. 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( 2004 ) \u2018 The role of \u201chappiness\u201d in organizational research: past, present and\r\nfuture directions \u2019 pp. 221 \u2013 264 in Perrewe , P. L. and Ganster , D. C. (Eds.) Exploring\r\ninterpersonal dynamics . Oxford : Elsevier","rendered":"<p><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3719\/2018\/10\/29155258\/Chapter-5.pdf\">Chapter 5<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Success and the influence of\u00a0exogenous factors in adulthood<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Introduction<br \/>\nThis chapter continues the analysis of the top workers\u2019 biographies. We learned<br \/>\nin the last chapter that many factors in childhood can lead to the right track in the<br \/>\nlight of the process of success at work. However, there are many elements in<br \/>\nadulthood life too that can infl uence the process.<br \/>\nThe fi rst purpose of this chapter is to discuss the role of social relationships in<br \/>\nsuccess at work. Especially interesting is to make comparisons with research on<br \/>\nhappy and long-lasting marriages and solutions that top workers have considered<br \/>\nfunctional. Are there commonalities between these groups?<br \/>\nSecond, we glance at the signifi cance of hobbies. In positive psychology the<br \/>\nrole of activities that provide refreshment and pleasure has been long acknowledged.<br \/>\nIn this book we will view how the top workers describe the importance of<br \/>\ntheir hobbies for their success at work.<br \/>\nFinally, we will discuss the role of leadership. Can leaders enhance employees\u2019<br \/>\nchances of success at work? What if they themselves could also benefi t from the<br \/>\ncapability of enhancing employees\u2019 chances of success?<br \/>\nA successful combination of work and marriage<br \/>\nWhen moving further from the school world, dating and romantic relationship<br \/>\nbegin to take place. In this section we will discuss how success at work is<br \/>\nconnected with family and marital life. The relationship between work and<br \/>\nfamily life has been studied mostly from the perspective of negative confl ict<br \/>\n(Greenhouse et al . 1987 ). It is obvious that the interplay between these two areas<br \/>\nof life has positive consequences (Barnett 2004 ; Leiter and Durup 1996 ), and the<br \/>\npositive experiences and solutions are also worth studying (see, for example.<br \/>\nMahoney 2002 ).<br \/>\nThe combination of work and family life has been increasingly studied since<br \/>\nwomen started to work outside the home (Barnett 2004 ; see also Aryee et al .<br \/>\n2005 ). At the same time, in the past few decades, men have been spending more<br \/>\nand more time attending to housework and childcare (Barnett 2004 ). In Finland,<br \/>\nChapter 5<br \/>\nSuccess and the infl uence of<br \/>\nexogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\n88 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\nsocial policies have also been used to encourage the possibility of combining<br \/>\nwork and family (Salmi 2004b ). Indeed, fi nancial matters are essential to this<br \/>\nphenomenon (see, for example, Barnett 2004 ; Barnett and Lundgren 1998 ).<br \/>\nBarnett and Lundgren ( 1998 ) illustrate issues that spouses need to solve when<br \/>\nmaking work-related decisions. Fundamentally, the decisions are based on<br \/>\neconomic and social factors and, for example, on gender-related attitudes to<br \/>\nwork. In addition, the situation in a workplace (for example, the continuation of<br \/>\nemployment) and individual factors play their respective roles in decisionmaking.<br \/>\nIn an ideal situation, spouses refl ect upon their own and each other\u2019s<br \/>\nbiological, psychological and economic needs. They may end up with an arrangement<br \/>\nwhereby (1) both work full-time, standard work schedules; (2) both work<br \/>\nfull-time, non-standard work schedules; (3) one works full-time, one works<br \/>\nreduced hours; or (4) both work reduced hours (Barnett and Lundgren 1998 ).<br \/>\nFrom the marital point of view, whether or not spouses work together (i.e., in the<br \/>\nsame workplace) is also signifi cant.<br \/>\nHowever, the most signifi cant issue, from our point of view, is to understand<br \/>\nthe question of combining work and family as related to wellbeing and overall<br \/>\nhappiness and success. Special attention was being paid to how the Employees of<br \/>\nthe Year solved this question as well as to the descriptions of the long-married<br \/>\ncouples\u2019 successful solutions. Salmi (2004a, 2004b) suggests that the most<br \/>\nproductive perspective would be the one that refl ects the phenomenon from the<br \/>\nperspective of the entirety of life.<br \/>\nThe interaction between work and family<br \/>\nThe interaction between individuals\u2019 work and family responsibilities has<br \/>\nbecome a concern of practical as well as theoretical signifi cance (Clark 2000 ).<br \/>\nAccording to Berscheid ( 2006 ), an understanding of human behaviour has<br \/>\nsuffered because of the propensity to forget the fact that people live in a net of<br \/>\nhuman relationships for their entire lives and that most behaviour takes place in<br \/>\nthe context of human relationships. When studying successful behaviour, it is<br \/>\nimportant to examine how environmental factors and people\u2019s mutual relationships<br \/>\naffect the development of self-concept (Caprara and Cervone 2006 ;<br \/>\nMagnusson and Mahoney 2006 ).<br \/>\nIn addition, Aspinwall and Staudinger ( 2006 ) note that many human strengths<br \/>\nare based on the person\u2019s relationships with others; in other words, they are relational<br \/>\nor collective by nature. For example, one\u2019s ability to understand and cope<br \/>\nwith various problematic life situations is strengthened if one has an opportunity<br \/>\nto discuss the problem at hand with a close friend, swap opinions and refl ect on<br \/>\nthe issues from new perspectives.<br \/>\nSocial roles play a signifi cant part in an individual\u2019s life. Frone ( 2003 ) refers<br \/>\nto family-work balance in this matter. Imbalance between social roles may<br \/>\nproduce stress that further affects different areas of life as well as the individual\u2019s<br \/>\nhealth and wellbeing. Most studies have focused on the work-family confl ict;<br \/>\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 89<br \/>\nhowever, Frone ( 2003 ), for example, defi nes work-family balance as a lack of<br \/>\nconfl ict or interference between work and family roles.<br \/>\nAccording to Clark\u2019s ( 2000 ) theory about work and family balance, people are<br \/>\ndaily border-crossers between the domains of work and family. The theory<br \/>\naddresses how domain integration and segmentation, border creation and<br \/>\nmanagement, border-crosser participation, and relationships between bordercrossers<br \/>\nand others at work and home infl uence work-family balance. Concepts,<br \/>\nsuch as permeability, fl exibility and blending are used to describe the border<br \/>\nbetween work and family. Permeability refers to the degree to which elements<br \/>\nfrom one domain enter the other. Flexibility is the extent to which a border may<br \/>\ncontract or expand depending on the demands of one domain or the other. When<br \/>\na great deal of permeability and fl exibility occurs around the border, blending<br \/>\nboth work and family creates a borderland that cannot be called by either domain<br \/>\n(Clark 2000 ).<br \/>\nIn considerations of the connection between work and family, it is important to<br \/>\nrefl ect both on how work infl uences family life and the kind of infl uence that<br \/>\nfamily life has on work (Frone et al . 1992 ; Gutek et al . 1991 ), whether it is<br \/>\nstrengthening or confl icting (see, for example, Aryee et al . 2005 ). The hypothesis<br \/>\nof the strengthening effect of multiple roles (see, for example, Rantanen and<br \/>\nKinnunen 2005 ) is of great contemporary interest as it concerns both genders \u2013 as<br \/>\nwell as other family members. Recent studies have shown that it is not just about<br \/>\nmaking compromises but, for example, that positive paternal involvement infl uences<br \/>\nthe multiple domains of children\u2019s lives from birth through adolescence<br \/>\n(see, for example, Hawkins et al . 2008 ).<br \/>\nWe combine here the results of two independent studies in order to refl ect the<br \/>\nsuccessful combination of work and family, and to discover the kinds of solutions<br \/>\nthat are adopted by couples who have been married for more than ten years<br \/>\n(M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4 2005 ) and by the top workers who have been nominated as Employees<br \/>\nof the Year in their own occupation (Uusiautti 2008 ). By uniting these two<br \/>\nperspectives, the purpose is to give a unique description of how both family and<br \/>\nwork roles can be combined in order to facilitate success both at work and in<br \/>\nfamily life.<br \/>\nThe magnitude of shared worlds<br \/>\nCrucial among solutions employed by happily married couples in relation to their<br \/>\ntime division between work and family was their willingness to make compromises<br \/>\nin the face of different kinds of aspirations and foci. This can be defi ned as<br \/>\nthe magnitude of their shared world. It covers all the thoughts, feelings, activities<br \/>\nand happenings that spouses share. The magnitude of this world depends on the<br \/>\nextent to which spouses occupy the other worlds, and how much and in what way<br \/>\nthey appreciate and value their relationship compared with their other activities,<br \/>\nsuch as their own friends and hobbies, and whether or not these activities are<br \/>\ncommon between them. The solidity of a relationship derives from mutually<br \/>\n90 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\nshared activities; the stronger and more frequent the interaction between spouses,<br \/>\nthe more solid their relationship will be. Nevertheless, solidity does not result<br \/>\nfrom activities that suppress or fail to appeal to either one of the spouses.<br \/>\nShuttling between work and family was one of the salient issues disclosed by<br \/>\nthe Employees of the Year. Everyone had to make choices and come up with solutions<br \/>\nof some kind in relation to this matter. The best situation was when a balance<br \/>\nwas found between these two areas of life. Thus, the Employees of the Year<br \/>\nconsidered their intimate relationships and family as one of the most important<br \/>\nfactors enhancing their success at work. Some differences could be found in the<br \/>\ntop workers\u2019 experiences of how work and family could be successfully combined.<br \/>\nThese solutions depended a great deal on whether the couple had children or not.<br \/>\nThe balance between family and work according to<br \/>\nlong-lasting and happily married couples<br \/>\nMarried couples could be divided into three categories based on the time they<br \/>\nspend together and the feeling of togetherness they share. The fi rst one represents<br \/>\nan intimate, family-oriented relationship that can be called \u2018Our Marriage\u2019. The<br \/>\nspouses had a strong affi nity to each other; they were well integrated and spent<br \/>\ntheir spare time with their family, made decisions together, and were willing to<br \/>\nmake the effort to solve and\/or avoid disagreements. Their relationship was<br \/>\nepitomised emotional intimacy; they enjoyed each other and being together.<br \/>\n\u2018Our happiness is often based on work as we are surely able to collaborate.\u2019<br \/>\n\u2018The existence of the other is unquestionably important, and we are able to<br \/>\nsupport each other.\u2019<br \/>\n\u2018A shared hobby makes us closer, and it is nice to discuss the subject at home<br \/>\nwith your spouse.\u2019<br \/>\nThis is in line with previous research as well. It has been found that the perceived<br \/>\nsuperiority of one\u2019s own marriage is also strongly related to marital satisfaction<br \/>\n(Buunk and van der Eijnden 1997 ).<br \/>\nThe second category consists of couples that are happy together but as individuals.<br \/>\nThis kind of marriage of two individuals can be described as \u2018Our<br \/>\nMarriage of Two Individuals\u2019. They are integrated, but they tend not to avoid<br \/>\ndisagreements and do not endeavour to achieve a consensus. They spend a great<br \/>\ndeal of their leisure time together and have a high opinion of each other, but they<br \/>\nalso have personal interests outside of the family, such as their work. Despite<br \/>\nbeing interdependent, they also emphasise their independence.<br \/>\n\u2018We got married 12 years ago and being a wife of a traveling worker, I have<br \/>\nto be strong-minded and believe, hope and love, forgive, and stretch, too\u2026 To<br \/>\nbe honest, sometimes it is nice for both of us to be alone from time to time.\u2019<br \/>\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 91<br \/>\nThe third relationship model represented a marriage that lacked interdependence<br \/>\nor shared activities. This kind of relationship could be called \u2018The Marriage of<br \/>\nTwo Individuals\u2019. There was no communication between the individuals, and<br \/>\nthey were unwilling to make compromises in confl ict situations. These kinds of<br \/>\ncouples tended to stay together because of habit and convenience or because of<br \/>\ntheir inability or reluctance to start divorce proceedings. They might have thought<br \/>\nthat this way of life would perhaps be better than living alone.<br \/>\n\u2018My husband is a workaholic, whose home is his workplace \u2013 I am a mother<br \/>\nwhose home is her whole life. External issues, happenings, or people have<br \/>\nnot threatened our marriage; but time and everyday life have fl attened and<br \/>\nfaded the fl ush of love. We have seldom been anywhere together because we<br \/>\nhave children and \u201cwe do not have time\u201d. \u2019<br \/>\nWork-family balance from the perspective of employees of the year<br \/>\nCombining work and family is mostly instantiated through the organisation of<br \/>\nschedules. In everyday life, this has to do with the number of hours that one<br \/>\nworks and how much time is being spent at home with family. The Employees of<br \/>\nthe Year alluded to various solutions based on their situation at home: whether<br \/>\nthey had children and of what age; whether their spouses worked; or whether they<br \/>\neven had a spouse. The results introduce three categories with examples of the<br \/>\ntop worker\u2019s decisions concerning work-family balance.<br \/>\nFamily-oriented top workers made decisions in relation to organising more<br \/>\ntime with their small children. One top worker had a brilliant career before having<br \/>\nchildren but stayed at home while the children were very young. Returning to<br \/>\nwork was diffi cult and the emotions were inconsistent. The support and conversational<br \/>\ncompanionship that her spouse provided was the most important factor<br \/>\nenhancing her return to work. This top worker had also discussed her work<br \/>\nopenly at home, which had consciously made these two areas of life apparent to<br \/>\nall of family members.<br \/>\n\u2018I thought that both my work and being at home were important. The whole<br \/>\nrigmarole, which lasted ten years when the children were small, is something<br \/>\nthat I do not even remember well. And eventually, it did not matter whether<br \/>\nyou were at work or at home. I think that my spouse\u2019s support and our communication<br \/>\nwere signifi cant. He is smart and does not want to control my life.<br \/>\nI allow every family member to become acquainted with my work because<br \/>\nI wanted them to be part of it, and vice versa, in a way that my work would<br \/>\nnot be an area of life that my family knew nothing about. And I hope that this<br \/>\nhas enriched their knowledge of work life too.\u2019<br \/>\nThe other top worker had a business of his own and worked from home. The<br \/>\nreason for this arrangement was that he wanted to be available for his children<br \/>\n92 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\nwhile also making a living. He became highly appreciated in his fi eld, but his<br \/>\nwork never threatened his family as he always considered his family as the fi rst<br \/>\npriority. He emphasised that these two areas of life should be in balance. Of<br \/>\ncourse, this negatively affected the family\u2019s incomes, but on the other hand, this<br \/>\ntop worker preferred having his life in his own hands and did not want to sell his<br \/>\nprinciples for money.<br \/>\n\u2018Basically, I have been at home all the time. When the children came home<br \/>\nfrom school, I was here&#8230; But sometimes, it was fi nancially tight. I have never<br \/>\nwanted to work day and night. I can surely stretch but I do not want to sacrifi<br \/>\nce all my life for work. People should understand that too and not just strive<br \/>\nfor profi ts all the time. People should think about what they want to do with<br \/>\ntheir lives.\u2019<br \/>\nThe relationship between work and family can also be described with the use of<br \/>\nmodels that focus on multiple roles. The hypothesis of the burdening effect of<br \/>\nmultiple roles is based on an assumption of scarcity. Accordingly, the resources<br \/>\nthat an individual possesses are limited thus, multiple roles exhaust these<br \/>\nresources. This implies that the resources spent at work diminish those that can<br \/>\nbe used at home and vice versa. On the opposite end of the spectrum is the<br \/>\nhypothesis of the strengthening effect. According to this, an individual\u2019s<br \/>\nresources tend to recur and increase particularly as a result of new roles.<br \/>\nConsequently, both roles (work and family) are seen as enhancing capacity in<br \/>\nboth areas of life. This aptly describes the previous top workers\u2019 actions.<br \/>\nTwo of the top workers had positive experiences with the combination of work<br \/>\nand family \u2013 \u2018having them both\u2019. Both of them were dedicated to a demanding<br \/>\njob with irregular working hours. The solution to combine work and family was<br \/>\ntwofold: fi rstly, they wanted to give priority to their small children, and secondly,<br \/>\nthey planned their schedules in unison with their spouses. As they had irregular<br \/>\nworking hours, they tried to adjust their schedules with their spouses in a way that<br \/>\neither one of them was at home with their children during their free time.<br \/>\nTherefore, everything was based on mutual agreement, and they were strict about<br \/>\nprearranged schedules.<br \/>\n\u2018When my children were young, we had a system. They were in part-time day<br \/>\ncare, only ten days a month. I spent all my days off at home, as did my<br \/>\nspouse, though not at the same time as I did. It went quite well like that. And<br \/>\nwe spent a lot of time with our children.\u2019<br \/>\n\u2018We made the effort to plan schedules together. I had irregular working hours but<br \/>\nmy spouse had standard ones. He was at home during my busiest seasons at work.\u2019<br \/>\nIndeed, couples who value and strive for egalitarian relationships are often faced<br \/>\nwith new challenges upon the birth of their fi rst child (Koivunen et al . 2009 ).<br \/>\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 93<br \/>\nAlthough combining work and family in this way may seem diffi cult, the<br \/>\nEmployees of the Year were content with their solutions because they enabled<br \/>\nboth spouses to work and take care of the home. Barnett and Hyde ( 2001 ) champion<br \/>\nsuch solutions as they are of the opinion that versatile roles (i.e., work and<br \/>\nfamily roles) benefi t our psychological, physical and social health; and this is true<br \/>\nfor both sexes. A strong commitment in one role does not inhibit a similar<br \/>\ncommitment in the other.<br \/>\nAdditionally, this solution has an effect on several other processes too: the<br \/>\nfamily\u2019s income level increases, the experiential spheres of both spouses widen<br \/>\nand the chances to succeed increase. Last, but not least, their work and family life<br \/>\nexperiences become similar.<br \/>\nNotwithstanding, some of the Employees of the Year wanted to keep these<br \/>\nareas of life separate from each other; they were clearly \u2018work-oriented\u2019. They<br \/>\nhad the possibility to concentrate on their careers and their spouses took care of<br \/>\nthe home. They emphasised that the solution was jointly agreed with their<br \/>\nspouses and that their spouses understood the nature of their demanding job.<br \/>\n\u2018I have not had any problems\u2026 My spouse is at home and this is a sort of a<br \/>\nback rest for me, enabling me to work. And I have had support and encouragement<br \/>\nfrom home and my spouse takes care of everything at home so well.<br \/>\nI do not have to worry about whether everything is fi ne at home or not. I can<br \/>\nconcentrate on my work fully.<br \/>\nMy family has been understanding; even the kids have, in their own way\u2026<br \/>\nI am married to my work as much as I am to my spouse.\u2019<br \/>\nOne of the top workers was in a similar situation but he had no children. He too<br \/>\nhad a demanding job with irregular working hours, which could have been be a<br \/>\nstrain on the relationship. However, that was not the case as his spouse was in a<br \/>\nsimilar situation, having started a new business and being busy with that. The<br \/>\nirregular rhythm of life was thus a matter of course for them and they did not<br \/>\nconsider it problematic or burdening to their relationship.<br \/>\nOne of the top workers was single so he did not have similar experiences, nor<br \/>\ndid he have solutions to consider like his Employees of the Year counterparts.<br \/>\nInstead, he found it occasionally diffi cult to separate work and leisure as his<br \/>\npresent circumstances meant that it was relatively easy to dedicate himself<br \/>\ncompletely to work; work days tended to be prolonged and some tasks were done<br \/>\nat home. This shows that spouses and families do not only demand time and effort<br \/>\nbut they also require balance and contentment that does not involve work.<br \/>\nAbility to compromise<br \/>\nOne thing was certain; all Employees of the Year had succeeded in their work and<br \/>\nwere rewarded for excellence. Additionally, they considered consensus and<br \/>\nconcordance with their spouses more important than enhancing their careers as<br \/>\n94 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\nfeelings of guilt frequently pervaded their thoughts when they worked long days<br \/>\ninstead of being at home. Further refl ection on the data on married couples<br \/>\nrevealed that the only common feature was that they had been married for a long<br \/>\ntime, over ten years, whereas marital happiness and satisfaction varied according<br \/>\nto their mutual appreciation and respect for their marriage and togetherness. This<br \/>\nappreciation and respectful attitude toward each other and their relationship<br \/>\nappeared to connect the two studies.<br \/>\nWhereas the married couples were categorised according to those who were<br \/>\ntightly bonded to each other and those who lived together but as individuals, the<br \/>\ntop workers were located between the dimensions of family-oriented and workoriented<br \/>\nindividuals. In considerations of successful marriage, on the one hand,<br \/>\nand a successful combination of work and family, on the other, one fundamental<br \/>\ndimension comes to the fore namely, the ability to compromise.<br \/>\nIt is not easy to draw conclusions of marital happiness from Employees\u2019 of the<br \/>\nYear narratives. Who would not want to succeed at both work and family life?<br \/>\nThis is, however, easier said than done. The solutions may vary but fundamentally<br \/>\nit is all about fi nding one that satisfi es both spouses. There is no single<br \/>\nmodel, however. It is crucial to determine the kinds of compromises that spouses<br \/>\nare willing to make and whether one has different hopes and emphases than the<br \/>\nother. The ability to be realistic is also relevant here; the understanding that one<br \/>\ncannot have everything appears pertinent to success in both work and marriage.<br \/>\nThus, the ability to take pleasure in the achievements and best sides of work and<br \/>\nfamily life eases the compromises. It is the ability to bend and adjust \u2013 without<br \/>\nforfeiting anything of primary value. None of the top workers wanted to become<br \/>\na martyr in the process of making compromises. It was not about neglecting<br \/>\noneself but a realistic and practical weighting of the possibilities and promises of<br \/>\nlife. The level of intrinsic motivation that the Employees of the Year experienced<br \/>\nin their work due to favourable working conditions (such as the experience of<br \/>\nmeaning, responsibility for outcomes and knowledge of results) may also have<br \/>\nenhanced their ability to make compromises and appreciate the other at home and<br \/>\nin the marriage (see, for example, Oh and Lewis 2009 ).<br \/>\nCombining work and family responsibilities is a topic of considerable current<br \/>\ninterest, which also concerned the Employees of the Year. Many theories describe<br \/>\ncareer-related solutions more as individual decisions (Barnett and Lundgren<br \/>\n1998 ), not as shared with spouses or the family as a whole. Employees of the<br \/>\nYear disagreed with this; they thought that it was crucial to make career-related<br \/>\ndecisions together with their families. All solutions were unique, varying from<br \/>\nequal division of labour between spouses to a situation in which one was working<br \/>\nand the other took care of the home. Regardless of the solution, the main point<br \/>\nwas that it was made jointly by considering the aspirations and situations of both<br \/>\nso that neither partner had to sacrifi ce his or her career for the other. The same<br \/>\nphenomenon can also be seen as a prerequisite for a successful marriage. Couples<br \/>\nwho made an effort to listen to each other and who tried to fi nd a common ground<br \/>\nappeared happiest.<br \/>\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 95<br \/>\nA study conducted in Sweden (Evertson and Nermo 2007 ) suggests that<br \/>\ncompromises relating to the sharing of housework remained unusual; despite the<br \/>\nincreasing involvement of women in work outside the home they continue to<br \/>\nperform the majority of household tasks, and a woman\u2019s economic dependency<br \/>\non her spouse is related to her share of the housework \u2013 this may also lead to<br \/>\ndecreased levels of marital satisfaction (see also Koivunen et al . 2009 ).<br \/>\nFurthermore, for men in the dual-earner couples, the relationship satisfaction was<br \/>\nassociated with positive family-to-work spillover whereas satisfaction with the<br \/>\nhousework arrangement was related to women\u2019s positive spillover. With both<br \/>\nmen and women engaging in more non-traditional gender roles in work and<br \/>\nfamily domains, there is great need to understand the impact of these roles on<br \/>\neach domain (Perrone et al . 2009 ).<br \/>\nHaving a family does not prevent one from also having a successful career. It<br \/>\nseems that more important is the readiness to make compromises and to take both<br \/>\nspouses\u2019 hopes into consideration. According to our interpretation, the most plausible<br \/>\nand successful solution is not necessarily to share all duties equally. Neither do the<br \/>\nspouses have to always be together. Both spouses can maintain some level of individualism<br \/>\nin marriage (see also Frisco and Williams 2003 ; Judkins and Presser 2008 ).<br \/>\nTime for hobbies<br \/>\nIn considerations of wellbeing and success at work, hobbies and free-time activities<br \/>\noften take the backseat. Leisure is not considered as important as other areas<br \/>\nof life, such as work and family life. Moreover, Csikszentmihalyi ( 2008 : 159)<br \/>\nasks cleverly why people usually would like to work less and spend more time in<br \/>\nleisure given that: \u2018on the job people feel skillful and challenged, and therefore<br \/>\nfeel more happy, strong, creative, and satisfi ed. In their free time people feel that<br \/>\nthere is generally not much to do and their skills are not being used\u2019.<br \/>\nIn this section, we want to analyse the importance of hobbies and leisure for<br \/>\nsuccess at work. Our fundamental assumption is that the pleasure of doing and<br \/>\npositive emotions are quite important to one\u2019s holistic, daily wellbeing \u2013 and freetime<br \/>\nactivities offer an excellent context for these experiences. One reason for<br \/>\nthis is that activities done in free time are usually voluntary; people do what they<br \/>\nfi nd enjoyable (Carruthers and Hood 2005 ).<br \/>\nLikewise, positive psychology wants to pay more attention to the signifi cance<br \/>\nof hobbies from the point of view of deriving pleasure and positive emotions.<br \/>\nPositive emotions are connected to physical health (for example, the prevention<br \/>\nof physical stress symptoms), mental health (for example, positive coping strategies),<br \/>\nand social health (for example, friendships and social support), which refers<br \/>\nto the fact that happy people are more likely to build happy and reciprocal human<br \/>\nrelationships than unhappy people (Carruthers and Hood 2005 ).<br \/>\nThe conclusion is that if one\u2019s hobby provides positive experiences and thus<br \/>\nenhances happy and balanced life, it will also promote success at work \u2013 indeed,<br \/>\nphysical, mental and social health are needed in work life too. This is also<br \/>\n96 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\nacknowledged in many workplaces internationally, as McGillivray\u2019s ( 2005 )<br \/>\nshows that health and fi tness programmes, for example, now make up a signifi &#8211;<br \/>\ncant component of wider organisational wellness or workplace wellness<br \/>\nprograms \u2013 although their positive infl uence seems to focus more on physical<br \/>\nhealth than on mental health (see, for example, Griffi ths 1996 ). Instead, Tuomi<br \/>\net al . ( 2001 ) fi nd that in addition to favourable work characteristics (such as<br \/>\nautonomy and opportunities for personal development), support for physical<br \/>\nactivities and hobbies, as well as possibilities for development and training both<br \/>\nat work and during leisure, infl uence higher work ability and, furthermore, higher<br \/>\nquality of work and the enjoyment of staying in one\u2019s job. Among older workers,<br \/>\nthese features were also connected to active and meaningful retirement.<br \/>\nMyers and Diener ( 1995 : 15) remind us in their study on \u2018Who is Happy?\u2019 that<br \/>\nwhile work provides this \u2018sense of pride and belonging to a group\u2019, which helps<br \/>\n\u2018people construct their social identity\u2019, work is not always satisfying; people can<br \/>\nbecome overwhelmed or underwhelmed. The type of fl ow described in earlier chapters<br \/>\nof this book is not always guaranteed in top workers\u2019 jobs either. Therefore, a<br \/>\nlife-balancing hobby can become an important part of the life of successful people.<br \/>\nHobbies provide counterbalance<br \/>\nHowever, the signifi cance of leisure was not completely absent from top workers\u2019<br \/>\nnarratives. The Employees of the Year tried to unwind from their arduous work<br \/>\nschedules and emphasised the signifi cance of a good hobby. Hobbies were seen<br \/>\nnot only as a counterbalance to work but also as an activity that provided<br \/>\nresources for work. Notwithstanding this, counterbalance was no less important;<br \/>\nin fact, a positive relation between feeling recovered during leisure time and job<br \/>\nperformance over time has been proven (Binnewies et al . 2009 ).<br \/>\nFor one top worker, a hobby turned into a profession; he was a handicraft artist.<br \/>\nIn this case, his hobby had considerably infl uenced his career choices. According<br \/>\nto this top worker\u2019s interview, he had never been interested in studying and<br \/>\nschooling. Instead, he enjoyed practical stuff. Therefore, after compulsory education,<br \/>\nhe found it natural to have his artistic hobby as a profession.<br \/>\n\u2018Basically, I chose my occupation after somehow fi nishing basic education.<br \/>\nNot then however, who, at least not I, would think that handicraft could be or<br \/>\nbecome a profession. You know, I did not like going to school, so I saw an<br \/>\nopportunity there. I could have a better occupation by entering this side door<br \/>\nwithout studying. I did not want to go to school at all. I had been doing this<br \/>\never since my early childhood, because my dad had a small hobby carpenter\u2019s<br \/>\nshop. I did quite a lot of work there.\u2019<br \/>\nThree other top workers described their hobbies and recognised the importance<br \/>\nof these hobbies in their lives. Those who mentioned their hobbies seemed to take<br \/>\nthem seriously. Hobbies can enrich work, offer a balance to demanding work or<br \/>\nbecome an option for an alternate profession.<br \/>\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 97<br \/>\nFor example, the priest enjoyed reading and writing both novels and poems in<br \/>\nhis leisure time. This also enhanced the writing skills needed for his work, such<br \/>\nas writing sermons, speeches, articles, etc. In addition, the priest found that reading<br \/>\nboth professional and fi ction works was very important for his profession.<br \/>\nHowever, writing was the priest\u2019s most important hobby. It also offered a loophole<br \/>\nin case a change of profession felt sensible at some point.<br \/>\nAnother top worker described her long-term commitment to voluntary work.<br \/>\nShe considered this hobby as a counterbalance for work. Furthermore, as her<br \/>\nretirement age was quite close at the time of the interview, she also regarded<br \/>\nvoluntary work as her prospective substitute for paid work. After retirement, she<br \/>\nwas planning to devote her time to voluntary work.<br \/>\nA third top worker had a different kind of hobby; he sang and played in a band,<br \/>\neven gigging. However, this hobby had benefi tted his work too because it had<br \/>\nbrought him publicity and coverage. Through his band, he participated in the<br \/>\nplanning of the theme year for his union; he composed a theme song, etc. Partly,<br \/>\nhe thought that all this activity could have played a role in him being rewarded<br \/>\nEmployee of the Year. At the same time, he recognised all the other benefi ts,<br \/>\nsome more important than others (such as wide social networks), for his day job.<br \/>\n\u20182005 was the theme year. And I participated quite a lot in the planning. So<br \/>\nI was very visibly a part of this thing. And I have this band too. Our band<br \/>\ncomposed the theme song\u2026.\u2019<br \/>\nHobbies can expand your competence<br \/>\nThe aforementioned descriptions seem to speak to the importance of good<br \/>\nhobbies as a component of success at work. A good hobby does not only help to<br \/>\nrelieve work-related pressure or direct thoughts away from work; it can have<br \/>\nother, even surprising, benefi ts for work and life outside work. Hobbies provide<br \/>\nresources for coping, but they can also help create and maintain social relationships<br \/>\nand networks, as the third example above gives reason to believe.<br \/>\nIn addition, hobbies may provide a way of increasing one\u2019s competence, skills<br \/>\nor knowledge in a pleasant manner. As with any other employees, top workers\u2019<br \/>\nexpertise develops incrementally and skills learned in leisure can eventually<br \/>\nboost learning and development at work in a considerable manner. Achor (2010)<br \/>\ntalks about a \u2018Zorro circle\u2019, referring to ways in which we can achieve goals in<br \/>\njobs, careers and personal lives. By fi rst limiting the scope of efforts and accumulating<br \/>\nresources, knowledge and confi dence to expand the circle, success can be<br \/>\nachieved. This progress is similar in all hobbies; even if you jog as a hobby, you<br \/>\nwill have to gradually build your physical stamina, learn how to regulate your<br \/>\nspeed and select suitable clothes so that it can become pleasant and rewarding.<br \/>\nThe same behaviour can be adapted for work and, if the hobby employs similar<br \/>\nskills used at work, it seems natural to think that the benefi ts are multiplied.<br \/>\nHobbies also help to regulate negative emotions and moods as they ignite and<br \/>\nstrengthen positive emotions. In addition, hobbies are often social in nature and<br \/>\n98 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\nare usually enjoyed with other people. Therefore, they strengthen social relationships<br \/>\nand provide support from a social perspective (Reed and Buck 2009 ).<br \/>\nPerhaps relating to the point of view of success at work, it is important to note<br \/>\nthat employees can adopt new useful skills, widen awareness and self-knowledge,<br \/>\nor even create better social networks. All these can help them face and seize challenges<br \/>\nand opportunities at work and in life in general (Carver et al . 2009 ).<br \/>\nCaring leaders encourage employees to succeed<br \/>\nNext, we want to turn our attention to leaders and their chances of enhancing or<br \/>\nsupporting employees\u2019 success. We argue that leaders have the possibility of<br \/>\ncreating such work conditions and atmosphere as enhance positivity in workplaces.<br \/>\nThis viewpoint is based on our studies on the ideology of love-based<br \/>\nleadership; but in this section we will focus on it from the particular viewpoint of<br \/>\nsuccess.<br \/>\nThe role of emotions in the leadership process has attracted increasing interest<br \/>\nin recent years and leaders\u2019 emotional expressions are typically more important<br \/>\nto followers than the objective content of their communication (see Glas\u00f8, and<br \/>\nEinarsen 2008). Emotions and emotional intelligence can even be considered as<br \/>\nthe heart of effective leadership.<br \/>\nFurthermore, an ethic of caring establishes a moral touchstone for decisionmaking<br \/>\nas opposed to guiding principles that one blindly follows (Hoyle 2002 ).<br \/>\nIt has also been argued that when leaders consistently exhibit love, forgiveness<br \/>\nand trust in relationships their employees respond with increased commitment<br \/>\nand loyalty.<br \/>\nBass ( 2000 ) describes the important role that emotions play in contemporary<br \/>\nleadership by contrasting \u2018transactional\u2019 leaders with \u2018transformational\u2019 leaders.<br \/>\nTraditional transactional leaders focus more on mutual transactions and the<br \/>\nexchange of rewards for performance and efforts between the employee and the<br \/>\nemployer instead of considering affective experiences. Transformational leaders<br \/>\nproject a vision that their followers believe in, inspire and support the followers,<br \/>\nand make them feel wanted and valuable to the organisation. The latter leadership<br \/>\ntype corresponds to our conception of a loving leader.<br \/>\nCurrent understanding that wellbeing is not only valuable because it feels good<br \/>\nbut also because it has benefi cial consequences makes a loving management<br \/>\nimperative in the workplaces. According to Rego et al . ( 2011), fostering organisational<br \/>\nvirtuousness (for example, through honesty, interpersonal respect and<br \/>\ncompassion; combining high standards of performance with a culture of forgiveness<br \/>\nand learning from mistakes) improves employees\u2019 affective wellbeing and promotes<br \/>\na more committed workforce. Considering these fi ndings and mirroring the growing<br \/>\ncontributions of positive psychology (for example, Buss 2000 ; Gable and Haidt<br \/>\n2005; Seligman et al . 2005 ), it seems clear that a \u2018positive-people-management\u2019<br \/>\nperspective should be considered internationally by both practitioners and scholars<br \/>\n(see Calori 1995).<br \/>\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 99<br \/>\nSensitive and loving leaders develop a culture that demonstrates concern for<br \/>\nindividual needs in the workplace (Fairholm and Fairholm 2000 ), but consider<br \/>\nand support their followers\u2019 personal lives as well (Ransford et al . 2008 ). Yet,<br \/>\nan organisation in which employees are happy should also make a profi t in the<br \/>\neconomic sense. However, these two factors are not mutually exclusive. It has<br \/>\nbeen shown that effective leaders are sensitive and responsive to their followers\u2019<br \/>\nneeds by providing advice, guidance, as well as emotional and instrumental<br \/>\nresources, by supporting employees\u2019 creativity, initiative, autonomy and the<br \/>\ndesire to meet new challenges and develop and acquire new professional skills,<br \/>\nthus enhancing their self-worth and self-effi cacy (for example, Popper and<br \/>\nAmit 2009 ).<br \/>\nHappiness not only results in a quantitative improvement by increasing effi &#8211;<br \/>\nciency but also a qualitative one by making a better product or outcome by virtue<br \/>\nof pride, belief and commitment to one\u2019s job. Happy employees exhibit higher<br \/>\nlevels of job-related performance behaviours than do unhappy employees<br \/>\n(Wright 2004 ).<br \/>\nTherefore, emotions are also given prominence in leadership (Campbell 2007 ).<br \/>\nIt has also been stated that authentic leaders are \u2018as guided by the qualities of the<br \/>\nheart (passion and compassion) as by the qualities of the mind\u2019 (Avolio et al .<br \/>\n2004 : 805).<br \/>\nLove in leaders\u2019 work can also be considered from the perspective of the interpersonal<br \/>\nnature of emotions. According to Fischer and van Kleef ( 2010 ), it is<br \/>\nindisputable that emotions are mostly reactions to other people, that emotions<br \/>\ntake place in settings where other people are present, that emotions are expressed<br \/>\ntoward other people and are regulated because of other people: therefore, the<br \/>\nelicitation of love by understanding other people as the cause, target or third-party<br \/>\nobserver of these emotions is necessary for leaders.<br \/>\nHow do leaders describe love-based leadership?<br \/>\nFinnish and American university leaders (for example, deans, department heads,<br \/>\netc.) were interviewed as a part of the Love-Based Leadership research project.<br \/>\nThey maintained that their role in turning a vision about the state or future of the<br \/>\norganisation or work unit into reality was very satisfying when they could attain<br \/>\na caring leadership style. On the other hand, the process of attaining caring leadership<br \/>\ndid not necessarily have to be that lengthy or be related to a vision. Some<br \/>\nuniversity leaders found positive experiences in their daily work, and derived a<br \/>\nfeeling of success from the smallest accomplishments:<br \/>\n\u2018I think that I get plenty of positive experiences, and they keep me going as<br \/>\nan employee. Without these experiences, I couldn\u2019t do this job, really. At<br \/>\ntimes, I\u2019m quite frustrated \u2026 so sometimes you can enjoy the simplest<br \/>\nsuccesses.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\n100 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\nLikewise, they described taking active and prompt action when they saw something<br \/>\nthat should be done or corrected:<br \/>\n\u2018Three people were emailing each other quite blood-and-thunder messages,<br \/>\nand so I intervened. It seemed to me that I had to solve it and we did, at least<br \/>\nfor a while.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\n\u2018It\u2019s action, all right. You don\u2019t just sit there and ponder, like, oh my God,<br \/>\nwhat am I going to do? You just go over there and say, hey, what\u2019s wrong,<br \/>\nwhat are we doing wrong? \u2026 and say, this is what I understand we\u2019re doing<br \/>\nwrong. You go and make it right. It\u2019s all about action. So I think that\u2019s the<br \/>\nthing I probably did best.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nLeaders\u2019 actions brought about the types of positive feelings that one may experience<br \/>\nafter active, motivated and engaged effort. In addition, when a leader handles<br \/>\nissues in an active way, he or she simultaneously sets an example for followers<br \/>\nwho may fi nd the action energizing. One of the leaders noted this as follows:<br \/>\n\u2018When I was a dean at XXX University, I actually had breakfast in XX, lunch<br \/>\nin the middle of the state, and dinner at the far end of the state. And I came back<br \/>\nthat night. Once my staff knew what I was doing that day, it energized them.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nThe third category covers experiences of success that relate to working for<br \/>\nothers or for the common good. Leaders can consider their position as an opportunity<br \/>\nto enhance work conditions and employees\u2019 positive development and<br \/>\nthriving \u2013 this can improve their own wellbeing too, not to mention the effi &#8211;<br \/>\nciency of work units.<br \/>\n\u2018I was the person in this faculty who attended every meeting and brought out<br \/>\nthe faculty\u2019s and students\u2019 voices. I noticed that afterwards everything turned<br \/>\nout as I had hoped, so I could say I succeeded in that way.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\n\u2018I guess the greatest successes that come to mind fi rst have something to do<br \/>\nwith organizational development and the handling of confl icts among staff.<br \/>\nHaving discussions with people and reorganizing duties within the organization,<br \/>\nI have made at least half a dozen people so happy that they are never<br \/>\nabsent. And they sort of fi nd their work valuable and meaningful and feel that<br \/>\nthey are being heard and treated well, and they feel good. I think these things<br \/>\nmake me proudest.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 101<br \/>\nWhat was emphasised in these interviews was a sort of humane, caring leadership,<br \/>\nthe core of which was the leader\u2019s authenticity and self-knowledge. One of<br \/>\nthe US interviewees talked about servant leadership; another referred to caring<br \/>\nleadership; and a Finnish leader described it as dialogic leadership. However, this<br \/>\nkind of leadership was seen as a means of achieving benefi t for all.<br \/>\nEmployees\u2019 success is the leader\u2019s success as well<br \/>\nThe fi ndings here are in line with those of Kinnunen et al . ( 2008 ) who maintain<br \/>\nthat increasing the rewarding aspects of work is an effective means of both<br \/>\nreducing staff turnover and increasing engagement among leaders. Moreover,<br \/>\nSchunk and Pajares ( 2005 ) have noted that a positive perception of one\u2019s effi &#8211;<br \/>\ncacy improves one\u2019s performance and wellbeing in numerous ways. The positive<br \/>\nexperiences of leadership reported in this study can also be compared with<br \/>\nthose described in a study by Hakanen et al . ( 2008 ). They fi nd that job resources<br \/>\n(for example, autonomy, immediate feedback and rewards) are crucial to true<br \/>\nwellbeing and motivation at work, or work engagement, as it is sometimes<br \/>\ncalled.<br \/>\nWhen everyone in a team is excited and inspired by the task and reaches for a<br \/>\ncommon goal, a successful outcome may produce the most delightful experience<br \/>\n(see also Losada and Heaphy 2004 ). Naturally, workplaces are replete with problems<br \/>\nand confl icts, and the purpose is not to turn a blind eye to these facts. Rather,<br \/>\nwe seek to highlight the power of positive experiences. Seligman (2002: xi\u2013xii)<br \/>\nhas wisely stated: \u2018There is not a shred of evidence that strength and virtue are<br \/>\nderived from negative motivation\u2026. Experiences that induce positive emotion<br \/>\ncause negative emotion to dissipate rapidly. The strengths and virtues function to<br \/>\nbuffer against misfortune and against psychological disorders\u2019.<br \/>\nThe leaders in our study emphasised working for the good and the use of reciprocal<br \/>\nfeedback practices that enhance positivity in others (see also Avey et al .<br \/>\n2011 ). This view shows the signifi cance of caring leadership in action; it may be<br \/>\ndirectly connected to productivity among followers as a result of leaders creating<br \/>\na positive and encouraging working environment; it may also have this effect<br \/>\namong leaders themselves (see, for example, Hoyle 2002 ).<br \/>\n\u2018I try to empower my team of chairs. They\u2019re the ones that I really want out<br \/>\nthere leading\u2026 So I try to work through them, and I\u2019ve spent a lot of time<br \/>\npruning that group, developing that group, trying to coach those people. And<br \/>\nI see their success as really my success.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nLeaders\u2019 flow as the booster of everyone\u2019s success<br \/>\nMihaly Csikszentmihalyi ( 2008 ) begins his comments on fl ow at work by saying<br \/>\nthat \u2018Like other animals, we must spend a large part of our existence making a<br \/>\n102 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\nliving\u2019 (p. 143), but continues \u2018Because work is so universal, yet so varied, it<br \/>\nmakes a tremendous difference to one\u2019s overall contentment whether what one<br \/>\ndoes for a living is enjoyable or not\u2019 (p. 144). He is talking about an ultimate<br \/>\nphenomenon that can occur in various areas of life; that is an autotelic experience;<br \/>\na total feeling of becoming absorbed by one\u2019s doing and which contributes<br \/>\nto one\u2019s perception of satisfaction with life.<br \/>\nThe concept of fl ow starts to be quite a familiar one among researchers of<br \/>\nbehavioural sciences, and yet, it is extremely adjustable with new positively<br \/>\ntoned research trends such as, for example and especially, under the umbrella<br \/>\nparadigm of positive psychology (Hakanen et al . 2008 ; Isen and Reeve 2006 ;<br \/>\nSnyder and Lopez 2002 ). In this section, we discuss the phenomenon in workplace<br \/>\nenvironments through a new leadership concept, love-based leadership,<br \/>\nand analyse the connection between fl ow and success at work. The viewpoint is<br \/>\nunique; here, we address the state of fl ow through leaders\u2019 experiences. The<br \/>\nultimate purpose is to view how the positive work conditions can occur in<br \/>\nworkplaces, how leaders can enhance this kind of absorption to work, and how<br \/>\nleaders\u2019 fl ow is connected to the overall satisfaction and wellbeing at<br \/>\nworkplaces.<br \/>\nOur purpose here is to analyse the concept of fl ow from the point of view of<br \/>\npositive psychology and its core concepts, happiness, wellbeing and positivity.<br \/>\nThis particular study focused on the positive experiences and the manifestation of<br \/>\nfl ow as a part of love-based leadership. Csikszentmihalyi\u2019s ( 2008 ) list of the eight<br \/>\nelements of fl ow was used when analysing the leaders\u2019 positive experiences<br \/>\nbecause it also provides illustrative examples of the multidimensional nature of<br \/>\nfl ow; being absorbent in one\u2019s doing consists of many factors and fl ow can occur<br \/>\nfor numerous reasons. In order to be called fl ow, one or more of the following<br \/>\nelements should typify the experience.<br \/>\nChallenging activity that requires skills<br \/>\nIn fl ow it is important that one\u2019s skills and abilities match the work at hand. It has<br \/>\nbeen shown that the optimal work experience can lead to high motivation and<br \/>\nactivity in work. A leader\u2019s work is something that obviously has high psychological<br \/>\ndemands (Kinnunen et al . 2008 ) and, as a result, it can provide numerous<br \/>\nvaried opportunities for high-level use of one\u2019s skills. However, not everyone is<br \/>\na leader instinctively but one has to fi nd the position suitable to oneself. This fi t<br \/>\nwas emphasised by the leaders.<br \/>\n\u2018Well, I think some people don\u2019t really like the political dimension of leadership.<br \/>\nAnd I think your reason for going into leadership has a lot to do with<br \/>\nthat. But I think that some people don\u2019t feel comfortable in the political role.<br \/>\nThey don\u2019t feel comfortable in the public eye.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 103<br \/>\n\u2018You as a leader have to have quite a strong self-esteem with what you are<br \/>\ndoing. Always when leading other people you face the fact that everyone is<br \/>\nnot satisfi ed and you have to make diffi cult decisions. That is your job.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\nIndeed, leadership is a strength (Seligman et al . 2005 ) that is more peculiar to some<br \/>\npeople than others. The leaders interviewed in our study referred to the political<br \/>\nnature of leadership and that one being in such a position has to feel comfortable<br \/>\nin it. From this perspective, the position can be seen as a combination of leadership<br \/>\nstrengths, categorised by Rath and Conchie ( 2008 ) as execution (making things<br \/>\nhappen), infl uence (selling ideas inside and out of the organisation), relationship<br \/>\nbuilding (being the glue that holds teams together), and strategic thinking (focusing<br \/>\non the big picture and the future). When the leader\u2019s skills match with these<br \/>\nkinds of challenging activities involved in leadership work, fl ow can occur.<br \/>\nMerging of action and awareness<br \/>\nAs mentioned earlier, fl ow occurs as experiences of being absorbed. This means<br \/>\nthat one concentrates fully on what one is doing instead of thinking about something<br \/>\nelse; the level of the focus of attention at work is the key in this element of fl ow<br \/>\n(see, for example, Gardner et al . 1989 ). Clarity of goals and immediate feedback,<br \/>\nwhich will be discussed next in this section, lay the foundation of this experience.<br \/>\n\u2018It\u2019s action, all right. You don\u2019t just sit there and ponder, like, oh my God,<br \/>\nwhat am I going to do?\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nUniversity leaders described events like this by talking about processes they<br \/>\nhad followed persistently or about the nature of their action as leaders. Their<br \/>\nworkload is, naturally, heavy, which means that they have to consciously<br \/>\nfocus on their tasks at hand. The leaders in this study described taking active<br \/>\nand prompt action when they saw something that should be done or<br \/>\ncorrected. At their best, these actions provided leaders with satisfactory<br \/>\nwork experiences.<br \/>\n\u2018I was really happy that I handled that issue so quickly.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\nClear goals<br \/>\nIn fl ow, one always knows what has to be done, and an enjoyable job always has<br \/>\nclear goals (see also Maier and Brunstein 2001 ). The work leaders doing is<br \/>\nspecial by nature when it comes to the goals of their work. Often they are the ones<br \/>\n104 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\nwho have to defi ne or have the possibility of defi ning the goals not only of their<br \/>\nown work but for that of their followers too.<br \/>\n\u2018I have a particular vision of what a research university should be like. I\u2019ve<br \/>\ntried to invest in activities that will make the vision more real.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nThe university leaders in the data described situations that had successful endings<br \/>\nor outcomes due to them having used their leadership skills. They were able to<br \/>\ngive many examples of such situations or chains of events in which the foci or<br \/>\ngoals of the action were at the center. These kinds of positive experiences were<br \/>\ndescribed as follows:<br \/>\n\u2018It is a long process fi nding the right direction. When we are able to discuss<br \/>\nand change course in a direction that leads to a good outcome and we are all<br \/>\nsatisfi ed with it; those are the best experiences of success.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\nImmediate feedback<br \/>\nIn addition to the fact that one knows what has to be done (the goals), fl ow always<br \/>\nrequires information about how well one is doing. Immediate and clear feedback<br \/>\nshould be, therefore, received usually from the activity itself, allowing the person<br \/>\nto know he or she is succeeding in the set goal (see, for example, Jackson and<br \/>\nMarsh 1996 ), whereas maintaining fl ow in an unresponsive work unit can be diffi &#8211;<br \/>\ncult or impossible. Positive feedback received from others was very much appreciated.<br \/>\nHowever, regardless of how positive or negative the feedback provided by<br \/>\nco-workers was, more important is that it should be given in context and related to<br \/>\ntheir actions. The university leaders liked positive feedback because it boosted<br \/>\nintrinsic motivation (see also Isen 2001 ; Isen and Reeve 2006 ; Ryan and Deci<br \/>\n2000 ).The fact that feedback had to correspond the university leaders\u2019 intrinsic<br \/>\nconception of their work tells us that the leaders could also provide feedback to<br \/>\nthemselves. Actually, this is in line with the conditions of fl ow too.<br \/>\n\u2018So, I had almost hundred percent positive feedback all the way. It\u2019s fl attering;<br \/>\nthey don\u2019t even know what they\u2019re talking about.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nConcentration on the task at hand<br \/>\nAfter the merging of action and awareness, distracting issues do not bother when<br \/>\ndoing the task at hand. Leaders emphasised the ability to focus on the person<br \/>\ncoming to talk to you or on the event they have to handle as leaders. The ability<br \/>\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 105<br \/>\nto exclude distractions was seen as important in leader\u2019s work, especially when it<br \/>\ncame to the love-based action. This means that leaders wanted to show their<br \/>\nconcern and willingness to understand and to see the employee\u2019s perspective by<br \/>\nbeing present in the situation of talking with others.<br \/>\n\u2018You have to be able to be present in situation.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\nThe leaders also expressed their willingness to do their share and raise the spirit<br \/>\nat the work unit by showing the way through their own work:<br \/>\n\u2018Once my staff knew what I was doing that day, it energized them.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nOn the other hand, the process of attaining caring leadership can emerge from<br \/>\nvery small accomplishments in leaders\u2019 work:<br \/>\n\u2018It doesn\u2019t have to be anything more than just fi nishing some paper or email.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\nAll of the afore-mentioned examples show the range of elements in leaders\u2019 work<br \/>\nrequiring concentration. In addition, they show that if the leaders fi nd the pleasure<br \/>\nfrom accomplishing these tasks, and if they openly show their excitement to their<br \/>\nfollowers, the positive state can contribute to the work spirit of the workplace.<br \/>\nPerceiving this positive outcome can act as a signifi cant component of fl ow as well.<br \/>\nThe paradox of control<br \/>\nThe most enjoyable experiences allow people to exercise a sense of control over<br \/>\ntheir actions. This means that rather than thinking of the actual doing, they feel<br \/>\nthe possibility of control. In a leadership position, it can manifest itself as a<br \/>\nleader\u2019s perception of how action can infl uence in the big picture; the feeling of<br \/>\npower can even become addictive. The leader\u2019s feeling of capability and being in<br \/>\nthe right job assures about the leader\u2019s profi ciency \u2013 and the feeling of control.<br \/>\n\u2018So, we\u2019d meet and talk about how things are to move and I don\u2019t go on down<br \/>\nand telling people that this is the way it\u2019s gonna be. You know, I want them<br \/>\nto know that the whole pattern needs to fl ow through the organization.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nTransformation of time<br \/>\nOne of the most common descriptions of optimal experiences is the perception of<br \/>\ntime and how it does not seem to pass in a way that it ordinarily does. Many<br \/>\n106 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\npeople have experienced these changes in time. This was common to the university<br \/>\nleaders too, but merely through the realisation that leadership was something<br \/>\ndemanding and time-consuming, and that in order to be a good leader one has to<br \/>\nbecome free \u2018from the tyranny of time\u2019 (Csikszentmihalyi 2008 : 67).<br \/>\n\u2018Good leadership takes time. You just can\u2019t do it, you can\u2019t be on a clock.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nThis notion was also manifested through negative leadership experiences. The<br \/>\nleaders reported how they would like to have more time to do their work properly,<br \/>\nespecially in people management.<br \/>\n\u2018I think a good leader needs to spend time and talk with people and also listen<br \/>\nto them. You know, not just talk at them.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nThe loss of self-consciousness<br \/>\nThe loss of self-consciousness is an interesting part of fl ow because it eventually<br \/>\nleads to increased self-awareness. The foundation of the loss of self-consciousness<br \/>\nis in the clear goals, stable rules and suitable challenges and, therefore, they<br \/>\ninvolve a low risk of the self being threatened.<br \/>\n\u2018I think every leadership position that I\u2019ve had just made me feel more alive.\u2019<br \/>\n(American leader)<br \/>\nAt the same time, when being wrapped up in one\u2019s doing, fl ow requires a very<br \/>\nactive role for the self. This means that in order to fully employ one\u2019s abilities,<br \/>\nand even exceed one\u2019s skills, one has to have a good self-conception, a profound<br \/>\nunderstanding of one\u2019s self (see also M\u00e4kikangas 2007 ). When considered from<br \/>\nthe point of view of leadership, this idea actually comes close to the concept of<br \/>\nauthentic leadership. The university leaders described the meaning of authenticity<br \/>\nand self-awareness as follows:<br \/>\n\u2018You lead people more or less with your personality.\u2019<br \/>\n(Finnish leader)<br \/>\nCould leaders\u2019 flow be spread among employees?<br \/>\nWhy is it necessary to study fl ow and, better yet, why study leaders\u2019 fl ow? The<br \/>\nfi rst reason is that whenever people are in fl ow, they report it as a much more<br \/>\npositive experience than the times they are not in fl ow (Csikszentmihalyi 2008 ).<br \/>\nIn addition, Csikszentmihalyi ( 2008 ) reports that managers and supervisors<br \/>\nwould experience fl ow at work more frequently than, for example, clerical or<br \/>\nThe influence of exogenous factors in adulthood 107<br \/>\nblue-collar workers. Therefore, our leader data functioned well as the foundation<br \/>\nof analysing fl ow states from the point of view of success at work. However, we<br \/>\nalso wanted to expand the perspective and contemplate whether leaders\u2019 fl ow<br \/>\ncould also contribute to the success of others at work.<br \/>\nThe reason is that we wanted to analyse its manifestation in relation to the<br \/>\ncaring leadership. As the previous descriptions of fl ow-like leadership experience<br \/>\nshowed, as the leaders surfaced caring leadership practices and their experiences,<br \/>\nthey also described enjoyment in leaders\u2019 work.<br \/>\nEarlier in this chapter, we defi ned caring leadership as \u2018a process accomplished<br \/>\nsuccessfully through the exercise of one\u2019s leadership; individual successful<br \/>\nevents and the accomplishment of everyday duties; the leader\u2019s own actions that<br \/>\npromote mutual good; and timely feedback given in context\u2019 (see also Uusiautti<br \/>\n2013 ). This all leads to the \u2018perceived meaningfulness\u2019, one of the basic tenets of<br \/>\npositive psychology (Seligman 2002 ), and one connected to fl ow as well, enhancing<br \/>\npeople\u2019s productivity, engagement (Hakanen et al . 2008 ), problem-solving<br \/>\nskills (Carver and Scheier 2005 ), wellbeing (Judge et al . 1997 ) and stability<br \/>\n(Kinnunen et al . 2008 ).<br \/>\nMost importantly, fl ow is also involved with one\u2019s skills, which is also closely<br \/>\nconnected with the sense of meaningful doing. Actually, the connection between<br \/>\nthe fi nding of one\u2019s strengths and perceived happiness is based on the feeling of<br \/>\nmeaningfulness (Seligman 2002 ).<br \/>\nFurthermore, the emergence of fl ow is dependent on how well one has recognised<br \/>\none\u2019s strengths, thus being a question of self-awareness and authenticity.<br \/>\nTo fi nd pleasure from leadership and act in a love-based manner as a leader, one<br \/>\nhas to be ready for self-disclosure and increasing self-awareness (Gardner et al .<br \/>\n2005 ). Love-based leadership might contribute to leaders\u2019 work by providing<br \/>\nthem with positive experiences, initial excitement and perceived successes as<br \/>\nwell as a positive means to contribute, for example, to the work unit performance,<br \/>\nemployee retention and job satisfaction as was shown in Peterson and Luthans\u2019s<br \/>\n( 2003 ) study on hopeful leaders. Such positive action described in this section<br \/>\ncan, at its best, enhance optimism, hope, perseverance, wisdom, happiness and<br \/>\ncreativity \u2013 and fl ow.<br \/>\nThe salient conclusion is, however, that love-based leadership might contribute<br \/>\nnot only to leaders\u2019 optimal performances, but also to employees\u2019 work by<br \/>\nproviding them with positive work experiences, initial excitement and perceived<br \/>\nsuccesses. These enhance positive feelings in the workplace (see also Isen and<br \/>\nReeve 2006 ), which are vital for the emergence of fl ow states.<br \/>\nThrough this kind of leadership, leaders set an example at the workplace; they<br \/>\ncan encourage employees to seize new challenges boldly and not back away from<br \/>\nthe challenges (see, for example, Diener, Oishi, and Lucas, 2009 ) in order to fi nd<br \/>\nthe meaning in their work. According to the ideology of love-based leadership,<br \/>\nleaders can enhance employees\u2019 ability to utilise their own strengths through various<br \/>\nlove-based leadership practices in the workplace. The fundamental assumption<br \/>\nis that leaders can act as guides, motivators and examples, as well as<br \/>\n108 The influence of exogenous factors in adulthood<br \/>\norganisers of meaningful and enthusiastic doing at work (see also Rutledge<br \/>\n2009 ). This is how everyone can achieve top performances and the sense of using<br \/>\ntheir abilities to the fullest.<br \/>\nOur viewpoint here also offers one way of analysing the positive impact leaders<br \/>\nmay have on performance challenges facing today\u2019s organisations (see also<br \/>\nPeterson and Luthans 2003 ). 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