Logical Arguments

Learning Objectives

  • Examine the elements of an argument

Logical Arguments

Any persuasive writing likely includes a logical argument to support its claims. Philosophers study arguments in depth, analyzing reasoning, logic, and validity. While you won’t examine arguments as deeply in an English course as in Philosophy or Logic, you should still be familiar with key components of argumentation. Knowing the basic elements of an argument will help you identify the logic behind any arguments you read and also help you construct effective arguments in your own writing.

Elements of an Argument

Key Takeaway: Elements of an argument

An argument is a structured way of presenting reasoning to support a point of view. It consists of:

  • Claim – The main assertion or opinion being argued.
  • Premises – The evidence or reasoning that supports the claim.
  • Conclusion – The final point being proven, logically derived from the premises.

In summary, an argument includes a claim clearly supported by premises that lead to a conclusion. It is a statement of fact or opinion that is based on evidence, or premises.

Understanding these components will help you analyze and construct logical arguments in writing.

PRO TIP: Keep in mind that not all statements are arguments, and some statements may contain multiple arguments.

Claims

A claim is a statement or opinion about a topic. It is also called a statement or proposition. A claim alone is not a complete argument—it needs support to be persuasive.

Example: Claims

Examples of claims:

  • Pineapple belongs on pizza.
  • The Los Angeles Chargers have the potential to make the NFL playoffs.
  • Online learning is just as effective as in-person learning.

Each of these statements expresses an opinion or assertion, but they do not yet provide reasoning or evidence.

Premises

A premise is a reason or piece of evidence that supports the claim. An argument must have at least one premise to justify its conclusion. Premises are often indicated by these words:

      • because
      • for
      • as
      • since
      • inasmuch as
      • as shown by
      • given that
      • as indicated by
      • the reason is that

Example: Premise

Here is an example of a claim, and a premise that supports it.

  • Claim: The Los Angeles Chargers have the potential to make the NFL playoffs.
  • Premise: Because they have three of the best players in the league.

The premise provides a reason to believe the claim.

Conclusion

The conclusion can be thought of as the main idea of the argument, the point being proven, or the “so what?” of the argument. It is the logical outcome of the premises. To identify a conclusion in an argument:

  1. Ask yourself: Is this statement the main point, or is it supporting another statement?
  2. Look for indicator words that signal a conclusion:
    • Therefore
    • Thus
    • This means
    • As a result
    • It follows that
    • That’s why
    • This suggests
    • Consequently
    • Hence
    • So
    • Accordingly

Examples: Complete arguments

The following is an example of a complete argument, with a claim, premise, and conclusion:

  • Claim: Online learning is just as effective as in-person learning.
  • Premise: Studies show that students in online courses perform as well as those in traditional classrooms when given access to quality materials and support.
  • Conclusion: Therefore, online education should be considered a viable alternative to in-person learning.

Here’s another example:

  • Claim: Pineapple belongs on pizza.
  • Premise: The combination of sweet and savory flavors is a well-established culinary technique, and many people enjoy the contrast.
  • Conclusion: Therefore, pineapple is a perfectly acceptable and delicious pizza topping.

Each of these statements presents an assertion (claim), supports it with a premise, and arrives at a conclusion.

Try It

Watch IT

This video explains the components of an argument.

You can view the transcript for “What is an Argument?” here (opens in new window).

Try It

 

Practice identifying the premises and conclusions

In order to identify the premises and conclusion, you should first rewrite the argument in standard form. You do this by identifying which claim is the conclusion, then working backward to identify which claims are premises that support the conclusion. It should look like this:

Standard Form
Premise 1:
Premise 2:
Conclusion:
Argument visually broken down into premise 1 and premise 2, then conclusion. Public libraries provide learning resources for all ages is the first premise, then they provide spaces for people to read, study, and gather is the second premise. The conclusion is that public libraries should be funded in every community.

Figure 1. Breaking down an argument into the standard form can help you identify the premises and conclusion.

Try It

Click through the following presentation for some review and additional practice in identifying premises and conclusions.

Evaluating Arguments

A formal argument may be set up so that, on its face, it looks logical. However, no matter how well-constructed the argument is, the premises must be true or any inferences based on the premises will be unsound.

One way to test the accuracy of a premise is to determine whether the premise is based upon a sample that is both representative and sufficiently large, and ask yourself whether all relevant factors have been taken into account in the analysis of data that leads to a generalization. Another way to evaluate a premise is to determine whether its source is credible. Are the authors identified? What is their background? Was the premise something you found on an undocumented website? Did you find it in a popular publication or a scholarly one? How complete, how recent, and how relevant were the studies or statistics discussed in the source? Take all of these things into consideration when evaluating an argument.

Glossary

argument: a claim containing premises which support a conclusion.

claim: a statement or opinion that is either true or false

conclusion: the main claim in an argument that each premise supports.

premises: claims that support an argument’s conclusion