anal stage:

the stage of development when children are learning to control impulses; coincides with toddlerhood and toileting

defense mechanisms:

psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings

ego:

the part of the self that helps balance the id and superego by satisfying the id’s desires in a rational way

eight stages of psychosocial development:

Erikson’s stages of trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair

genital stage:

the final stage of psychosexual development when individuals develop sexual interests; begins in adolescence and lasts throughout adulthood

hypothesis:

a testable prediction

id:

the part of the self that is biologically-driven, includes our instincts and drives, and wants immediate gratification

latency stage:

the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning middle childhood, during which sexual development and sexual impulses are dormant

neurosis:

a tendency to experience negative emotions

oral stage:

the first stage of psychosexual development when infants needs are met primarily through oral gratification

phallic stage:

the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of 3 to 6 years, when the young child’s libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone

psychodynamic perspective:

the perspective that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control

psychosexual stages:

Freud’s oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages

psychosocial theory:

the theory that emphasizes the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development

superego:

the part of the self that acts as our conscience, telling us how we should behave

theory:

a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena that can be used to make predictions about future observations

glossary-term]behavioral genetics:[/glossary-term]

one of the fastest-growing areas within the field of lifespan development and studies the effects of heredity on behavior

bioecological model:

the perspective suggesting that multiple levels of the environment interact with biological potential to influence development

chronosystem:

the environmental events and transitions that occur throughout a child’s life, including any socio-historical events

congruence:

an instance or point of agreement or correspondence between the ideal self and the real self in Rogers’ humanistic personality theory

contextual perspective:

a theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, and social worlds

ecological systems theory:

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory stressing the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments, organized into five levels of external influence: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

exosystem:

the larger contexts of the community, including the values, history, and economy

ethology:

the study of behavior through a biological lens

evolutionary psychology:

a field of study that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

humanism:

a psychological theory that emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive towards self-actualization and contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their own behavior

imprinting:

in psychology and ethology, imprinting is any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior

macrosystem:

cultural elements such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the global community which impact a community

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals are motivated to attend to needs higher up

mesosystem:

larger organizational structures such as school, the family, or religion

microsystem:

immediate surrounds including those who have direct, significant contact with the person, such as parents or siblings

phenomenal field:

our subjective reality, all that we are aware of, including objects and people as well as our behaviors, thoughts, images, and ideas

scaffolding:

a process in which adults or capable peers model or demonstrate how to solve a problem, and then step back, offering support as needed

self-actualization:

according to humanistic theory, the realizing of one’s full potential can include creative expression, a quest for spiritual enlightenment, the pursuit of knowledge, or the desire to contribute to society. For Maslow, it is a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way

sociocultural theory:

Vygotsky’s theory that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

zone of proximal development (ZPD):

the difference between what a learner can do without help, and what they can do with help