{"id":746,"date":"2015-04-23T20:07:39","date_gmt":"2015-04-23T20:07:39","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/masterybusiness1xngcxmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=746"},"modified":"2015-10-06T13:55:50","modified_gmt":"2015-10-06T13:55:50","slug":"reading-communication-channels","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/chapter\/reading-communication-channels\/","title":{"raw":"Reading: Communication Channels","rendered":"Reading: Communication Channels"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>What Is <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Organizational<\/em> Communication?<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"im_section\">\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n\r\nClearly, the task of preparing and submitting a finished sales report doesn\u2019t require the same kinds of communication skills as talking on the phone with a classmate. No matter what your \u201cworkstation\u201d happens to be\u2014whether your workplace office or your kitchen table\u2014you\u2019re performing the task of preparing that sales report in an <em class=\"im_emphasis\">organizational setting<\/em>. You\u2019re still a sender transferring information to a receiver, but the organizational context of the task requires you to consider different factors for success in communicating effectively (including barriers to success). A report, for example, must be targeted for someone in a specific position and must contain the information necessary to make a specific set of decisions.<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_041\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]See Michael Netzley and Craig Snow, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Guide to Report Writing<\/em> (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002), 3\u201321.[\/footnote]<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Communication Flows<\/h2>\r\nHere\u2019s another way of thinking about communication in an organizational setting. Let\u2019s assume that you and the classmate you called on the phone are on roughly equal footing\u2014you\u2019re both juniors, your grades in the class are about the same, and so forth. Your phone conversation, therefore, is \u201clateral\u201d: You belong to the same group (your accounting class), and your group activities take place on the same level.\r\n\r\nCommunication may also flow laterally in organizational settings (as it does between you and your classmate), but more often it flows up or down. Take a look at Figure 1, \"Formal Communication Flows,\" below, which shows the three directions in which communications can flow in a typical organization.\u00a0<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_042\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]This section is based on Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Behavior in Organizations<\/em>, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 351\u201353.[\/footnote]<\/span>\r\n<ul id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s02_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n\t<li>As the term suggests, <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">downward communication<\/span><\/span> flows from higher organizational levels (supervisors) to lower organizational levels (subordinates).<\/li>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Upward communication<\/span><\/span> flows from lower to higher organizational levels.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Lateral (or horizontal) communication<\/span><\/span> flows across the organization, among personnel on the same level.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nYour boss\u2019s request for a sales report is an instance of downward communication, and when you\u2019ve finished and submitted it, you will have completed a task of upward communication.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3677\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"600\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1120\/2015\/06\/02032043\/Communication-Flow.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-3677 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1120\/2015\/06\/02032043\/Communication-Flow.jpg\" alt=\"The owner-president is at the first level. The second level contains the accounting manager, the marketing manager, the operations manager, and the HR manager. Downward communication flows from the first-level owner-president to the second-level marketing manager. Upward communication flows from the second-level operations manager to the first-level owner-president. Horizontal communication occurs between the second-level accounting manager and second-level marketing manager. The third level under the marketing manager contains the advertising supervisor and the sales supervisor. Downward communication flows down from the second-level marketing manager to the third-level advertising supervisor. Below the sales supervisor is the fourth-level sales staff. Upward communication flows from the fourth-level sales staff to the third-level sales supervisor. On the third level, beneath the second-level operations manager are the third-level note-takers supervisor and the third-level copiers supervisor. The third-level notetakers supervisor has upward communication with the second-level operations manager, horizontal communication with the third-level copiers supervisor, and downward communication with the note-takers. Beneath the copiers supervisor is the fourth-level copiers, who have horizontal communication with the fourth-level sales staff.\" width=\"600\" height=\"410\" \/><\/a> Figure 1. Formal Communication Flows[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s02_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Advantages of Communication Flows<\/h3>\r\nNaturally, each of these different directional flows has its functions and advantages. Downward communication, for example, is appropriate for giving instructions or directions\u2014telling people what to do. (As a goal of communication, by the way, giving orders isn\u2019t as one-sided as it may seem. One of the things that employees\u2014the receivers\u2014most want to know is: What, exactly, does my job entail?)<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_043\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Behavior in Organizations<\/em>, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 350\u201351.[\/footnote]<\/span> Like a sales report, upward communication usually provides managers with information that they need for making decisions, but it\u2019s also the vehicle for new ideas, suggestions, and complaints. Horizontal communication supports efforts to coordinate tasks and otherwise help people work together.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s02_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Disadvantages of Communication Flows<\/h3>\r\nAnd, of course, each type of flow has its disadvantages. As information seeps downward, for instance, it tends to lose some of its original clarity and often becomes distorted or downright wrong. (This is especially true when it\u2019s delivered orally.) In addition, unlike Donald Trump, most people who are responsible for using downward communication don\u2019t like delivering bad news (such as \u201cYou\u2019re fired\u201d or, more commonly, \u201cYour job is being phased out\u201d); as a result, bad news\u2014including bad news that happens to be important news\u2014is often ignored or disguised. The same thing may happen when bad news\u2014say, a negative status report\u2014must be sent upward.\r\n\r\nFinally, while horizontal flows are valuable for promoting cooperation, they can also be used to engage in conflict\u2014for instance, between two departments competing for the same organizational resources. The problem is especially bad when such horizontal communications breach official upward or downward lines of communication, thus bypassing managers who might be able to resolve the conflict.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Channels of Communication<\/h2>\r\nFigure 2, \"Channels of Communication,\" summarizes two additional sets of characteristics of organizational communication\u2014<em class=\"im_emphasis\">internal and external channels<\/em> and <em class=\"im_emphasis\">formal and informal channels<\/em>.<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_044\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]This section is based on John V. Thill and Courtland L. Bov\u00e9e, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Excellence in Business Communication<\/em>, 8th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 4\u20136.[\/footnote]<\/span> <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Internal communication<\/span><\/span> is shared by people at all levels within a company. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">External communication<\/span><\/span> occurs between parties inside a company and parties outside the company, such as suppliers, customers, and investors. Both internal and external forms of communication include everything from formal e-mail and official reports to face-to-face conversations and casual phone calls. External communication also takes such forms as customer and supplier Web sites, news releases, and advertising.\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_f01\" class=\"im_figure im_full im_editable im_block\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"im_title-prefix\">Figure 2.<\/span>\u00a0Channels of Communication\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Internal<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>External<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Formal<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Planned communications following the company's chain of command among people inside the organization<\/strong>\u2014<em>email, memos, conference calls, reports, presentations, executive blogs<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Planned communications with people outside the organization<\/strong>\u2014<em>letters, instant messages, reports, speeches, news releases, advertising, websites, executive blogs<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Informal<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Casual communications among employees that do not follow the chain of command<\/strong>\u2014<em>email, instant messages, phone calls, face-to-face conversations, team blogs<\/em><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Casual communications with outsiders (e.g. suppliers, customers, investors)<\/strong>\u2014<em>email, instant messages, phone calls, face-to-face conversations, customer-support blogs<\/em><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nNote that Figure 2, \"Channels of Communication,\" takes the form of a grid, thus creating four dimensions in which communication can take place. Informal communication, for example, can take place either among people within the company (internally) or between insiders and outsiders (externally). By and large, though you can use the same set of tools (memos, reports, phone calls) to communicate in any of these four situations, some tools (team blogs, news releases, supplier Web sites) are useful only in one or two.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">The Formal Communication Network<\/h3>\r\nAn organization\u2019s <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">formal communication network<\/span><\/span> consists of all communications that flow along its official lines of authority. Look again at Figure 1, \"Formal Communication Flows.\" Because it incorporates the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">organization chart<\/em> for the company Notes-4-You, it also shows the company\u2019s lines of authority\u2014what we call its <em class=\"im_emphasis\">reporting relationships<\/em>. Here we can see that the reporting relationships in question consist of <em class=\"im_emphasis\">upward communication<\/em> from subordinates to superiors. In reporting to the operations manager, for example, the notetakers\u2019 supervisor communicates upward. Conversely, when the notetakers\u2019 manager needs to give direction to notetakers, she will use <em class=\"im_emphasis\">downward communication<\/em>. If the notetakers\u2019 manager and the copiers\u2019 manager must get together to prepare a joint report for the operations manager, they\u2019ll engage in <em class=\"im_emphasis\">lateral communication<\/em>. In short, an organization\u2019s formal communication network is basically the same thing as its network of reporting relationships and lines of authority.<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_045\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]See Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Behavior in Organizations<\/em>, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 349\u201350.[\/footnote]<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">The Informal Communication Network<\/h3>\r\nEvery company also has an <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">informal communication network (or grapevine)<\/span><\/span>, which goes to work whenever two or more employees get together and start talking about the company and their jobs. Informal communication can take place just about anywhere (in one person\u2019s cubicle, in the cafeteria, on the golf course) and by just about any means (phone, e-mail, instant messaging, face-to-face conversation).\r\n\r\nThough it\u2019s sometimes called the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">grapevine<\/em>, an informal network is an extremely important communication channel. Why? For the simple reason that it\u2019s typically widespread and can rarely be prevented, even if it\u2019s not officially sanctioned by the company\u2014indeed, even when the company tries to discourage or bypass it. Unofficial information crosses virtually every boundary drawn by a firm\u2019s organization chart, reaching out and touching everyone in the organization, and what\u2019s more, it travels a lot faster than official information.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h4 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Problems with the Flow of Information through Informal Channels<\/h4>\r\nThe downside of \u201cunofficial\u201d information should be obvious. Because much of it is communicated orally, it\u2019s likely to get distorted and often degenerates into outright misinformation. Say, for example, that a rumor about layoffs gets started in your workplace. As more than one manager will verify, such rumors can do more damage than the reality. Morale may plummet and productivity won\u2019t be far behind. Valuable employees may abandon ship (needlessly, if the rumors are false).<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_046\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]See Steven A. Watson, \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.zdnetasia.com\/sharing-info-and-defusing-rumors-helps-keep-staff-motivated-during-layoffs-39140816.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Sharing Info and Defusing Rumors Helps Keep Staff Motivated During Layoffs<\/a>,\u201d ZDNet, July 29, 2003,\u00a0(accessed October 11, 2011).[\/footnote]<\/span>\r\n\r\nAnd imagine what can happen if informal information gets outside the organization. In the 1970s, Chicago-area McDonald\u2019s outlets found themselves fighting rumors about worms in their hamburgers. Over the years, Coca-Cola has had to fight rumors about terrorists joining its organization, subversive messages concealed in its label, and hyperacidity (false rumors that Coke causes osteoporosis and makes a good pesticide and an equally good spermicide).<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_047\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Allan J. Kimmel, <a href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=a0FZz3Jq8lIC&amp;pg=PA64&amp;lpg=PA64&amp;dq=rumors+about+Coke&amp;source=web&amp;ots=wtBktafiKZ&amp;sig=HbsDm2Byd0ZPkZH2YUWITwWTDac&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;resnum=6&amp;ct=result\" target=\"_blank\"><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Rumors and Rumor Control<\/em><\/a> (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2004),\u00a0(accessed October 11, 2011). See also Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Behavior in Organizations<\/em>, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 359.[\/footnote]<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h4 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">What to Do about Informal Information Flows<\/h4>\r\nOn the upside, savvy managers can tap into the informal network, either to find out what sort of information is influencing employee activities or to circulate more meaningful information, including new ideas as well as corrective information. In any case, managers have to deal with the grapevine, and one manager has compiled a list of suggestions for doing so effectively:<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_048\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Charles R. McConnell, \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.nfib.com\/object\/IO_37650?_templateId=315\" target=\"_blank\">Controlling the Grapevine<\/a>,\u201d <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Small Business Toolbox<\/em>, June 18, 2008,\u00a0(accessed September 6, 2008).[\/footnote]<\/span>\r\n<ul id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s04_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n\t<li><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Learn to live with it<\/em>. It\u2019s here to stay.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Tune into it<\/em>. Pay attention to the information that\u2019s circulating and try to learn something from it. Remember: The more you know about grapevine information, the better you can interact with employees (who, in turn, will probably come to regard you as someone who keeps in touch with the things that concern them).<\/li>\r\n\t<li><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Don\u2019t participate in rumors<\/em>. Resist the temptation to add your two cents\u2019 worth, and don\u2019t make matters worse.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Check out what you hear<\/em>. Because it\u2019s your job to replace bad information with good information, you need to find out what\u2019s really going on.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Take advantage of the grapevine<\/em>. Its only function is to carry information, so there\u2019s no reason why you can\u2019t pump some useful information through it.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nPerhaps most important, when alert managers notice that the grapevine is particularly active, they tend to reach a sensible twofold conclusion:\r\n<ol id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s04_l02\" class=\"im_orderedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n\t<li>The organization\u2019s formal lines of communication aren\u2019t working as well as they should be.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The best way to minimize informal communication and its potential damage is to provide better formal communication from the outset\u2014or, failing that, to provide whatever formal communication will counteract misinformation as thoroughly as possible.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nLet\u2019s go back to our example of a workplace overwhelmed by layoff rumors. In a practical sense, what can a manager\u2014say, the leader of a long-term product-development team\u2014do to provide better communication? One manager suggests at least three specific responses:<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_049\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Steven A. Watson, \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/articles.techrepublic.com.com\/5100-10878_11-5035116.html\" target=\"_blank\">Sharing Info and Defusing Rumors Helps Keep Staff Motivated During Layoffs<\/a>,\u201d <em class=\"im_emphasis\">TechRepublic<\/em>, June 17, 2003, (accessed September 6, 2008).[\/footnote]<\/span>\r\n<ol id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s04_l03\" class=\"im_orderedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n\t<li>Go to your supervisor or another senior manager and try to find out as much as you can about the organization\u2019s real plans.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Ask a senior manager or a human resources representative to meet with your team and address members\u2019 concerns with accurate feedback.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Make it a priority to keep channels open\u2014both between yourself and your team members and between team members and the human resources department.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nBecause actions of this sort send a message, they can legitimately be characterized as a form of formal communication. They also reflect good leadership: Even though the information in this case relates only indirectly to immediate team tasks, you\u2019re sharing information with people who need it, and you\u2019re demonstrating integrity (you\u2019re being honest, and you\u2019re following through on a commitment to the team).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"im_section\"><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"im_section\"><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2>Check Your Understanding<\/h2>\r\nAnswer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered in this section. This short quiz does <strong>not<\/strong> count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times.\r\n\r\nUse this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/214\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<h2>What Is <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Organizational<\/em> Communication?<\/h2>\n<div class=\"im_section\">\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<p>Clearly, the task of preparing and submitting a finished sales report doesn\u2019t require the same kinds of communication skills as talking on the phone with a classmate. No matter what your \u201cworkstation\u201d happens to be\u2014whether your workplace office or your kitchen table\u2014you\u2019re performing the task of preparing that sales report in an <em class=\"im_emphasis\">organizational setting<\/em>. You\u2019re still a sender transferring information to a receiver, but the organizational context of the task requires you to consider different factors for success in communicating effectively (including barriers to success). A report, for example, must be targeted for someone in a specific position and must contain the information necessary to make a specific set of decisions.<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_041\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Michael Netzley and Craig Snow, Guide to Report Writing (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002), 3\u201321.\" id=\"return-footnote-746-1\" href=\"#footnote-746-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Communication Flows<\/h2>\n<p>Here\u2019s another way of thinking about communication in an organizational setting. Let\u2019s assume that you and the classmate you called on the phone are on roughly equal footing\u2014you\u2019re both juniors, your grades in the class are about the same, and so forth. Your phone conversation, therefore, is \u201clateral\u201d: You belong to the same group (your accounting class), and your group activities take place on the same level.<\/p>\n<p>Communication may also flow laterally in organizational settings (as it does between you and your classmate), but more often it flows up or down. Take a look at Figure 1, &#8220;Formal Communication Flows,&#8221; below, which shows the three directions in which communications can flow in a typical organization.\u00a0<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_042\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This section is based on Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 351\u201353.\" id=\"return-footnote-746-2\" href=\"#footnote-746-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<ul id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s02_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>As the term suggests, <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">downward communication<\/span><\/span> flows from higher organizational levels (supervisors) to lower organizational levels (subordinates).<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Upward communication<\/span><\/span> flows from lower to higher organizational levels.<\/li>\n<li><span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Lateral (or horizontal) communication<\/span><\/span> flows across the organization, among personnel on the same level.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Your boss\u2019s request for a sales report is an instance of downward communication, and when you\u2019ve finished and submitted it, you will have completed a task of upward communication.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_3677\" style=\"width: 610px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1120\/2015\/06\/02032043\/Communication-Flow.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3677\" class=\"wp-image-3677\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1120\/2015\/06\/02032043\/Communication-Flow.jpg\" alt=\"The owner-president is at the first level. The second level contains the accounting manager, the marketing manager, the operations manager, and the HR manager. Downward communication flows from the first-level owner-president to the second-level marketing manager. Upward communication flows from the second-level operations manager to the first-level owner-president. Horizontal communication occurs between the second-level accounting manager and second-level marketing manager. The third level under the marketing manager contains the advertising supervisor and the sales supervisor. Downward communication flows down from the second-level marketing manager to the third-level advertising supervisor. Below the sales supervisor is the fourth-level sales staff. Upward communication flows from the fourth-level sales staff to the third-level sales supervisor. On the third level, beneath the second-level operations manager are the third-level note-takers supervisor and the third-level copiers supervisor. The third-level notetakers supervisor has upward communication with the second-level operations manager, horizontal communication with the third-level copiers supervisor, and downward communication with the note-takers. Beneath the copiers supervisor is the fourth-level copiers, who have horizontal communication with the fourth-level sales staff.\" width=\"600\" height=\"410\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3677\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Formal Communication Flows<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s02_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Advantages of Communication Flows<\/h3>\n<p>Naturally, each of these different directional flows has its functions and advantages. Downward communication, for example, is appropriate for giving instructions or directions\u2014telling people what to do. (As a goal of communication, by the way, giving orders isn\u2019t as one-sided as it may seem. One of the things that employees\u2014the receivers\u2014most want to know is: What, exactly, does my job entail?)<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_043\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 350\u201351.\" id=\"return-footnote-746-3\" href=\"#footnote-746-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Like a sales report, upward communication usually provides managers with information that they need for making decisions, but it\u2019s also the vehicle for new ideas, suggestions, and complaints. Horizontal communication supports efforts to coordinate tasks and otherwise help people work together.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s02_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Disadvantages of Communication Flows<\/h3>\n<p>And, of course, each type of flow has its disadvantages. As information seeps downward, for instance, it tends to lose some of its original clarity and often becomes distorted or downright wrong. (This is especially true when it\u2019s delivered orally.) In addition, unlike Donald Trump, most people who are responsible for using downward communication don\u2019t like delivering bad news (such as \u201cYou\u2019re fired\u201d or, more commonly, \u201cYour job is being phased out\u201d); as a result, bad news\u2014including bad news that happens to be important news\u2014is often ignored or disguised. The same thing may happen when bad news\u2014say, a negative status report\u2014must be sent upward.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, while horizontal flows are valuable for promoting cooperation, they can also be used to engage in conflict\u2014for instance, between two departments competing for the same organizational resources. The problem is especially bad when such horizontal communications breach official upward or downward lines of communication, thus bypassing managers who might be able to resolve the conflict.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Channels of Communication<\/h2>\n<p>Figure 2, &#8220;Channels of Communication,&#8221; summarizes two additional sets of characteristics of organizational communication\u2014<em class=\"im_emphasis\">internal and external channels<\/em> and <em class=\"im_emphasis\">formal and informal channels<\/em>.<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_044\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This section is based on John V. Thill and Courtland L. Bov\u00e9e, Excellence in Business Communication, 8th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 4\u20136.\" id=\"return-footnote-746-4\" href=\"#footnote-746-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Internal communication<\/span><\/span> is shared by people at all levels within a company. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">External communication<\/span><\/span> occurs between parties inside a company and parties outside the company, such as suppliers, customers, and investors. Both internal and external forms of communication include everything from formal e-mail and official reports to face-to-face conversations and casual phone calls. External communication also takes such forms as customer and supplier Web sites, news releases, and advertising.<\/p>\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_f01\" class=\"im_figure im_full im_editable im_block\">\n<p><span class=\"im_title-prefix\">Figure 2.<\/span>\u00a0Channels of Communication<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><\/td>\n<td><strong>Internal<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>External<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Formal<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Planned communications following the company&#8217;s chain of command among people inside the organization<\/strong>\u2014<em>email, memos, conference calls, reports, presentations, executive blogs<\/em><\/td>\n<td><strong>Planned communications with people outside the organization<\/strong>\u2014<em>letters, instant messages, reports, speeches, news releases, advertising, websites, executive blogs<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Informal<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Casual communications among employees that do not follow the chain of command<\/strong>\u2014<em>email, instant messages, phone calls, face-to-face conversations, team blogs<\/em><\/td>\n<td><strong>Casual communications with outsiders (e.g. suppliers, customers, investors)<\/strong>\u2014<em>email, instant messages, phone calls, face-to-face conversations, customer-support blogs<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Note that Figure 2, &#8220;Channels of Communication,&#8221; takes the form of a grid, thus creating four dimensions in which communication can take place. Informal communication, for example, can take place either among people within the company (internally) or between insiders and outsiders (externally). By and large, though you can use the same set of tools (memos, reports, phone calls) to communicate in any of these four situations, some tools (team blogs, news releases, supplier Web sites) are useful only in one or two.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">The Formal Communication Network<\/h3>\n<p>An organization\u2019s <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">formal communication network<\/span><\/span> consists of all communications that flow along its official lines of authority. Look again at Figure 1, &#8220;Formal Communication Flows.&#8221; Because it incorporates the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">organization chart<\/em> for the company Notes-4-You, it also shows the company\u2019s lines of authority\u2014what we call its <em class=\"im_emphasis\">reporting relationships<\/em>. Here we can see that the reporting relationships in question consist of <em class=\"im_emphasis\">upward communication<\/em> from subordinates to superiors. In reporting to the operations manager, for example, the notetakers\u2019 supervisor communicates upward. Conversely, when the notetakers\u2019 manager needs to give direction to notetakers, she will use <em class=\"im_emphasis\">downward communication<\/em>. If the notetakers\u2019 manager and the copiers\u2019 manager must get together to prepare a joint report for the operations manager, they\u2019ll engage in <em class=\"im_emphasis\">lateral communication<\/em>. In short, an organization\u2019s formal communication network is basically the same thing as its network of reporting relationships and lines of authority.<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_045\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 349\u201350.\" id=\"return-footnote-746-5\" href=\"#footnote-746-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">The Informal Communication Network<\/h3>\n<p>Every company also has an <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">informal communication network (or grapevine)<\/span><\/span>, which goes to work whenever two or more employees get together and start talking about the company and their jobs. Informal communication can take place just about anywhere (in one person\u2019s cubicle, in the cafeteria, on the golf course) and by just about any means (phone, e-mail, instant messaging, face-to-face conversation).<\/p>\n<p>Though it\u2019s sometimes called the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">grapevine<\/em>, an informal network is an extremely important communication channel. Why? For the simple reason that it\u2019s typically widespread and can rarely be prevented, even if it\u2019s not officially sanctioned by the company\u2014indeed, even when the company tries to discourage or bypass it. Unofficial information crosses virtually every boundary drawn by a firm\u2019s organization chart, reaching out and touching everyone in the organization, and what\u2019s more, it travels a lot faster than official information.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h4 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Problems with the Flow of Information through Informal Channels<\/h4>\n<p>The downside of \u201cunofficial\u201d information should be obvious. Because much of it is communicated orally, it\u2019s likely to get distorted and often degenerates into outright misinformation. Say, for example, that a rumor about layoffs gets started in your workplace. As more than one manager will verify, such rumors can do more damage than the reality. Morale may plummet and productivity won\u2019t be far behind. Valuable employees may abandon ship (needlessly, if the rumors are false).<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_046\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Steven A. Watson, \u201cSharing Info and Defusing Rumors Helps Keep Staff Motivated During Layoffs,\u201d ZDNet, July 29, 2003,\u00a0(accessed October 11, 2011).\" id=\"return-footnote-746-6\" href=\"#footnote-746-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p>And imagine what can happen if informal information gets outside the organization. In the 1970s, Chicago-area McDonald\u2019s outlets found themselves fighting rumors about worms in their hamburgers. Over the years, Coca-Cola has had to fight rumors about terrorists joining its organization, subversive messages concealed in its label, and hyperacidity (false rumors that Coke causes osteoporosis and makes a good pesticide and an equally good spermicide).<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_047\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Allan J. Kimmel, Rumors and Rumor Control (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2004),\u00a0(accessed October 11, 2011). See also Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, Behavior in Organizations, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 359.\" id=\"return-footnote-746-7\" href=\"#footnote-746-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h4 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">What to Do about Informal Information Flows<\/h4>\n<p>On the upside, savvy managers can tap into the informal network, either to find out what sort of information is influencing employee activities or to circulate more meaningful information, including new ideas as well as corrective information. In any case, managers have to deal with the grapevine, and one manager has compiled a list of suggestions for doing so effectively:<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_048\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Charles R. McConnell, \u201cControlling the Grapevine,\u201d Small Business Toolbox, June 18, 2008,\u00a0(accessed September 6, 2008).\" id=\"return-footnote-746-8\" href=\"#footnote-746-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<ul id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s04_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Learn to live with it<\/em>. It\u2019s here to stay.<\/li>\n<li><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Tune into it<\/em>. Pay attention to the information that\u2019s circulating and try to learn something from it. Remember: The more you know about grapevine information, the better you can interact with employees (who, in turn, will probably come to regard you as someone who keeps in touch with the things that concern them).<\/li>\n<li><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Don\u2019t participate in rumors<\/em>. Resist the temptation to add your two cents\u2019 worth, and don\u2019t make matters worse.<\/li>\n<li><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Check out what you hear<\/em>. Because it\u2019s your job to replace bad information with good information, you need to find out what\u2019s really going on.<\/li>\n<li><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Take advantage of the grapevine<\/em>. Its only function is to carry information, so there\u2019s no reason why you can\u2019t pump some useful information through it.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Perhaps most important, when alert managers notice that the grapevine is particularly active, they tend to reach a sensible twofold conclusion:<\/p>\n<ol id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s04_l02\" class=\"im_orderedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>The organization\u2019s formal lines of communication aren\u2019t working as well as they should be.<\/li>\n<li>The best way to minimize informal communication and its potential damage is to provide better formal communication from the outset\u2014or, failing that, to provide whatever formal communication will counteract misinformation as thoroughly as possible.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Let\u2019s go back to our example of a workplace overwhelmed by layoff rumors. In a practical sense, what can a manager\u2014say, the leader of a long-term product-development team\u2014do to provide better communication? One manager suggests at least three specific responses:<span id=\"fwk-collins-fn08_049\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Steven A. Watson, \u201cSharing Info and Defusing Rumors Helps Keep Staff Motivated During Layoffs,\u201d TechRepublic, June 17, 2003, (accessed September 6, 2008).\" id=\"return-footnote-746-9\" href=\"#footnote-746-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<ol id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s03_s04_l03\" class=\"im_orderedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>Go to your supervisor or another senior manager and try to find out as much as you can about the organization\u2019s real plans.<\/li>\n<li>Ask a senior manager or a human resources representative to meet with your team and address members\u2019 concerns with accurate feedback.<\/li>\n<li>Make it a priority to keep channels open\u2014both between yourself and your team members and between team members and the human resources department.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Because actions of this sort send a message, they can legitimately be characterized as a form of formal communication. They also reflect good leadership: Even though the information in this case relates only indirectly to immediate team tasks, you\u2019re sharing information with people who need it, and you\u2019re demonstrating integrity (you\u2019re being honest, and you\u2019re following through on a commitment to the team).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"im_section\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"im_section\"><\/div>\n<div id=\"collins-ch08_s05_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2>Check Your Understanding<\/h2>\n<p>Answer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered in this section. This short quiz does <strong>not<\/strong> count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times.<\/p>\n<p>Use this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section.<\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_214\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=214&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_214\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-746\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>An Introduction to Business. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Anonymous. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Anonymous. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/an-introduction-to-business-v2.0\/s12-05-communication-channels.html\">http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/an-introduction-to-business-v2.0\/s12-05-communication-channels.html<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Revision and adaptation. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Linda Williams and Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Tidewater Community College. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-746-1\">See Michael Netzley and Craig Snow, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Guide to Report Writing<\/em> (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2002), 3\u201321. <a href=\"#return-footnote-746-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-746-2\">This section is based on Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Behavior in Organizations<\/em>, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 351\u201353. <a href=\"#return-footnote-746-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-746-3\">Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Behavior in Organizations<\/em>, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 350\u201351. <a href=\"#return-footnote-746-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-746-4\">This section is based on John V. Thill and Courtland L. Bov\u00e9e, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Excellence in Business Communication<\/em>, 8th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 4\u20136. <a href=\"#return-footnote-746-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-746-5\">See Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Behavior in Organizations<\/em>, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 349\u201350. <a href=\"#return-footnote-746-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-746-6\">See Steven A. Watson, \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.zdnetasia.com\/sharing-info-and-defusing-rumors-helps-keep-staff-motivated-during-layoffs-39140816.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Sharing Info and Defusing Rumors Helps Keep Staff Motivated During Layoffs<\/a>,\u201d ZDNet, July 29, 2003,\u00a0(accessed October 11, 2011). <a href=\"#return-footnote-746-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-746-7\">Allan J. Kimmel, <a href=\"http:\/\/books.google.com\/books?id=a0FZz3Jq8lIC&amp;pg=PA64&amp;lpg=PA64&amp;dq=rumors+about+Coke&amp;source=web&amp;ots=wtBktafiKZ&amp;sig=HbsDm2Byd0ZPkZH2YUWITwWTDac&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;oi=book_result&amp;resnum=6&amp;ct=result\" target=\"_blank\"><em class=\"im_emphasis\">Rumors and Rumor Control<\/em><\/a> (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2004),\u00a0(accessed October 11, 2011). See also Jerald Greenberg and Robert A. Baron, <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Behavior in Organizations<\/em>, 9th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 2008), 359. <a href=\"#return-footnote-746-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-746-8\">Charles R. McConnell, \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.nfib.com\/object\/IO_37650?_templateId=315\" target=\"_blank\">Controlling the Grapevine<\/a>,\u201d <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Small Business Toolbox<\/em>, June 18, 2008,\u00a0(accessed September 6, 2008). <a href=\"#return-footnote-746-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-746-9\">Steven A. Watson, \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/articles.techrepublic.com.com\/5100-10878_11-5035116.html\" target=\"_blank\">Sharing Info and Defusing Rumors Helps Keep Staff Motivated During Layoffs<\/a>,\u201d <em class=\"im_emphasis\">TechRepublic<\/em>, June 17, 2003, (accessed September 6, 2008). <a href=\"#return-footnote-746-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":78,"menu_order":13,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"An Introduction to Business\",\"author\":\"Anonymous\",\"organization\":\"Anonymous\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/an-introduction-to-business-v2.0\/s12-05-communication-channels.html\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Revision and adaptation\",\"author\":\"Linda Williams and Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Tidewater Community College\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"22275e08-0725-4be0-8039-d0acd53f2371","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-746","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":90,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/746","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/78"}],"version-history":[{"count":18,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/746\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":5770,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/746\/revisions\/5770"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/90"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/746\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=746"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=746"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=746"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-introbusinesswmopen\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=746"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}