Ainsworth’s strange situation: a sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the type of attachment between a child and (typically) their mother

adverse childhood experiences: abuse, neglect, and violent experiences that contribute to childhood trauma

aggressive-rejected: children who are ostracized because they are aggressive, loud, and confrontational

anal stage: the second stage in Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, lasting from age 18 months to three years, during which time the anus is the primary erogenous zone and pleasure is derived from controlling bladder and bowel movements

athletic coach style of parenting: the rules for behavior are consistent and objective and presented in that way. The parent’s role is to provide guidance while the child learns firsthand how to handle these situations

attachment: the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual

authoritarian parenting: the traditional model of parenting in which parents make the rules and children are expected to be obedient

authoritative parenting: appropriately strict, reasonable, and affectionate. They are willing to negotiate when appropriate

autonomy vs. shame and doubt: Erikson’s second crisis of psychosocial development, during which toddlers strive to gain a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies

average: children who receive an average number of positive and negative nominations from their peers

cisgender: an umbrella term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex

clique: used to describe a group of persons who interact with each other more regularly and intensely than others in the same setting. Cliques are distinguished from “crowds” in that their members interact with one another

controversial: children who are either strongly liked or strongly disliked by quite a few peers

conventional moral development: stages 3 and 4 of moral development where morality is internalized, and the concern is on society norms

crowds: large groups of adolescents defined by their shared image and reputation

delayed gratification: the ability to hold out for a larger reward by forgoing a smaller immediate reward

deviant peer contagion: process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior

disorganized attachment: a type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return

emotional regulation: the ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently flexible to permit spontaneous reactions, as well as the ability to delay spontaneous reactions as needed

false self-training: holding a child to adult standards while denying the child’s developmental needs

food insecurity: limited or uncertain availability of safe, nutritious food

foreclosure: term for premature identity formation, which occurs when an adolescent adopts his or her parents’ or society’s role and values without questioning or analysis, according to Marcia’s theory

gender: a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female

gender dysphoria: a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces “gender identity disorder”

gender expression: how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and interactions); can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum

gender identity: the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be woman, man, or genderqueer

goodness-of-fit: the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children’s temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised

homophily: a tendency of individuals to form links disproportionately with others like themselves

identity achievement: Erikson’s term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual, in accord with past experiences and future plans; already questioned and made commitment according to Marcia’s theory

identity vs. role confusion: Erikson’s term for the fifth stage of development, in which the person tries to figure out “Who am I?” but is confused as to which of many possible roles to adopt

insecure-avoidant attachment: a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or even return

insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment: a pattern of attachment in which an infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion

introjection: a process Freud described where children incorporate values from others into their value set

looking-glass self: the process by which our sense of self develops as we interact with others through various social relationships and incorporate the way those other people view us into our own sense of self

major depression: feelings of hopelessness, lethargy, and worthlessness that last two weeks or more

martyr parent: parent who will do anything for the child, even tasks that the child should do independently, may later use what they have done for the child to invoke guilt and compliance

moratorium: an adolescent’s choice of a socially acceptable way to postpone making identity-achievement decisions. Going to college is a common example. Engaged in questioning, but not yet making a commitment, according to Marcia’s theory

negative punishment: a desirable stimulus is removed to decrease a behavior; for example, losing the privilege of playing a desired game or using a desired item

negative reinforcement: an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior; for example, the car beeping goes away when we click into the seatbelt

neglected: children who tend to go unnoticed but are not especially liked or disliked by their peers

pal parent: wants to be the child’s friend and focuses on being entertaining and fun

parasuicide: any potentially lethal action against the self that does not result in death. (also called attempted suicide or failed suicide)

peer pressure: encouragement to conform to one’s friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude; usually considered a negative force, as when adolescent peers encourage one another to defy adult authority

permissive parenting: involves being a friend to a child rather than an authority figure. Children are allowed to make their own rules and determine their own activities

phallic stage: the third stage in Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, lasting from age three to six years, during which the libido (desire) centers upon the genitalia and children become aware of bodies

police officer/drill sergeant parent: focuses primarily on making sure that the child is obedient and that the parent has full control of the child

popular-antisocial: children who gain popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others

popular-prosocial: children who are popular because they are nice and have good social skills

positive punishment: an undesirable stimulus is added to decrease a behavior; for example, spanking or receiving a speeding ticket

positive reinforcement: a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior; for example, stickers on a behavior chart or words of encouragement

post-conventional moral development: stages 5 and 6 of moral development where morality comes from personal understanding of rights and justice, regardless of whether that understanding matches societal norms

pre-conventional moral development: first 2 stages of moral development where morality comes from outside the person, and the concern is on physical consequences of actions

response inhibition: the ability to recognize a potential behavior and stop the initiation of an undesired behavior

role confusion: a situation in which an adolescent does not seem to know or care what his or her identity is. (Sometimes called identity diffusion or role diffusion)

secure attachment: a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of their caregiver

secure base: a parental presence that gives children a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings

self-awareness: a person’s realization that they are a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people

self-concept: the idea of who we are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and feel

self-esteem: considered an important component of emotional health, self-esteem encompasses both self-confidence and self-acceptance. It is the way individuals perceive themselves and their self-value

separation anxiety: fear or distress caused by the departure of familiar significant others; most obvious between 9-14 months

sex: a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females

sexual orientation: a term that refers to whether a person is sexually and romantically attracted to others of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes

social smile: a smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth

stranger wariness: fear is often associated with the presence of strangers where an infant expresses concern or a look of fear while clinging to a familiar person

suicide: the act of intentionally causing one’s own death

suicidal ideation: thinking about suicide, usually with some serious emotional and intellectual or cognitive overtones

teacher-counselor parent: pays a lot of attention to expert advice on parenting and believes that as long as all of the steps are followed, the parent can rear a perfect child

temperament: inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation, typically measured by the person’s responses to the environment

toxic stress: excessive stress that exceeds a child’s ability to cope, especially in the absence of supportive caregiving from adults

transgender: a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex

trust vs. mistrust: Erikson’s first crisis of psychosocial development, during which infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their needs (food, comfort, attention) are met

uninvolved parenting: parents who are disengaged from their children, do not make demands on their children, and are non-responsive

withdrawn-rejected: children who are excluded because they are shy and withdrawn