{"id":99,"date":"2021-01-21T19:36:04","date_gmt":"2021-01-21T19:36:04","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/child\/chapter\/identity-development-theory\/"},"modified":"2021-01-21T19:36:04","modified_gmt":"2021-01-21T19:36:04","slug":"identity-development-theory","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/child\/chapter\/identity-development-theory\/","title":{"raw":"Identity Development Theory","rendered":"Identity Development Theory"},"content":{"raw":"A well-developed identity is comprised of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is committed. It is the awareness of the consistency in self over time, the recognition of this consistency by others (Erikson, 1980). The process of identity development is both an individual and social phenomenon (Adams & Marshall, 1996). Much of this process is assumed during adolescence when cognitive development allows for an individual to construct a \u2018theory of self\u2019 (Elkind, 1998) based on exposure to role models and identity options (Erikson, 1980).\u00a0 Erikson (1968) believed this period of development to be an \u2018identity crisis,\u2019 a crucial turning point in which an individual must develop in one way or another, ushering the adolescent toward growth and differentiation.\u00a0 Identity is formed through a process of exploring options or choices and committing to an option based upon the outcome of their exploration. Failure to establish a well-developed sense of identity can result in identity confusion. Those experiencing identity confusion do not have a clear sense of who they are or their role in society.\n\nIdentity development is vital to a person\u2019s understanding of self and participation in their social systems. Adams and Marshall (1996) established that identity formation provides five functions: a structure and order to self-knowledge; a sense of consistency and coherence to beliefs, goals, and self-knowledge; a sense of continuity for one\u2019s history and future; goals and direction; a sense of personal control of their choices and outcomes.\n

Freud's Theory\u00a0<\/strong><\/h1>\nWe begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a\u00a0very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and\u00a0psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the\u00a01950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the\u00a0ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on\u00a0children\u2019s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for\u00a0many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not\nalways result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of\u00a0literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop\u00a0without damaging emotional scars (O\u2019Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an\u00a0enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud\u2019s theory in its\u00a0entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of\u00a0development.\n\nFreud\u2019s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.\u00a0The id<\/strong> is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is\nguided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The\u00a0newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.\nThe ego<\/strong> develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle.\u00a0It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates\u00a0between the id and superego<\/strong> using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.\n\nThe superego represents society\u2019s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt.\u00a0Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.\nThe personality is thought to develop in response to the child\u2019s ability to learn to manage\u00a0biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the\u00a0child may become fixated and not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud\u2019s stages.\n
\n

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation<\/h3>\nSome people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have been adequately met in which case there is frustration.\u00a0Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied that he\/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.\u00a0Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what psychoanalysts call\u00a0fixation<\/strong>\u00a0at a particular psychosexual stage.\u00a0Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of his development.\n\n<\/div>\n

Stages of Psychosexual Development<\/h2>\n

Oral Stage<\/h3>\nThe oral stage<\/strong> lasts from birth until around age 2. The infant is all id. At this\u00a0stage, stimulation and comfort are focused on the mouth and are based on the\nreflex of sucking. Too much indulgence or too little stimulation may lead to\u00a0fixation, resulting in a person continuing to see oral stimulation and comfort well beyond infancy. Of much focus is how parents manage the weaning process as a cause for fixation. Children weaned too early or too late may seek ongoing oral stimulation.\n

Anal Stage<\/h3>\nThe anal stage<\/strong> begins around 18 months of age and lasts until the child is three years old. During the anal stage, Freud believed that the libido source shifted from the mouth (in stage 1) to the anus and the ego is beginning to develop in this stage. The child, then, receives pleasure from defecating. The child, at this point, understands that they have some amount of control over their lives, including control of when and where they defecate. This can set-up difficulties in potty training. What matters, in terms of Freud's theory, is how the parent handles difficulties in potty training. Poor parental reactions during potty training may result in anal fixation; the fixated child may react in one of two ways: (1) parents who are harsh or who ridicule the child for mistakes may have children who stubbornly hold on to their feces in an effort to not have an accident - these children may become anal retentive or (2) parents who are too easy-going may have a child who reacts by purposefully making a mess - these children may become anal expulsive. Adults who are anal retentive tend to be stubborn, very neat, rigid, and stingy. Adults who are anal expulsive tend to be messy, wasteful, and harsh.\n
\n

Link to Learning: Toilet TRaining<\/h3>\nTo the relief of most parents, there is very little evidence to suggest that Freud was right about fixations caused during the anal stage, mainly because the theory itself would be very difficult to test. Nevertheless, parents worry about toilet training, and whether they will be able to guide their children through the process unscathed. Kidshealth.org has a good web page on to potty training<\/a>\u00a0that may help parents worried about toilet training.\n\n<\/div>\n

Phallic Stage<\/h3>\nThe phallic stage of psychosexual development occurs from ages three to six. According to Freud, during the phallic stage,<\/strong>\u00a0the child develops an attraction to the opposite sex parent, which is called the Oedipus Complex for boys and the Electra Complex for girls. When the child recognizes that the opposite sex parent is unavailable, the child learns to model their own behavior after the same-sex parent.\u00a0The\u00a0child develops their own sense of masculinity or femininity from this resolution.\u00a0According to Freud, a person who does not exhibit gender appropriate behavior, such as a woman who competes with men for jobs or a man who lacks self-assurance and dominance, has not successfully completed this stage of development.\u00a0Consequently, such a person continues to struggle with his or her own gender identity.\n\nChodorow, a neo-Freudian, believed that mothering promotes gender stereotypic behavior.\u00a0Mothers push their sons away too soon and direct their attention toward problem-solving and independence.\u00a0As a result, sons grow up confident in their own abilities but uncomfortable with intimacy.\u00a0Girls are kept dependent too long and are given unnecessary and even unwelcome assistance from their mothers.\u00a0Girls learn to underestimate their abilities and lack assertiveness but feel comfortable with intimacy.\n\nBoth of these models assume that early childhood experiences result in lifelong gender self-concepts.\u00a0However, gender socialization is a process that continues throughout life.\u00a0Children, teens, and adults refine and can modify their sense of self, based on gender.\n\nAnother important part of Freud's phallic stage is that during this time the child is learning right from wrong through the process of introjection<\/strong>. Remember that according to Kohlberg, the child during this time is developing a sense of morality. According to Freud, this is occurring through the process of introjection which occurs as children incorporate values from others into their value set. Freud theorized about parental introjection, where children learn that parents seem pleased by certain behaviors (and so want to do those behaviors more to get rewards and love) and displeased by other behaviors (and so want to do those behaviors less to avoid punishment and loss of love). Today, modern psychoanalytic theorists recognize the place of others and society in introjection. Societal introjection is becoming more and more important as more children go to daycare, as we are more surrounded by technology and advertising, and as we travel more.\n

Latency Stage<\/h3>\nFreud's fourth stage of psychosexual development is the latency stage. This stage begins around age 6 and lasts until puberty. In the latency stage, children are actually doing very little psychosexual development according to Freud. Where pleasure and development occurred through erogenous zones in the first 3 stages, in the latency stage all pleasure from erogenous zones is repressed. In other words, it is latent\u2014hence the stage's name. Freud believed that in the latency stage all development and stimulation come from secondary sources since the erogenous forces are repressed. These secondary sources can include education, forming various social relationships, and hobbies.\n

Genital Stage<\/h3>\nThe genital stage is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development, and begins in puberty.\u00a0 It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.\u00a0Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage.\n\nFor Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse.\u00a0 Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop.\u00a0For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.\n\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/nG7yosFQHP4\n\nVideo 7.5.1.\u00a0<\/strong>Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development.\u00a0<\/em>\n
\n

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud\u2019s Theory<\/h2>\n<\/div>\nFreud\u2019s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test the unconscious mind scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there\u00a0other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be\u00a0sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow\u00a0psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that\nmuch of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As\u00a0mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud\u2019s assumptions about the importance of early\u00a0childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child\u00a0development, education, and parenting practices. Freud\u2019s theory has heuristic value in\u00a0providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of\u00a0development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to\n

Erikson\u2019s Stages of Psychosexual Development<\/h1>\n\"\"Erik\u00a0Erikson\u2019s theory of\u00a0psychosocial development\u00a0emphasizes\u00a0the social nature of our development. His theory proposed that our psychosocial development takes place throughout our lifespan.\u00a0Erikson\u00a0suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity. He also believed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives.\n\nAccording to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan (Table 8.1), from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage, there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.\n\nFigure 7.5.1<\/strong>. Erik Erikson\n\nTable 7.5.1.<\/strong>\u00a0Erikson\u2019s psychosocial Stages of Development\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
Stage<\/strong><\/td>\nAge (years)<\/strong><\/td>\nDevelopmental Task<\/strong><\/td>\nDescription<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
1<\/td>\n0\u20131<\/td>\nTrust vs. mistrust<\/td>\nTrust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
2<\/td>\n1\u20133<\/td>\nAutonomy vs. shame\/doubt<\/td>\nDevelop a sense of independence in many tasks<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
3<\/td>\n3\u20136<\/td>\nInitiative vs. guilt<\/td>\nTake the initiative on some activities\u2014may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
4<\/td>\n7\u201311<\/td>\nIndustry vs. inferiority<\/td>\nDevelop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
5<\/td>\n12\u201318<\/td>\nIdentity vs. confusion<\/td>\nExperiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
6<\/td>\n19\u201329<\/td>\nIntimacy vs. isolation<\/td>\nEstablish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
7<\/td>\n30\u201364<\/td>\nGenerativity vs. stagnation<\/td>\nContribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
8<\/td>\n65\u2013<\/td>\nIntegrity vs. despair<\/td>\nAssess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/SIoKwUcmivk[\/embed]\n\nVideo 7.5.2.\u00a0<\/strong>Erikson's Psychosocial Development explains all stages of this theory.\n

Trust vs. mistrust<\/strong><\/h2>\n\"messy\n\nErikson maintained that the first year to year and a half of life involves the establishment of a sense of trust.\u00a0Infants are dependent and must rely on others to meet their basic physical needs as well as their needs for stimulation and comfort.\u00a0A caregiver who consistently meets these needs instills a sense of trust or the belief that the world is a safe and trustworthy place.\u00a0The\u00a0caregiver should not worry about overindulging a child\u2019s need for comfort, contact, or stimulation.\u00a0This view is in sharp contrast with the Freudian view that a parent who overindulges the infant by allowing them to suck too long or be picked up too frequently will be spoiled or become fixated at the oral stage of development.\n\nConsider the implications for establishing trust if a caregiver is unavailable or is upset and ill-prepared to care for a child, or if a child is born prematurely, is unwanted, or has physical problems that could make them less desirable to a parent.\u00a0However, keep in mind that children can also exhibit strong resiliency to harsh circumstances.\u00a0Resiliency can be attributed to certain personality factors, such as an easy-going temperament and receiving support from others. A positive and strong support group can help a parent and child build a strong foundation by offering assistance and positive attitudes toward the newborn and parent.\n

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt<\/strong><\/h2>\nAs the child begins to walk and talk, an interest in independence or autonomy replaces their concern for trust.\u00a0The\u00a0toddler tests the limits of what can be touched, said, and explored.\u00a0Erikson believed that toddlers should be allowed to explore their environment as freely as safety allows and, in doing so, will develop a sense of independence that will later grow to self-esteem, initiative, and overall confidence.\u00a0If a caregiver is overly anxious\u00a0about the toddler\u2019s actions for fear that the child will get hurt or violate others' expectations, the caregiver can give the child the message that they should be ashamed of their behavior and instill a sense of doubt in their abilities.\u00a0Parenting advice based on these ideas would be to keep your toddler safe, but let them learn by doing.\u00a0A sense of pride seems to rely on doing rather than being told how capable one is (Berger, 2005).\n
\n

Try It<\/h3>\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16571\n\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16572\n\n<\/div>\n

Initiative vs. Guilt<\/h2>\nWhile Erik Erikson was very influenced by Freud, he believed that the relationships that people have, not psychosexual stages, are what influence personality development. At the beginning of early childhood, the child is still in the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage (stage 2).\n\nBy age three, the child begins stage 3: initiative versus guilt. The trust and autonomy of previous stages develop into a desire to take initiative or to think of ideas and initiate action. Children are curious at this age and start to ask questions so that they can learn about the world. Parents should try to answer those questions without making the child feel like a burden or implying that the child's question is not worth asking.\n\nThese children are also beginning to use their imagination (remember what we learned when we discussed Piaget!). Children may want to build a fort with the cushions from the living room couch, open a lemonade stand in the driveway, or make a zoo with their stuffed animals and issue tickets to those who want to come.\u00a0Another way that children may express autonomy is in wanting to get themselves ready for bed without any assistance.\u00a0To reinforce taking initiative, caregivers should offer praise for the child\u2019s efforts and avoid being overly critical of messes or mistakes.\u00a0Soggy washrags and toothpaste left in the sink pale in comparison to the smiling face of a five-year-old emerging from the bathroom with clean teeth and pajamas!\n\nThat said, it is important that the parent does their best to kindly guide the child to the right actions. Remember that according to Freud and Kohlberg, children are developing a sense of morality during this time. Erikson agrees. If the child does leave those soggy washrags in the sink, have the child help clean them up. It is possible that the child will not be happy with helping to clean, and the child may even become aggressive or angry, but it is important to remember that the child is still learning how to navigate their world. They are trying to build a sense of autonomy, and they may not react well when they are asked to do something that they had not planned. Parents should be aware of this, and try to be understanding, but also firm. Guilt for a situation where a child did not do their best allows a child to understand their responsibilities and helps the child learn to exercise self-control (remember the marshmallow test). The goal is to find a balance between initiative and guilt, not a free-for-all where the parent allows the child to do anything they want to. The parent must guide the child if they are to have a successful resolution in this stage.\n
\n

watch it<\/h3>\nVideo 7.5.3.<\/strong> Movies, television, and media, in general, provide many examples of psychosocial development. The movie clips in this video demonstrate Erikson's third stage of development, initiative versus guilt. What other examples can you think of to demonstrate young children developing a sense of autonomy?\n\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/JZJ09KWWkBo\n\n<\/div>\n
\n

Try It<\/h3>\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16584\n\n<\/div>\n

\u00a0Industry vs. Inferiority<\/h2>\nAs we have seen in previous modules, Erikson believes that children's greatest source of personality development comes from their social relationships. So far, we have seen 3 psychosocial stages: trust versus mistrust (ages birth - 18 months), autonomy versus shame and doubt (ages 18 months - 3 years), and initiative versus guilt (ages 3 years - around 6 years).\n\nAccording to Erikson, children in middle childhood are very busy or industrious.\u00a0They are constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, and achieving.\u00a0This is a very active time and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they measure up when compared with friends.\u00a0Erikson believed that if these industrious children view themselves as successful in their endeavors, they will get a sense of competence for future challenges.\u00a0If instead, a child feels that they are not measuring up to their peers, feelings of inferiority and self-doubt will develop. These feelings of inferiority can, according to Erikson, lead to an inferiority complex that lasts into adulthood.\n\nTo help children have a successful resolution in this stage, they should be encouraged to explore their abilities. They should be given authentic feedback as well. Failure is not necessarily a horrible thing according to Erikson. Indeed, failure is a type of feedback which may help a child form a sense of modesty. A balance of competence and modesty is ideal for creating a sense of competence in the child.\n
\n

Try It<\/h3>\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16602\n\n<\/div>\n

Identity vs. Identity Confusion<\/h2>\nErik Erikson believed that the primary psychosocial task of adolescence was establishing an identity. Erikson referred to life\u2019s fifth psychosocial task as one of\u00a0identity versus identity confusion\u00a0<\/strong>when\u00a0adolescents must work through the complexities of finding one\u2019s own identity.\u00a0 This stage includes questions regarding their appearance, vocational choices and career aspirations, education, relationships, sexuality, political and social views, personality, and interests. Erikson saw this as a period of confusion and experimentation regarding identity and one\u2019s life path. During adolescence, we experience\u00a0psychological moratorium<\/strong>, where teens put on hold commitment to an identity while exploring the options.\n\nIndividual identity development is influenced by how they resolved all of the previous childhood psychosocial crises, and this adolescent stage is a bridge between the past and the future, childhood, and adulthood.\u00a0Thus, in Erikson\u2019s view, an adolescent\u2019s central questions are, \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWho do I want to be?\u201d Identity formation was highlighted as the primary indicator of successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role confusion, which would be an indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence).\u00a0This crisis is resolved positively with\u00a0identity achievement<\/strong>\u00a0and the gain of fidelity (ability to be faithful) as a new virtue when adolescents have reconsidered the goals and values of their parents and culture.\u00a0Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This change is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents\u2019 lives.\n\nThe culmination of this exploration is a more coherent view of oneself. Those who are unsuccessful at resolving this stage may withdraw further into social isolation or become lost in the crowd. However, more recent research suggests that few leave this age period with identity achievement and that most identity formation occurs during young adulthood (Co\u0302te\u0300, 2006).\n
\n

Try It<\/h3>\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16617\n\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16618\n\n<\/div>\n

Marcia\u2019s Identity Statuses<\/h1>\nExpanding on Erikson\u2019s theory, Marcia (1966) described identity formation during adolescence as involving both exploration<\/em> and commitment <\/em>with respect to ideologies and occupations (e.g., religion, politics, career, relationships,\u00a0gender roles).\u00a0Identity development begins when individuals identify with role models who provide them with options to explore for whom they can become. As identity development progresses, adolescents are expected to make choices and commit to options within the confines of their social contexts. In some cases, options are not provided or are limited, and the individual will fail to commit or will commit without the opportunity to explore various options (Marcia, 1980).\n\n[embed]https:\/\/youtu.be\/a8HIY_bqrVo?t=6[\/embed]\n\nVideo 7.5.4.\u00a0<\/strong>Macia's Stages of Adolescent Identity Development summarizes the various identity statuses and how an individual may move through them.\n\nIdentity confusion\/diffusion<\/strong>\u00a0occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities.\u00a0Foreclosure<\/strong>\u00a0occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring options.\u00a0 A moratorium<\/strong>\u00a0is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments. As mentioned earlier, individuals who have explored different options, discovered their purpose, and have made identity commitments are in a state of\u00a0identity achievement.<\/strong>\n\n\"\"\n

Figure 7.5.2.<\/strong>\u00a0Marcia\u2019s identity statuses. Adapted from Discovering the Lifespan, by R. S. Feldman, 2009.<\/p>\nThe least mature status, and one common in many children, is identity diffusion. Identity diffusion <\/strong>is a status that characterizes those who have neither explored the options nor made a commitment to an identity<\/em>. Marcia (1980) proposed that when individuals enter the identity formation process, they have little awareness or experience with identity exploration or the expectation to commit to an identity. This period of identity diffusion is typical of children and young adolescents, but adolescents are expected to move out of this stage as they are exposed to role models and experiences that present them with identity possibilities. Those who persist in this identity may drift aimlessly with little connection to those around them or have little sense of purpose in life. Characteristics associated with prolonged diffusion include low self-esteem, easily influenced by peers, lack of meaningful friendships, little commitment, or fortitude in activities or relationships, self-absorbed, and self-indulgent.\n\nThose in identity foreclosure <\/strong>have committed to an identity without having explored the options<\/em>. Often, younger adolescence will enter a phase of foreclosure where they may, at least preliminarily, commit to an identity without an investment in the exploration process. This commitment is often a response to anxiety about uncertainty or change during adolescence or pressure from parents, social groups, or cultural expectations. It is expected that most adolescents will progress beyond the foreclosure phase as they can think independently, and we multiple identity options. However, sometimes foreclosure will persist into late adolescence or even adulthood.\n\nIn some cases, parents may make these decisions for their children and do not grant the teen the opportunity to make choices. In other instances, teens may strongly identify with parents and others in their life and wish to follow in their footsteps. Characteristics associated with prolonged foreclosure well-behaved and obedient children with a high need for approval, authoritarian parenting style, low levels of tolerance or acceptance of change, high levels of conformity, and conventional thinking.\n\nDuring high school and college years, teens and young adults move from identity diffusion and foreclosure toward moratorium and achievement. The most significant gains in the development of identity are in college, as college students are exposed to a greater variety of career choices, lifestyles, and beliefs. This experience is likely to spur on questions regarding identity. A great deal of the identity work we do in adolescence and young adulthood is about values and goals, as we strive to articulate a personal vision or dream for what we hope to accomplish in the future (McAdams, 2013).\n\nIdentity moratorium <\/strong>i<\/em>s a status that describes those who are actively exploring in an attempt to establish identity but have yet to have made any commitment. This time can be an anxious and emotionally tense period as the adolescent experiments with different roles and explores various beliefs. Nothing is guaranteed, and there are many questions, but few answers. This moratorium phase is the precursor to identity achievement. During the moratorium period, it is normal for adolescents to be rebellious and uncooperative, avoid dealing with problems, procrastinate, experience low self-esteem, feel anxious, and uncertain about decisions.\n\nIdentity achievement <\/strong>refers to those who, after exploration, have committed. Identity achievement is a long process and is not often realized by the end of adolescence. Individuals that do reach identity achievement feel self-acceptance, stable self-definition, and are committed to their identity.\n\nWhile Marcia\u2019s statuses help us understand the process of developing identity, there are several criticisms of this theory. First, identity status may not be global; different aspects of your identity may be in different statuses. An individual may be in multiple identity statuses at the same time for different aspects of identity. For example, one could be in the foreclosure status for their religious identity, but in moratorium for career identity, and achievement for gender identity.\n\nFurther, identity statuses do no always develop in the sequence described above, although it is the most common progression. Not all people will reach identity achievement in all aspects of their identity, and not all may remain in identity achievement. There may be a third aspect of identity development, beyond exploration and commitment, and that is the reconsideration of commitment. This addition would create a fifth status, searching moratorium<\/strong>. This status is a re-exploring after a commitment has been made (Meesus et al., 2012). It is not usual that commitments to aspects of our identity may change as we gain experiences, and more options become available to explore. This searching moratorium may continue well into adulthood.\n

\n
\n

Try It<\/h3>\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/16619\n\n<\/div>\n

Supporting Identity Development<\/h2>\n<\/div>\nAs the process of identity development can be a confusing and challenging period, how can adults support adolescents through this process? First, affirm that the anxiety, doubts, and confusion are reasonable and that most teens do not complete identity achievement before graduating high school. Exposing adolescents to various role models can help them imagine different roles or options for their future selves. Role models can come from within the family, schools, or community. Adults should talk with adolescents about their values, goals, and identities to help build awareness. They may be interested to know how others made decisions while developing their own identities. Finally, support the commitments that adolescents have made. Identity commitments can help someone feel grounded and less confused while they engage in identity exploration.","rendered":"

A well-developed identity is comprised of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is committed. It is the awareness of the consistency in self over time, the recognition of this consistency by others (Erikson, 1980). The process of identity development is both an individual and social phenomenon (Adams & Marshall, 1996). Much of this process is assumed during adolescence when cognitive development allows for an individual to construct a \u2018theory of self\u2019 (Elkind, 1998) based on exposure to role models and identity options (Erikson, 1980).\u00a0 Erikson (1968) believed this period of development to be an \u2018identity crisis,\u2019 a crucial turning point in which an individual must develop in one way or another, ushering the adolescent toward growth and differentiation.\u00a0 Identity is formed through a process of exploring options or choices and committing to an option based upon the outcome of their exploration. Failure to establish a well-developed sense of identity can result in identity confusion. Those experiencing identity confusion do not have a clear sense of who they are or their role in society.<\/p>\n

Identity development is vital to a person\u2019s understanding of self and participation in their social systems. Adams and Marshall (1996) established that identity formation provides five functions: a structure and order to self-knowledge; a sense of consistency and coherence to beliefs, goals, and self-knowledge; a sense of continuity for one\u2019s history and future; goals and direction; a sense of personal control of their choices and outcomes.<\/p>\n

Freud’s Theory\u00a0<\/strong><\/h1>\n

We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a\u00a0very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and\u00a0psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the\u00a01950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the\u00a0ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on\u00a0children\u2019s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for\u00a0many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not
\nalways result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of\u00a0literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop\u00a0without damaging emotional scars (O\u2019Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an\u00a0enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud\u2019s theory in its\u00a0entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of\u00a0development.<\/p>\n

Freud\u2019s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.\u00a0The id<\/strong> is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is
\nguided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The\u00a0newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.
\nThe ego<\/strong> develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle.\u00a0It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates\u00a0between the id and superego<\/strong> using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.<\/p>\n

The superego represents society\u2019s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt.\u00a0Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.
\nThe personality is thought to develop in response to the child\u2019s ability to learn to manage\u00a0biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the\u00a0child may become fixated and not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud\u2019s stages.<\/p>\n

\n

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation<\/h3>\n

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have been adequately met in which case there is frustration.\u00a0Or possibly the person’s needs may have been so well satisfied that he\/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.\u00a0Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what psychoanalysts call\u00a0fixation<\/strong>\u00a0at a particular psychosexual stage.\u00a0Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual’s libido has been permanently ‘invested’ in a particular stage of his development.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Stages of Psychosexual Development<\/h2>\n

Oral Stage<\/h3>\n

The oral stage<\/strong> lasts from birth until around age 2. The infant is all id. At this\u00a0stage, stimulation and comfort are focused on the mouth and are based on the
\nreflex of sucking. Too much indulgence or too little stimulation may lead to\u00a0fixation, resulting in a person continuing to see oral stimulation and comfort well beyond infancy. Of much focus is how parents manage the weaning process as a cause for fixation. Children weaned too early or too late may seek ongoing oral stimulation.<\/p>\n

Anal Stage<\/h3>\n

The anal stage<\/strong> begins around 18 months of age and lasts until the child is three years old. During the anal stage, Freud believed that the libido source shifted from the mouth (in stage 1) to the anus and the ego is beginning to develop in this stage. The child, then, receives pleasure from defecating. The child, at this point, understands that they have some amount of control over their lives, including control of when and where they defecate. This can set-up difficulties in potty training. What matters, in terms of Freud’s theory, is how the parent handles difficulties in potty training. Poor parental reactions during potty training may result in anal fixation; the fixated child may react in one of two ways: (1) parents who are harsh or who ridicule the child for mistakes may have children who stubbornly hold on to their feces in an effort to not have an accident – these children may become anal retentive or (2) parents who are too easy-going may have a child who reacts by purposefully making a mess – these children may become anal expulsive. Adults who are anal retentive tend to be stubborn, very neat, rigid, and stingy. Adults who are anal expulsive tend to be messy, wasteful, and harsh.<\/p>\n

\n

Link to Learning: Toilet TRaining<\/h3>\n

To the relief of most parents, there is very little evidence to suggest that Freud was right about fixations caused during the anal stage, mainly because the theory itself would be very difficult to test. Nevertheless, parents worry about toilet training, and whether they will be able to guide their children through the process unscathed. Kidshealth.org has a good web page on to potty training<\/a>\u00a0that may help parents worried about toilet training.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Phallic Stage<\/h3>\n

The phallic stage of psychosexual development occurs from ages three to six. According to Freud, during the phallic stage,<\/strong>\u00a0the child develops an attraction to the opposite sex parent, which is called the Oedipus Complex for boys and the Electra Complex for girls. When the child recognizes that the opposite sex parent is unavailable, the child learns to model their own behavior after the same-sex parent.\u00a0The\u00a0child develops their own sense of masculinity or femininity from this resolution.\u00a0According to Freud, a person who does not exhibit gender appropriate behavior, such as a woman who competes with men for jobs or a man who lacks self-assurance and dominance, has not successfully completed this stage of development.\u00a0Consequently, such a person continues to struggle with his or her own gender identity.<\/p>\n

Chodorow, a neo-Freudian, believed that mothering promotes gender stereotypic behavior.\u00a0Mothers push their sons away too soon and direct their attention toward problem-solving and independence.\u00a0As a result, sons grow up confident in their own abilities but uncomfortable with intimacy.\u00a0Girls are kept dependent too long and are given unnecessary and even unwelcome assistance from their mothers.\u00a0Girls learn to underestimate their abilities and lack assertiveness but feel comfortable with intimacy.<\/p>\n

Both of these models assume that early childhood experiences result in lifelong gender self-concepts.\u00a0However, gender socialization is a process that continues throughout life.\u00a0Children, teens, and adults refine and can modify their sense of self, based on gender.<\/p>\n

Another important part of Freud’s phallic stage is that during this time the child is learning right from wrong through the process of introjection<\/strong>. Remember that according to Kohlberg, the child during this time is developing a sense of morality. According to Freud, this is occurring through the process of introjection which occurs as children incorporate values from others into their value set. Freud theorized about parental introjection, where children learn that parents seem pleased by certain behaviors (and so want to do those behaviors more to get rewards and love) and displeased by other behaviors (and so want to do those behaviors less to avoid punishment and loss of love). Today, modern psychoanalytic theorists recognize the place of others and society in introjection. Societal introjection is becoming more and more important as more children go to daycare, as we are more surrounded by technology and advertising, and as we travel more.<\/p>\n

Latency Stage<\/h3>\n

Freud’s fourth stage of psychosexual development is the latency stage. This stage begins around age 6 and lasts until puberty. In the latency stage, children are actually doing very little psychosexual development according to Freud. Where pleasure and development occurred through erogenous zones in the first 3 stages, in the latency stage all pleasure from erogenous zones is repressed. In other words, it is latent\u2014hence the stage’s name. Freud believed that in the latency stage all development and stimulation come from secondary sources since the erogenous forces are repressed. These secondary sources can include education, forming various social relationships, and hobbies.<\/p>\n

Genital Stage<\/h3>\n

The genital stage is the last stage of Freud’s psychosexual theory of personality development, and begins in puberty.\u00a0 It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20’s.\u00a0Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage.<\/p>\n

For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse.\u00a0 Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop.\u00a0For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.<\/p>\n