{"id":271,"date":"2023-06-21T13:22:50","date_gmt":"2023-06-21T13:22:50","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/gsu-collegealgebra\/chapter\/characteristics-of-logarithmic-functions\/"},"modified":"2023-10-20T01:09:45","modified_gmt":"2023-10-20T01:09:45","slug":"characteristics-of-logarithmic-functions","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/gsu-collegealgebra\/chapter\/characteristics-of-logarithmic-functions\/","title":{"raw":"\u25aa   Characteristics of Graphs of Logarithmic Functions","rendered":"\u25aa   Characteristics of Graphs of Logarithmic Functions"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Determine the domain and range of a logarithmic function.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Determine the x-intercept and vertical asymptote of a logarithmic function.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify whether a logarithmic function is increasing or decreasing and give the interval.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify the features of a logarithmic function that make it an inverse of an exponential function.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nBefore working with graphs, we will take a look at the domain (the set of input values) for which the logarithmic function is defined.\r\n\r\nRecall that the exponential function is defined as [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex] for any real number <em>x<\/em>\u00a0and constant [latex]b&gt;0[\/latex], [latex]b\\ne 1[\/latex], where\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The domain of [latex]y[\/latex]\u00a0is [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The range of [latex]y[\/latex] is [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn the last section we learned that the logarithmic function [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] is the inverse of the exponential function [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex]. So, as inverse functions:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The domain of [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] is the range of [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex]: [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The range of [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] is the domain of [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex]: [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nTransformations of the parent function [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] behave similarly to those of other functions. Just as with other parent functions, we can apply the four types of transformations\u2014shifts, stretches, compressions, and reflections\u2014to the parent function without loss of shape.\r\n\r\nPreviously we saw that certain transformations can change the <em>range<\/em> of [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex]. Similarly, applying transformations to the parent function [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] can change the <em>domain<\/em>. Therefore, when finding the domain of a logarithmic function, it is important to remember that the domain consists <em>only of positive real numbers<\/em>. That is, the value you are applying the logarithmic function to, also known as the argument of the logarithmic function, must be greater than zero.\r\n\r\nFor example, consider [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{4}\\left(2x - 3\\right)[\/latex]. This function is defined for any values of <em>x<\/em>\u00a0such that the argument, in this case [latex]2x - 3[\/latex], is greater than zero. To find the domain, we set up an inequality and solve for [latex]x[\/latex]:\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">[latex]\\begin{array}{l}2x - 3&gt;0\\hfill &amp; \\text{Show the argument greater than zero}.\\hfill \\\\ 2x&gt;3\\hfill &amp; \\text{Add 3}.\\hfill \\\\ x&gt;\\dfrac{3}{2}\\hfill &amp; \\text{Divide by 2}.\\hfill \\end{array}[\/latex]<\/p>\r\nIn interval notation, the domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{4}\\left(2x - 3\\right)[\/latex] is [latex]\\left(\\dfrac{3}{2},\\infty \\right)[\/latex].\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Tip for success<\/h3>\r\nFinding the domain of the logarithm function is similar to finding the domain of the square root function.\r\n\r\nRecall that for [latex]y = \\sqrt{u}, u\\geq0[\/latex], so the domain of [latex]y=\\sqrt{2x-3}[\/latex] is all [latex]x[\/latex] for which [latex]2x-3\\geq0[\/latex], or all [latex]x\\geq\\dfrac{3}{2}[\/latex].\r\n\r\nSince the logarithm function takes input only strictly greater than zero, we see in the example above that the domain of\u00a0[latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{4}\\left(2x - 3\\right)[\/latex] is [latex]\\left(\\dfrac{3}{2},\\infty \\right)[\/latex].\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<h3>How To: Given a logarithmic function, identify the domain<strong>\r\n<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Set up an inequality showing the argument greater than zero.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Solve for [latex]x[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Write the domain in interval notation.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Example: Identifying the Domain Resulting From a Logarithmic Shift<\/h3>\r\nWhat is the domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x+3\\right)[\/latex]?\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"786555\"]Show Solution[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"786555\"]\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">[latex]\\begin{array}{l}x+3&gt;0\\hfill &amp; \\text{The argument must be positive}.\\hfill \\\\ x&gt;-3\\hfill &amp; \\text{Subtract 3}.\\hfill \\end{array}[\/latex]<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nThe logarithmic function is defined only when the argument is positive, so this function is defined when [latex]x+3&gt;0[\/latex].\r\n\r\nThe domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x+3\\right)[\/latex] is [latex]\\left(-3,\\infty \\right)[\/latex].\r\n\r\n[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nWhat is the domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{5}\\left(x - 2\\right)+1[\/latex]?\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"613113\"]Show Solution[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"613113\"][latex]\\left(2,\\infty \\right)[\/latex][\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Example: Identifying the Domain Resulting From a Logarithmic Shift and Reflection<\/h3>\r\nWhat is the domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)=\\mathrm{log}\\left(5 - 2x\\right)[\/latex]?\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"152912\"]Show Solution[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"152912\"]\r\n\r\nThe logarithmic function is defined only when the argument is positive, so this function is defined when [latex]5 - 2x&gt;0[\/latex]. Solving this inequality,\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">[latex]\\begin{array}{l}5 - 2x&gt;0\\hfill &amp; \\text{The argument must be positive}.\\hfill \\\\ -2x&gt;-5\\hfill &amp; \\text{Subtract }5.\\hfill \\\\ x&lt;\\frac{5}{2}\\hfill &amp; \\text{Divide by }-2\\text{ and switch the inequality}.\\hfill \\end{array}[\/latex]<\/p>\r\nThe domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)=\\mathrm{log}\\left(5 - 2x\\right)[\/latex] is [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\frac{5}{2}\\right)[\/latex].\r\n\r\n[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nWhat is the domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)=\\mathrm{log}\\left(x - 5\\right)+2[\/latex]?\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"983551\"]Show Solution[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"983551\"][latex]\\left(5,\\infty \\right)[\/latex][\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n[ohm_question]14399[\/ohm_question]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Graphing a Logarithmic Function Using a Table of Values<\/h2>\r\nNow that we have a feel for the set of values for which a logarithmic function is defined, we move on to graphing logarithmic functions. The family of logarithmic functions includes the parent function [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] along with all of its transformations: shifts, stretches, compressions, and reflections.\r\n\r\nWe begin with the parent function [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]. Because every logarithmic function of this form is the inverse of an exponential function of the form [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex], their graphs will be reflections of each other across the line [latex]y=x[\/latex]. To illustrate this, we can observe the relationship between the input and output values of [latex]y={2}^{x}[\/latex] and its equivalent logarithmic form [latex]x={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(y\\right)[\/latex] in the table below.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>recall inverse relationships<\/h3>\r\nRecall that if an invertible function [latex]f(x)[\/latex] contains a point, [latex]\\left(a, b\\right)[\/latex], then the inverse function [latex]f^{-1}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] must contain the point [latex]\\left(b, a\\right)[\/latex].\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<table summary=\"Three rows and eight columns. The first row is labeled,\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><em><strong>x<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\r\n<td>\u20133<\/td>\r\n<td>\u20132<\/td>\r\n<td>\u20131<\/td>\r\n<td>0<\/td>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>[latex]{2}^{x}=y[\/latex]<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\frac{1}{8}[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\frac{1}{4}[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\frac{1}{2}[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>8<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>[latex]{\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(y\\right)=x[\/latex]<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>\u20133<\/td>\r\n<td>\u20132<\/td>\r\n<td>\u20131<\/td>\r\n<td>0<\/td>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nUsing the inputs and outputs from the table above, we can build another table to observe the relationship between points on the graphs of the inverse functions [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex] and [latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex].\r\n<table summary=\"Two rows and eight columns. The first row is labeled,\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>[latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex]<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(-3,\\frac{1}{8}\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(-2,\\frac{1}{4}\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(-1,\\frac{1}{2}\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(0,1\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(1,2\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(2,4\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(3,8\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>[latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(\\frac{1}{8},-3\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(\\frac{1}{4},-2\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(\\frac{1}{2},-1\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(1,0\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(2,1\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(4,2\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>[latex]\\left(8,3\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nAs we would expect, the <em>x\u00a0<\/em>and <em>y<\/em>-coordinates are reversed for the inverse functions. The figure below\u00a0shows the graphs of <em>f<\/em>\u00a0and <em>g<\/em>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"487\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/896\/2016\/11\/02233818\/CNX_Precalc_Figure_04_04_0022.jpg\" alt=\"Graph of two functions, f(x)=2^x and g(x)=log_2(x), with the line y=x denoting the axis of symmetry.\" width=\"487\" height=\"438\" \/> Notice that the graphs of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex] and [latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] are reflections about the line y\u00a0= x since they are inverses of each other.[\/caption]Observe the following from the graph:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>[latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex] has a <em>y<\/em>-intercept at [latex]\\left(0,1\\right)[\/latex] and [latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] has an <em>x<\/em>-intercept at [latex]\\left(1,0\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex], [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], is the same as the range of [latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The range of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex], [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], is the same as the domain of [latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<h3>A General Note: Characteristics of the Graph of the Parent Function [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]<\/h3>\r\nFor any real number <em>x<\/em>\u00a0and constant <em>b\u00a0<\/em>&gt; 0, [latex]b\\ne 1[\/latex], we can see the following characteristics in the graph of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>one-to-one function<\/li>\r\n \t<li>vertical asymptote: <em>x\u00a0<\/em>= 0<\/li>\r\n \t<li>domain: [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>range: [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>x-<\/em>intercept: [latex]\\left(1,0\\right)[\/latex] and key point [latex]\\left(b,1\\right)[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>y<\/em>-intercept: none<\/li>\r\n \t<li>increasing if [latex]b&gt;1[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>decreasing if 0 &lt; <em>b\u00a0<\/em>&lt; 1<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Try it<\/h3>\r\nUse an online graphing tool to graph the function\u00a0[latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]\r\n\r\nAdjust the [latex]b[\/latex] value to investigate how changes in the base of the logarithmic function affect the graph of that function. Which function is an increasing function? \u00a0Which is decreasing? Does the x-intercept change when you change the base? Make sure to use values between [latex]0[\/latex] and [latex]1[\/latex] as well as values greater than [latex]1[\/latex].\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe graphs above show how changing the base <em>b<\/em>\u00a0in [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] can affect the graphs. Observe that the graphs compress vertically as the value of the base increases. (<em>Note:<\/em> recall that the function [latex]\\mathrm{ln}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] has base [latex]e\\approx \\text{2}.\\text{718.)}[\/latex]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"487\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/896\/2016\/11\/02233822\/CNX_Precalc_Figure_04_04_0042.jpg\" alt=\"Graph of three equations: y=log_2(x) in blue, y=ln(x) in orange, and y=log(x) in red. The y-axis is the asymptote.\" width=\"487\" height=\"363\" \/> The graphs of three logarithmic functions with different bases all greater than 1.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<h3>How To: Given a logarithmic function Of the form [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex], graph the function<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Draw and label the vertical asymptote, <em>x<\/em> = 0.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Plot the <em>x-<\/em>intercept, [latex]\\left(1,0\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Plot the key point [latex]\\left(b,1\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Draw a smooth curve through the points.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>State the domain, [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], the range, [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], and the vertical asymptote, <em>x<\/em> = 0.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Example: Graphing a Logarithmic Function Of the Form\u00a0[latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]<\/h3>\r\nGraph [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{5}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]. State the domain, range, and asymptote.\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"909934\"]Show Solution[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"909934\"]\r\n\r\nBefore graphing, identify the behavior and key points for the graph.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Since <em>b\u00a0<\/em>= 5 is greater than one, we know the function is increasing. The left tail of the graph will approach the vertical asymptote <em>x\u00a0<\/em>= 0, and the right tail will increase slowly without bound.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The <em>x<\/em>-intercept is [latex]\\left(1,0\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The key point [latex]\\left(5,1\\right)[\/latex] is on the graph.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>We draw and label the asymptote, plot and label the points, and draw a smooth curve through the points.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"487\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/896\/2016\/11\/02233824\/CNX_Precalc_Figure_04_04_0052.jpg\" alt=\"Graph of f(x)=log_5(x) with labeled points at (1, 0) and (5, 1). The y-axis is the asymptote.\" width=\"487\" height=\"367\" \/> The domain is [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], the range is [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], and the vertical asymptote is x = 0.[\/caption][\/hidden-answer]<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nGraph [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{\\frac{1}{5}}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]. State the domain, range, and asymptote.\r\n\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"150661\"]Show Solution[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"150661\"]\r\n\r\nThe domain is [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], the range is [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], and the vertical asymptote is <em>x\u00a0<\/em>= 0.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-3102\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/896\/2017\/01\/16222857\/CNX_Precalc_Figure_04_04_0062.jpg\" alt=\"Graph of f(x)=log_(1\/5)(x) with labeled points at (1\/5, 1) and (1, 0). The y-axis is the asymptote.\" width=\"487\" height=\"367\" \/>\r\n\r\n[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n[ohm_question]34999[\/ohm_question]\r\n\r\n[ohm_question]35000[\/ohm_question]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Determine the domain and range of a logarithmic function.<\/li>\n<li>Determine the x-intercept and vertical asymptote of a logarithmic function.<\/li>\n<li>Identify whether a logarithmic function is increasing or decreasing and give the interval.<\/li>\n<li>Identify the features of a logarithmic function that make it an inverse of an exponential function.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Before working with graphs, we will take a look at the domain (the set of input values) for which the logarithmic function is defined.<\/p>\n<p>Recall that the exponential function is defined as [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex] for any real number <em>x<\/em>\u00a0and constant [latex]b>0[\/latex], [latex]b\\ne 1[\/latex], where<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The domain of [latex]y[\/latex]\u00a0is [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\n<li>The range of [latex]y[\/latex] is [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In the last section we learned that the logarithmic function [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] is the inverse of the exponential function [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex]. So, as inverse functions:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The domain of [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] is the range of [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex]: [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\n<li>The range of [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] is the domain of [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex]: [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Transformations of the parent function [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] behave similarly to those of other functions. Just as with other parent functions, we can apply the four types of transformations\u2014shifts, stretches, compressions, and reflections\u2014to the parent function without loss of shape.<\/p>\n<p>Previously we saw that certain transformations can change the <em>range<\/em> of [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex]. Similarly, applying transformations to the parent function [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] can change the <em>domain<\/em>. Therefore, when finding the domain of a logarithmic function, it is important to remember that the domain consists <em>only of positive real numbers<\/em>. That is, the value you are applying the logarithmic function to, also known as the argument of the logarithmic function, must be greater than zero.<\/p>\n<p>For example, consider [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{4}\\left(2x - 3\\right)[\/latex]. This function is defined for any values of <em>x<\/em>\u00a0such that the argument, in this case [latex]2x - 3[\/latex], is greater than zero. To find the domain, we set up an inequality and solve for [latex]x[\/latex]:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">[latex]\\begin{array}{l}2x - 3>0\\hfill & \\text{Show the argument greater than zero}.\\hfill \\\\ 2x>3\\hfill & \\text{Add 3}.\\hfill \\\\ x>\\dfrac{3}{2}\\hfill & \\text{Divide by 2}.\\hfill \\end{array}[\/latex]<\/p>\n<p>In interval notation, the domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{4}\\left(2x - 3\\right)[\/latex] is [latex]\\left(\\dfrac{3}{2},\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Tip for success<\/h3>\n<p>Finding the domain of the logarithm function is similar to finding the domain of the square root function.<\/p>\n<p>Recall that for [latex]y = \\sqrt{u}, u\\geq0[\/latex], so the domain of [latex]y=\\sqrt{2x-3}[\/latex] is all [latex]x[\/latex] for which [latex]2x-3\\geq0[\/latex], or all [latex]x\\geq\\dfrac{3}{2}[\/latex].<\/p>\n<p>Since the logarithm function takes input only strictly greater than zero, we see in the example above that the domain of\u00a0[latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{4}\\left(2x - 3\\right)[\/latex] is [latex]\\left(\\dfrac{3}{2},\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<h3>How To: Given a logarithmic function, identify the domain<strong><br \/>\n<\/strong><\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>Set up an inequality showing the argument greater than zero.<\/li>\n<li>Solve for [latex]x[\/latex].<\/li>\n<li>Write the domain in interval notation.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Example: Identifying the Domain Resulting From a Logarithmic Shift<\/h3>\n<p>What is the domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x+3\\right)[\/latex]?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q786555\">Show Solution<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q786555\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">[latex]\\begin{array}{l}x+3>0\\hfill & \\text{The argument must be positive}.\\hfill \\\\ x>-3\\hfill & \\text{Subtract 3}.\\hfill \\end{array}[\/latex]<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The logarithmic function is defined only when the argument is positive, so this function is defined when [latex]x+3>0[\/latex].<\/p>\n<p>The domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x+3\\right)[\/latex] is [latex]\\left(-3,\\infty \\right)[\/latex].<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>What is the domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{5}\\left(x - 2\\right)+1[\/latex]?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q613113\">Show Solution<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q613113\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">[latex]\\left(2,\\infty \\right)[\/latex]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Example: Identifying the Domain Resulting From a Logarithmic Shift and Reflection<\/h3>\n<p>What is the domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)=\\mathrm{log}\\left(5 - 2x\\right)[\/latex]?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q152912\">Show Solution<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q152912\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<p>The logarithmic function is defined only when the argument is positive, so this function is defined when [latex]5 - 2x>0[\/latex]. Solving this inequality,<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">[latex]\\begin{array}{l}5 - 2x>0\\hfill & \\text{The argument must be positive}.\\hfill \\\\ -2x>-5\\hfill & \\text{Subtract }5.\\hfill \\\\ x<\\frac{5}{2}\\hfill & \\text{Divide by }-2\\text{ and switch the inequality}.\\hfill \\end{array}[\/latex]<\/p>\n<p>The domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)=\\mathrm{log}\\left(5 - 2x\\right)[\/latex] is [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\frac{5}{2}\\right)[\/latex].<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>What is the domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)=\\mathrm{log}\\left(x - 5\\right)+2[\/latex]?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q983551\">Show Solution<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q983551\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">[latex]\\left(5,\\infty \\right)[\/latex]<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm14399\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=14399&theme=oea&iframe_resize_id=ohm14399&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"150\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Graphing a Logarithmic Function Using a Table of Values<\/h2>\n<p>Now that we have a feel for the set of values for which a logarithmic function is defined, we move on to graphing logarithmic functions. The family of logarithmic functions includes the parent function [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] along with all of its transformations: shifts, stretches, compressions, and reflections.<\/p>\n<p>We begin with the parent function [latex]y={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]. Because every logarithmic function of this form is the inverse of an exponential function of the form [latex]y={b}^{x}[\/latex], their graphs will be reflections of each other across the line [latex]y=x[\/latex]. To illustrate this, we can observe the relationship between the input and output values of [latex]y={2}^{x}[\/latex] and its equivalent logarithmic form [latex]x={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(y\\right)[\/latex] in the table below.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>recall inverse relationships<\/h3>\n<p>Recall that if an invertible function [latex]f(x)[\/latex] contains a point, [latex]\\left(a, b\\right)[\/latex], then the inverse function [latex]f^{-1}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] must contain the point [latex]\\left(b, a\\right)[\/latex].<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<table summary=\"Three rows and eight columns. The first row is labeled,\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><em><strong>x<\/strong><\/em><\/td>\n<td>\u20133<\/td>\n<td>\u20132<\/td>\n<td>\u20131<\/td>\n<td>0<\/td>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>[latex]{2}^{x}=y[\/latex]<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\frac{1}{8}[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\frac{1}{4}[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\frac{1}{2}[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>8<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>[latex]{\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(y\\right)=x[\/latex]<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>\u20133<\/td>\n<td>\u20132<\/td>\n<td>\u20131<\/td>\n<td>0<\/td>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>Using the inputs and outputs from the table above, we can build another table to observe the relationship between points on the graphs of the inverse functions [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex] and [latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex].<\/p>\n<table summary=\"Two rows and eight columns. The first row is labeled,\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>[latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex]<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(-3,\\frac{1}{8}\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(-2,\\frac{1}{4}\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(-1,\\frac{1}{2}\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(0,1\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(1,2\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(2,4\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(3,8\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>[latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]<\/strong><\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(\\frac{1}{8},-3\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(\\frac{1}{4},-2\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(\\frac{1}{2},-1\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(1,0\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(2,1\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(4,2\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>[latex]\\left(8,3\\right)[\/latex]<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>As we would expect, the <em>x\u00a0<\/em>and <em>y<\/em>-coordinates are reversed for the inverse functions. The figure below\u00a0shows the graphs of <em>f<\/em>\u00a0and <em>g<\/em>.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 497px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/896\/2016\/11\/02233818\/CNX_Precalc_Figure_04_04_0022.jpg\" alt=\"Graph of two functions, f(x)=2^x and g(x)=log_2(x), with the line y=x denoting the axis of symmetry.\" width=\"487\" height=\"438\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Notice that the graphs of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex] and [latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] are reflections about the line y\u00a0= x since they are inverses of each other.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Observe the following from the graph:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>[latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex] has a <em>y<\/em>-intercept at [latex]\\left(0,1\\right)[\/latex] and [latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] has an <em>x<\/em>-intercept at [latex]\\left(1,0\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\n<li>The domain of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex], [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], is the same as the range of [latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\n<li>The range of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={2}^{x}[\/latex], [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], is the same as the domain of [latex]g\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{2}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<h3>A General Note: Characteristics of the Graph of the Parent Function [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]<\/h3>\n<p>For any real number <em>x<\/em>\u00a0and constant <em>b\u00a0<\/em>&gt; 0, [latex]b\\ne 1[\/latex], we can see the following characteristics in the graph of [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>one-to-one function<\/li>\n<li>vertical asymptote: <em>x\u00a0<\/em>= 0<\/li>\n<li>domain: [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>range: [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li><em>x-<\/em>intercept: [latex]\\left(1,0\\right)[\/latex] and key point [latex]\\left(b,1\\right)[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li><em>y<\/em>-intercept: none<\/li>\n<li>increasing if [latex]b>1[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>decreasing if 0 &lt; <em>b\u00a0<\/em>&lt; 1<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Try it<\/h3>\n<p>Use an online graphing tool to graph the function\u00a0[latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]<\/p>\n<p>Adjust the [latex]b[\/latex] value to investigate how changes in the base of the logarithmic function affect the graph of that function. Which function is an increasing function? \u00a0Which is decreasing? Does the x-intercept change when you change the base? Make sure to use values between [latex]0[\/latex] and [latex]1[\/latex] as well as values greater than [latex]1[\/latex].<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The graphs above show how changing the base <em>b<\/em>\u00a0in [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] can affect the graphs. Observe that the graphs compress vertically as the value of the base increases. (<em>Note:<\/em> recall that the function [latex]\\mathrm{ln}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex] has base [latex]e\\approx \\text{2}.\\text{718.)}[\/latex]<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 497px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/896\/2016\/11\/02233822\/CNX_Precalc_Figure_04_04_0042.jpg\" alt=\"Graph of three equations: y=log_2(x) in blue, y=ln(x) in orange, and y=log(x) in red. The y-axis is the asymptote.\" width=\"487\" height=\"363\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">The graphs of three logarithmic functions with different bases all greater than 1.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<h3>How To: Given a logarithmic function Of the form [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex], graph the function<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li>Draw and label the vertical asymptote, <em>x<\/em> = 0.<\/li>\n<li>Plot the <em>x-<\/em>intercept, [latex]\\left(1,0\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\n<li>Plot the key point [latex]\\left(b,1\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\n<li>Draw a smooth curve through the points.<\/li>\n<li>State the domain, [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], the range, [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], and the vertical asymptote, <em>x<\/em> = 0.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Example: Graphing a Logarithmic Function Of the Form\u00a0[latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{b}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]<\/h3>\n<p>Graph [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{5}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]. State the domain, range, and asymptote.<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q909934\">Show Solution<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q909934\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<p>Before graphing, identify the behavior and key points for the graph.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Since <em>b\u00a0<\/em>= 5 is greater than one, we know the function is increasing. The left tail of the graph will approach the vertical asymptote <em>x\u00a0<\/em>= 0, and the right tail will increase slowly without bound.<\/li>\n<li>The <em>x<\/em>-intercept is [latex]\\left(1,0\\right)[\/latex].<\/li>\n<li>The key point [latex]\\left(5,1\\right)[\/latex] is on the graph.<\/li>\n<li>We draw and label the asymptote, plot and label the points, and draw a smooth curve through the points.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div style=\"width: 497px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/896\/2016\/11\/02233824\/CNX_Precalc_Figure_04_04_0052.jpg\" alt=\"Graph of f(x)=log_5(x) with labeled points at (1, 0) and (5, 1). The y-axis is the asymptote.\" width=\"487\" height=\"367\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">The domain is [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], the range is [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], and the vertical asymptote is x = 0.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>Graph [latex]f\\left(x\\right)={\\mathrm{log}}_{\\frac{1}{5}}\\left(x\\right)[\/latex]. State the domain, range, and asymptote.<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q150661\">Show Solution<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q150661\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<p>The domain is [latex]\\left(0,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], the range is [latex]\\left(-\\infty ,\\infty \\right)[\/latex], and the vertical asymptote is <em>x\u00a0<\/em>= 0.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-3102\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/896\/2017\/01\/16222857\/CNX_Precalc_Figure_04_04_0062.jpg\" alt=\"Graph of f(x)=log_(1\/5)(x) with labeled points at (1\/5, 1) and (1, 0). The y-axis is the asymptote.\" width=\"487\" height=\"367\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm34999\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=34999&theme=oea&iframe_resize_id=ohm34999&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"150\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm35000\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=35000&theme=oea&iframe_resize_id=ohm35000&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"150\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-271\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Revision and Adaptation. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Characteristics of Graphs of Logarithmic Functions Interactive. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.desmos.com\/calculator\/pajb6u9zzj\">https:\/\/www.desmos.com\/calculator\/pajb6u9zzj<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Questoin ID 34999, 35000. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Smart, JIm. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download For Free at : http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/fd53eae1-fa23-47c7-bb1b-972349835c3c@5.175.<\/li><li>College Algebra. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Abramson, Jay et al.. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/9b08c294-057f-4201-9f48-5d6ad992740d@5.2\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/9b08c294-057f-4201-9f48-5d6ad992740d@5.2<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/9b08c294-057f-4201-9f48-5d6ad992740d@5.2<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":395986,"menu_order":33,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Questoin ID 34999, 35000\",\"author\":\"Smart, 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