{"id":868,"date":"2015-02-23T21:59:20","date_gmt":"2015-02-23T21:59:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/publicspeaking1xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&p=868"},"modified":"2016-08-16T19:53:58","modified_gmt":"2016-08-16T19:53:58","slug":"chapter-6-logic-and-the-role-of-arguments","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/clinton-publicspeakingprinciples\/chapter\/chapter-6-logic-and-the-role-of-arguments\/","title":{"raw":"Logic and the Role of Arguments","rendered":"Logic and the Role of Arguments"},"content":{"raw":"Critical thinkers tend to exhibit certain traits that are common to them. These traits are summarized in Table 6.1:[footnote]Adapted from Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction, The Delphi Report (Executive Summary)<\/em>. Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Table 6.1 Traits of Critical Thinkers<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
Open-mindedness<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCritical thinkers are open and receptive to all ideas and arguments, even those with which they may disagree. Critical thinkers reserve judgment on a message until they have examined the claims, logic, reasoning, and evidence used. Critical thinkers are fair-minded and understand that a message is not inherently wrong or flawed if it differs from their own thoughts. Critical thinkers remain open to the possibility of changing their view on an issue when logic and evidence supports doing so.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Analytic Nature<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCritical thinkers are interested in understanding what is happening in a message. Critical thinkers ask questions of the message, breaking it into its individual components and examining each in turn. Critical thinkers dissect these components looking for sound logic and reasoning.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Systematic by Method<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCritical thinkers avoid jumping to conclusions. Critical thinkers take the time to systematically examine a message. Critical thinkers apply accepted criteria or conditions to their analyses.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Inquisitive<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCritical thinkers are curious by nature. Critical thinkers ask questions of what is going on around them and in a message. Critical thinkers want to know more and take action to learn more.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Judicious<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCritical thinkers are prudent in acting and making judgments. Critical thinkers are sensible in their actions. That is, they don't just jump on the bandwagon of common thought because it looks good or everyone else is doing it.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Truth-Seeking Ethos<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCritical thinkers exercise an ethical foundation based in searching for the truth. Critical thinkers understand that even the wisest people may be wrong at times.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Confident in Reasoning<\/strong><\/td>\r\nCritical thinkers have faith in the power of logic and sound reasoning. Critical thinkers understand that it is in everyone's best interest to encourage and develop sound logic. More importantly, critical thinkers value the power of letting others draw their own conclusions.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n
Recall that critical thinking is an active mode of thinking. Instead of just receiving messages and accepting them as is, we consider what they are saying. We ask if messages are well-supported. We determine if their logic is sound or slightly flawed. In other words, we act on the messages before we take action based on them. When we enact critical thinking on a message, we engage a variety of skills including: listening, analysis, evaluation, inference and interpretation or explanation, and self-regulation[footnote]Adapted from Facione, P. A. (1990).[\/footnote]<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_898\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]\"Martha<\/a> \"Martha Stewart<\/a>\" by\u00a0nrkbeta.\u00a0CC-BY-SA<\/a>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nNext, we will examine each of these skills and their role in critical thinking in greater detail. As you read through the explanation of and examples for each skill, think about how it works in conjunction with the others. It\u2019s important to note that while our discussion of the skills is presented in a linear manner, in practice our use of each skill is not so straightforward. We may exercise different skills simultaneously or jump forward and backward.\r\n\r\n \r\n
Without an open-minded mind, you can never be a great success. - Martha Stewart<\/blockquote>\r\n

Listening<\/h2>\r\nIn order to understand listening, we must first understand the difference between listening<\/em><\/strong> and hearing<\/strong><\/em>. At its most basic, hearing refers to the physiological<\/em> process of receiving sounds, while listening refers to the\u00a0psychological<\/em> process of interpreting or making sense of those sounds.\r\n\r\nEvery minute of every day we are surrounded by hundreds of different noises and sounds. If we were to try to make sense of each different sound we would probably spend our day just doing this. While we may hear all of the noises, we filter out many of them. They pass through our lives without further notice. Certain noises, however, jump to the forefront of our consciousness. As we listen to them, we make sense of these sounds. We do this every day without necessarily thinking about the process. Like many other bodily functions, it happens without our willing it to happen.\r\n\r\nCritical thinking requires that we consciously listen to messages. We must focus on what is being said \u2013 and not said. We must strive not to be distracted by other outside noises or the internal noise of our own preconceived ideas. For the moment we only need to take in the message.\r\n\r\nListening becomes especially difficult when the message contains highly charged information. Think about what happens when you try to discuss a controversial issue such as abortion. As the other person speaks, you may have every good intention of listening to the entire argument.\r\n\r\nHowever, when the person says something you feel strongly about you start formulating a counter-argument in your head. The end result is that both sides end up talking past each other without ever really listening to what the other says.\r\n

Analysis<\/h2>\r\nOnce we have listened to a message, we can begin to analyze it. In practice we often begin analyzing messages while still listening to them. When we analyze something, we consider it in greater detail, separating out the main components of the message. In a sense, we are acting like a surgeon on the message, carving out all of the different elements and laying them out for further consideration and possible action.\r\n\r\nLet\u2019s return to Shonda\u2019s persuasive speech to see analysis in action. As part of the needs section of her speech, Shonda makes the following remarks:\r\n

Americans today are some of the unhealthiest people on Earth. It seems like not a week goes by without some news story relating how we are the fattest country in the world. In addition to being overweight, we suffer from a number of other health problems. When I was conducting research for my speech, I read somewhere that heart attacks are the number one killer of men and the number two killer of women. Think about that. My uncle had a heart attack and had to be rushed to the hospital. They hooked him up to a bunch of different machines to keep him alive. We all thought he was going to die. He\u2019s ok now, but he has to take a bunch of pills every day and eat a special diet. Plus he had to pay thousands of dollars in medical bills. Wouldn\u2019t you like to know how to prevent this from happening to you?<\/em><\/p>\r\nIf we were to analyze this part of Shonda\u2019s speech (see Table 6.2), we could begin by looking at the claims she makes. We could then look at the evidence she presents in support of these claims. Having parsed out the various elements, we are then ready to evaluate them and by extension the message as a whole.\r\n

Evaluation<\/h2>\r\nWhen we evaluate something we continue the process of analysis by assessing the various claims and arguments for validity. One way we evaluate a message is to ask questions about what is being said and who is saying it. The following is a list of typical questions we may ask, along with an evaluation of the ideas in Shonda\u2019s speech.\r\n

Is the speaker credible?<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nYes. While Shonda may not be an expert per se on the issue of health benefits related to wine, she has made herself a mini-expert through conducting research.\r\n

Does the statement ring true or false based on common sense?<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nIt sounds kind of fishy. Four or more glasses of wine in one sitting doesn\u2019t seem right. In fact, it seems like it might be bordering on binge drinking.\r\n

Does the logic employed hold up to scrutiny?<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nBased on the little bit of Shonda\u2019s speech we see here, her logic does seem to be sound. As we will see later on, she actually commits a few fallacies.\r\n

What questions or objections are raised by the message?<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nIn addition to the possibility of Shonda\u2019s proposal being binge drinking, it also raises the possibility of creating alcoholism or causing other long term health problems.\r\n

How will further information affect the message?<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nMore information will probably contradict her claims. In fact, most medical research in this area contradicts the claim that drinking 4 or more glasses of wine a day is a good thing.\r\n

Will further information strengthen or weaken the claims?<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nMost likely Shonda\u2019s claims will be weakened.\r\n

What questions or objections are raised by the claims?<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nIn addition to the objections we\u2019ve already discussed, there is also the problem of the credibility of Shonda\u2019s expert \u201cdoctor.\u201d\r\n
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Table 6.2 Analysis of Shonda's Speech<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Claims<\/th>\r\nEvidence<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
\r\n
    \r\n \t
  • Americans are unhealthy<\/li>\r\n \t
  • American is the fattest country<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Americans suffer from many health problems<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Heart attacks are the number one killer of men<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Heart attacks are the number-two killer of women<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n
\r\n