{"id":1066,"date":"2016-04-07T19:49:48","date_gmt":"2016-04-07T19:49:48","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/biologyxwaymakerxmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1066"},"modified":"2023-07-11T17:25:07","modified_gmt":"2023-07-11T17:25:07","slug":"taxonomy","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/ivytech-wmopen-nmbiology\/chapter\/taxonomy\/","title":{"raw":"Taxonomy","rendered":"Taxonomy"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>What you\u2019ll learn to do: Describe classification and organizational tools biologists use, including modern taxonomy<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1192\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"250\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1192\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/04\/11152855\/187_1003705_americas_dxm.png\" alt=\"Earth from space.\" width=\"250\" height=\"250\" \/> Figure 1. Our planet[\/caption]\r\n\r\nViewed from space, Earth offers no clues about the diversity of life forms that reside there. The first forms of life on Earth are thought to have been microorganisms that existed for billions of years in the ocean before plants and animals appeared. The mammals, birds, and flowers so familiar to us are all relatively recent, originating 130 to 200 million years ago. Humans have inhabited this planet for only the last 2.5 million years, and only in the last 200,000 years have humans started looking like we do today.\r\n\r\nWhen faced with the remarkable diversity of life, how do we organize the different kinds of organisms so that we can better understand them? As new organisms are discovered every day, biologists continue to seek answers to these and other questions. In this outcome, we will discuss\u00a0<em>taxonomy<\/em>, which both demonstrates the vast diversity of life and tries to organize these organisms in a way we can understand.\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the diversity of life<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the purpose of phylogenetic trees<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how relationships are indicated by the binomial naming system<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>The Diversity of Life<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1375\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1375\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/05\/02161121\/biodiversity_examples.jpg\" alt=\"A collage of a tiger, a lizard, mushrooms, a fish, an ant, trees, a parrot, pine needles, and a flower. \" width=\"400\" height=\"264\" \/> Figure 2. Life on earth is incredibly diverse.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBiological diversity is the variety of life on earth. This includes all the different plants, animals, and microorganisms; the genes they contain; and the ecosystems they form on land and in water.\u00a0Biological diversity is constantly changing. It is increased by new genetic variation and reduced by extinction and habitat degradation.\r\n<h3>What Is Biodiversity?<\/h3>\r\nBiodiversity refers to the variety of life and its processes, including the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, and the communities and ecosystems in which they occur. Scientists have identified about 1.9 million species alive today. They are divided into the six kingdoms of life shown in Figure 3. Scientists are still discovering new species. Thus, they do not know for sure how many species really exist today. Most estimates range from 5 to 30 million species.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3141\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/06\/24181849\/knownspecies.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><img class=\"wp-image-3141 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/06\/24181849\/knownspecies-1024x284.jpg\" alt=\"Three pie charts showing the diversity of life. The first shows the known species of organisms. The total equals roughly one million eight hundred thousand species. Animals take up approximately 72 percent of the chart, plants 17, fungi 6, protists 4, and eubacteria 1. The second chart shows the know species of animals. The total equals roughly on millions three hundred fifteen thousand and three hundred seventy eight. Invertebrates total one million two hundred fifty-six thousand and eight hundred eighty (about 95 percent) and vertebrates total fifty-eight thousand and four hundred ninety-eight (about 5 percent). Invertebrates include insects, arachnids, nematode worms, annelid worms, mollusks, flatworms, cnidarians, sponges, echinoderms, and crustaceans. Vertebrates include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The third chart shows the known species of plants. The total equals about 287,655 species. Flowering plants dicots equal about 68.5 percent, flowering plants monocots equal 21, mosses 5, ferns 5, and conifers .5.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"284\" \/><\/a> Figure 3. Known life on earth. Click for a larger image.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Video Review<\/h3>\r\nWatch this discussion about biodiversity:\r\n\r\n<script type=\"text\/javascript\" src=\"\/\/static.3playmedia.com\/p\/projects\/20361\/files\/1280781\/plugins\/11085.js\"><\/script><script src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/iframe_api\" type=\"text\/javascript\"><\/script>\r\n<iframe id=\"myytplayer\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/vGxJArebKoc?enablejsapi=1\" width=\"440\" height=\"300\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Scale of Biodiversity<\/h3>\r\nDiversity may be measured at different scales. These are three indices used by ecologists:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Alpha diversity<\/strong>\u00a0refers to diversity within a particular area, community or ecosystem, and is measured by counting the number of taxa within the ecosystem (usually species).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Beta diversity<\/strong>\u00a0is species diversity between ecosystems; this involves comparing the number of taxa that are\u00a0unique to each of the ecosystems.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Gamma diversity<\/strong>\u00a0is a measurement of the overall diversity for different ecosystems within a region.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Benefits of Biodiversity<\/h3>\r\nBiodiversity provides us with all of our food. It also provides for many medicines and industrial products, and it\u00a0has great potential for developing new and improved products for the future. Perhaps most importantly,\u00a0biological diversity provides and maintains a wide array of ecological \"services.\" These include provision of clean air and water, soil, food and shelter. The quality\u2014and the continuation\u2014 of our life and our economy is dependent on these \"services.\"\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Australia's Biological Diversity<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3598\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\" wp-image-3598\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1087\/2016\/12\/01234200\/Long-beakedEchidna.jpg\" alt=\"The echidna is a small brown spiney animal. Its spines all face away from the animal\u2019s head, and it has a narrow beak.\" width=\"350\" height=\"268\" \/> Figure 4. The short-beaked echidna is endemic to Australia. This animal\u2014along with the platypus and three other species of \u00a0echidnas\u2014is one of the five surviving species of egg-laying mammals.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe long isolation of Australia over much of the last 50 million years and its northward movement have led to the evolution of a distinct biota. Significant features of Australia's biological diversity include:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>A high percentage of endemic species (that is, they occur nowhere else):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>over\u00a080% of\u00a0flowering plants<\/li>\r\n \t<li>over\u00a080% of\u00a0land mammals<\/li>\r\n \t<li>88% of reptiles<\/li>\r\n \t<li>45% of birds<\/li>\r\n \t<li>92% of frogs<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Wildlife groups of great richness. Australia has an exceptional diversity of lizards in the arid zone, many ground orchids, and a total invertebrate fauna estimated at 200,000 species with more than 4,000 different species of ants alone. Marsupials and monotremes collectively account for about 56% of native terrestrial mammals in Australia.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Wildlife of major evolutionary importance. For example, Australia has 12 of the 19 known families of primitive flowering plants, two of which occur nowhere else. Some species, such as the Queensland lungfish and peripatus, have remained relatively unchanged for hundreds of millions of years.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Phylogenetic Trees<\/h2>\r\nIn scientific terms, the evolutionary history and relationship of an organism or group of organisms is called phylogeny. <strong>Phylogeny<\/strong> describes the relationships of one organism to others\u2014such as which organisms it is thought to have evolved from, which species it is most closely related to, and so forth. Phylogenetic relationships provide information on shared ancestry but not necessarily on how organisms are similar or different.\r\n<h3>Phylogenetic Trees<\/h3>\r\nScientists use a tool called a phylogenetic tree to show the evolutionary pathways and connections among organisms. A\u00a0<strong>phylogenetic tree<\/strong> is a diagram used to reflect evolutionary relationships among organisms or groups of organisms. Scientists consider phylogenetic trees to be a hypothesis of the evolutionary past since one cannot go back to confirm the proposed relationships. In other words, a \u201ctree of life\u201d can be constructed to illustrate when different organisms evolved and to show the relationships among different organisms (Figure\u00a05).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4625\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4625 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1648\/2016\/04\/27011415\/phylogentic-tree.jpg\" alt=\"A rooted phylogenetic tree resembles a living tree, with a common ancestor indicated as the base of the trunk. Two branches form from the trunk. The left branch leads to the domain Bacteria. The right branch branches again, giving rise to Archaea and Eukarya. Smaller branches within each domain indicate the groups present in that domain. \" width=\"800\" height=\"540\" \/> Figure\u00a05. This phylogenetic tree was constructed by microbiologist Carl Woese (See inset below) using genetic relationships. The tree shows the separation of living organisms into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria and Archaea are organisms without a nucleus or other organelles surrounded by a membrane and, therefore, are prokaryotes. (credit: modification of work by Eric Gaba)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nA\u00a0phylogenetic tree can be read like a map of evolutionary history. Many phylogenetic trees have a single lineage at the base representing a common ancestor. Scientists call such trees rooted, which means there is a single ancestral lineage (typically drawn from the bottom or left) to which all organisms represented in the diagram relate. Notice in the rooted phylogenetic tree that the three domains\u2014Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya\u2014diverge from a single point and branch off. The small branch that plants and animals (including humans) occupy in this diagram shows how recent and minuscule these groups are compared with other organisms. Unrooted trees don\u2019t show a common ancestor but do show relationships among species (Figure\u00a06).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5614\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1280\"]<img class=\"wp-image-5614 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2318\/2016\/04\/16180214\/1280px-CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg_.png\" alt=\"An unrooted phylogenetic tree. It does not resemble a living tree; rather, groups of organisms within the Archaea, Eukarya, and Bacteria domains are arranged in a circle. Lines connect the groups within each domain. The groups within Archaea and Eukarya are then connected together. A line from the Archaea\/ Eukarya domains, and another from the Bacteria meet in the center of the circle. There is no root, and therefore no indication of which domain arose first.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"845\" \/> Figure\u00a06. An unrooted phylogenetic tree[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Carl Woese and the Phylogenetic Tree<\/h3>\r\nIn the past, biologists grouped living organisms into five kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria. The organizational scheme was based mainly on physical features, as opposed to physiology, biochemistry, or molecular biology, all of which are used by modern systematics. The pioneering work of American microbiologist Carl Woese in the early 1970s has shown, however, that life on Earth has evolved along three lineages, now called domains\u2014Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The first two are prokaryotic groups of\u00a0microbes that lack membrane-enclosed nuclei and organelles. The third domain contains the eukaryotes and includes unicellular microorganisms together with the four original kingdoms (excluding bacteria). Woese defined Archaea as a new domain, and this resulted in a new taxonomic tree (Figure\u00a05). Many organisms belonging to the Archaea domain live under extreme conditions and are called extremophiles. To construct his tree, Woese used genetic relationships rather than similarities based on morphology (shape).\r\n\r\nWoese's tree was constructed from comparative sequencing of the genes that are universally distributed, present in every organism, and conserved (meaning that these genes have remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution). Woese's approach was revolutionary because comparisons of physical features are insufficient to differentiate between the prokaryotes that appear fairly similar in spite of their tremendous biochemical diversity and genetic variability (Figure\u00a07). The comparison of homologous DNA and RNA sequences provided Woese with a sensitive device that revealed the extensive variability of prokaryotes, and which justified the separation of the prokaryotes into two domains: bacteria and archaea.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1521\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"990\"]<img class=\"size-large wp-image-1521\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/05\/02202719\/Figure_01_02_17abcd-990x1024.png\" alt=\"Photo depict: A: bacterial cells. Photo depict: B: a natural hot vent. Photo depict: C: a sunflower. Photo depict: D: a lion.\" width=\"990\" height=\"1024\" \/> Figure\u00a07. These organisms\u00a0represent different domains. The (a) bacteria in this micrograph belong to Domain Bacteria, while the (b) extremophiles (not visible) living in this hot vent belong to Domain Archaea. Both the (c) sunflower and (d) lion are part of Domain Eukarya. (credit a: modification of work by Drew March; credit b: modification of work by Steve Jurvetson; credit c: modification of work by Michael Arrighi; credit d: modification of work by Leszek Leszcynski)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Taxonomy<\/h2>\r\n<strong>Taxonomy<\/strong> (which literally means \u201carrangement law\u201d) is the science of classifying organisms to construct internationally shared classification systems with each organism placed into more and more inclusive groupings. Think about how a grocery store is organized. One large space is divided into departments, such as produce, dairy, and meats. Then each department further divides into aisles, then each aisle into categories and brands, and then finally a single product. This organization from larger to smaller, more specific categories is called a hierarchical system.\r\n\r\nIn the eighteenth century, a scientist named Carl Linnaeus first proposed organizing the known <strong>species<\/strong> of organisms into a hierarchical taxonomy. In this system, species that are most similar to each other are put together within a grouping known as a <strong>genus<\/strong>. Furthermore, similar genera (the plural of genus) are put together within a <strong>family<\/strong>. This grouping continues until all organisms are collected together into groups at the highest level. The current taxonomic system now has eight levels in its hierarchy, from lowest to highest, they are: <strong>species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain<\/strong>. Thus species are grouped within genera, genera are grouped within families, families are grouped within orders, and so on\u00a0(Figure\u00a08).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6427\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"189\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3116\/2016\/04\/06192706\/Screenshot-2022-12-06-at-11.25.56-AM1.png\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-6427\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3116\/2016\/04\/06192706\/Screenshot-2022-12-06-at-11.25.56-AM1-189x300.png\" alt=\"Diagram showing the levels of taxonomic hierarchy for a dog, from the broadest category\u2014domain Eukarya\u2014to the most specific\u2014species Canis lupus as a table. Each row is a taxonomic level that contains pictures of living things that belong to that category. The image of the dog is in each row.\" width=\"189\" height=\"300\" \/><\/a> Figure 1. This diagram shows the levels of taxonomic hierarchy for a dog, from the broadest category\u2014domain\u2014to the most specific\u2014species. Click for a larger image.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe kingdom Animalia stems from the Eukarya domain. For the common dog, the classification levels would be as shown in Figure\u00a08. Therefore, the full name of an organism technically has eight terms. For the dog, it is: Eukarya, Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Carnivora, Canidae,\u00a0<em>Canis, <\/em>and<em> lupus<\/em>. Notice that each name is capitalized except for species, and the genus and species names are italicized. Scientists generally refer to an organism only by its genus and species, which is its two-word scientific name, in what is called\u00a0<strong>binomial nomenclature<\/strong>. Therefore, the scientific name of the dog is <em>Canis lupus<\/em>. The name at each level is also called a <strong>taxon<\/strong>. In other words, dogs are in order Carnivora. Carnivora is the name of the taxon at the order level; Canidae is the taxon at the family level, and so forth. Organisms also have a common name that people typically use, in this case, dog. Note that the dog is additionally a subspecies: the \u201c<em>familiaris<\/em>\u201d in <em>Canis lupus familiaris. <\/em>Subspecies are members of the same species that are capable of mating and reproducing viable offspring, but they are considered separate subspecies due to geographic or behavioral isolation or other factors.\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Check Your Understanding<\/h3>\r\nThe most inclusive measure of biodiversity is ________.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>species diversity<\/li>\r\n \t<li>ecosystem diversity<\/li>\r\n \t<li>variation within a species<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<details><summary>Show Answer<\/summary>ecosystem diversity\r\n\r\n<\/details><\/div>\r\n","rendered":"<h2>What you\u2019ll learn to do: Describe classification and organizational tools biologists use, including modern taxonomy<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_1192\" style=\"width: 260px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1192\" class=\"wp-image-1192\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/04\/11152855\/187_1003705_americas_dxm.png\" alt=\"Earth from space.\" width=\"250\" height=\"250\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1192\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Our planet<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Viewed from space, Earth offers no clues about the diversity of life forms that reside there. The first forms of life on Earth are thought to have been microorganisms that existed for billions of years in the ocean before plants and animals appeared. The mammals, birds, and flowers so familiar to us are all relatively recent, originating 130 to 200 million years ago. Humans have inhabited this planet for only the last 2.5 million years, and only in the last 200,000 years have humans started looking like we do today.<\/p>\n<p>When faced with the remarkable diversity of life, how do we organize the different kinds of organisms so that we can better understand them? As new organisms are discovered every day, biologists continue to seek answers to these and other questions. In this outcome, we will discuss\u00a0<em>taxonomy<\/em>, which both demonstrates the vast diversity of life and tries to organize these organisms in a way we can understand.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the diversity of life<\/li>\n<li>Explain the purpose of phylogenetic trees<\/li>\n<li>Explain how relationships are indicated by the binomial naming system<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>The Diversity of Life<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_1375\" style=\"width: 410px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1375\" class=\"wp-image-1375\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/05\/02161121\/biodiversity_examples.jpg\" alt=\"A collage of a tiger, a lizard, mushrooms, a fish, an ant, trees, a parrot, pine needles, and a flower.\" width=\"400\" height=\"264\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1375\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. Life on earth is incredibly diverse.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Biological diversity is the variety of life on earth. This includes all the different plants, animals, and microorganisms; the genes they contain; and the ecosystems they form on land and in water.\u00a0Biological diversity is constantly changing. It is increased by new genetic variation and reduced by extinction and habitat degradation.<\/p>\n<h3>What Is Biodiversity?<\/h3>\n<p>Biodiversity refers to the variety of life and its processes, including the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, and the communities and ecosystems in which they occur. Scientists have identified about 1.9 million species alive today. They are divided into the six kingdoms of life shown in Figure 3. Scientists are still discovering new species. Thus, they do not know for sure how many species really exist today. Most estimates range from 5 to 30 million species.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_3141\" style=\"width: 1034px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/06\/24181849\/knownspecies.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3141\" class=\"wp-image-3141 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/06\/24181849\/knownspecies-1024x284.jpg\" alt=\"Three pie charts showing the diversity of life. The first shows the known species of organisms. The total equals roughly one million eight hundred thousand species. Animals take up approximately 72 percent of the chart, plants 17, fungi 6, protists 4, and eubacteria 1. The second chart shows the know species of animals. The total equals roughly on millions three hundred fifteen thousand and three hundred seventy eight. Invertebrates total one million two hundred fifty-six thousand and eight hundred eighty (about 95 percent) and vertebrates total fifty-eight thousand and four hundred ninety-eight (about 5 percent). Invertebrates include insects, arachnids, nematode worms, annelid worms, mollusks, flatworms, cnidarians, sponges, echinoderms, and crustaceans. Vertebrates include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The third chart shows the known species of plants. The total equals about 287,655 species. Flowering plants dicots equal about 68.5 percent, flowering plants monocots equal 21, mosses 5, ferns 5, and conifers .5.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"284\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3141\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3. Known life on earth. Click for a larger image.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Video Review<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this discussion about biodiversity:<\/p>\n<p><script type=\"text\/javascript\" src=\"\/\/static.3playmedia.com\/p\/projects\/20361\/files\/1280781\/plugins\/11085.js\"><\/script><script src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/iframe_api\" type=\"text\/javascript\"><\/script><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"myytplayer\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/vGxJArebKoc?enablejsapi=1\" width=\"440\" height=\"300\" frameborder=\"0\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Scale of Biodiversity<\/h3>\n<p>Diversity may be measured at different scales. These are three indices used by ecologists:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Alpha diversity<\/strong>\u00a0refers to diversity within a particular area, community or ecosystem, and is measured by counting the number of taxa within the ecosystem (usually species).<\/li>\n<li><strong>Beta diversity<\/strong>\u00a0is species diversity between ecosystems; this involves comparing the number of taxa that are\u00a0unique to each of the ecosystems.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Gamma diversity<\/strong>\u00a0is a measurement of the overall diversity for different ecosystems within a region.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Benefits of Biodiversity<\/h3>\n<p>Biodiversity provides us with all of our food. It also provides for many medicines and industrial products, and it\u00a0has great potential for developing new and improved products for the future. Perhaps most importantly,\u00a0biological diversity provides and maintains a wide array of ecological &#8220;services.&#8221; These include provision of clean air and water, soil, food and shelter. The quality\u2014and the continuation\u2014 of our life and our economy is dependent on these &#8220;services.&#8221;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Australia&#8217;s Biological Diversity<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_3598\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3598\" class=\"wp-image-3598\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1087\/2016\/12\/01234200\/Long-beakedEchidna.jpg\" alt=\"The echidna is a small brown spiney animal. Its spines all face away from the animal\u2019s head, and it has a narrow beak.\" width=\"350\" height=\"268\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3598\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4. The short-beaked echidna is endemic to Australia. This animal\u2014along with the platypus and three other species of \u00a0echidnas\u2014is one of the five surviving species of egg-laying mammals.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The long isolation of Australia over much of the last 50 million years and its northward movement have led to the evolution of a distinct biota. Significant features of Australia&#8217;s biological diversity include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>A high percentage of endemic species (that is, they occur nowhere else):\n<ul>\n<li>over\u00a080% of\u00a0flowering plants<\/li>\n<li>over\u00a080% of\u00a0land mammals<\/li>\n<li>88% of reptiles<\/li>\n<li>45% of birds<\/li>\n<li>92% of frogs<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Wildlife groups of great richness. Australia has an exceptional diversity of lizards in the arid zone, many ground orchids, and a total invertebrate fauna estimated at 200,000 species with more than 4,000 different species of ants alone. Marsupials and monotremes collectively account for about 56% of native terrestrial mammals in Australia.<\/li>\n<li>Wildlife of major evolutionary importance. For example, Australia has 12 of the 19 known families of primitive flowering plants, two of which occur nowhere else. Some species, such as the Queensland lungfish and peripatus, have remained relatively unchanged for hundreds of millions of years.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Phylogenetic Trees<\/h2>\n<p>In scientific terms, the evolutionary history and relationship of an organism or group of organisms is called phylogeny. <strong>Phylogeny<\/strong> describes the relationships of one organism to others\u2014such as which organisms it is thought to have evolved from, which species it is most closely related to, and so forth. Phylogenetic relationships provide information on shared ancestry but not necessarily on how organisms are similar or different.<\/p>\n<h3>Phylogenetic Trees<\/h3>\n<p>Scientists use a tool called a phylogenetic tree to show the evolutionary pathways and connections among organisms. A\u00a0<strong>phylogenetic tree<\/strong> is a diagram used to reflect evolutionary relationships among organisms or groups of organisms. Scientists consider phylogenetic trees to be a hypothesis of the evolutionary past since one cannot go back to confirm the proposed relationships. In other words, a \u201ctree of life\u201d can be constructed to illustrate when different organisms evolved and to show the relationships among different organisms (Figure\u00a05).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4625\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4625\" class=\"wp-image-4625 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1648\/2016\/04\/27011415\/phylogentic-tree.jpg\" alt=\"A rooted phylogenetic tree resembles a living tree, with a common ancestor indicated as the base of the trunk. Two branches form from the trunk. The left branch leads to the domain Bacteria. The right branch branches again, giving rise to Archaea and Eukarya. Smaller branches within each domain indicate the groups present in that domain.\" width=\"800\" height=\"540\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4625\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure\u00a05. This phylogenetic tree was constructed by microbiologist Carl Woese (See inset below) using genetic relationships. The tree shows the separation of living organisms into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria and Archaea are organisms without a nucleus or other organelles surrounded by a membrane and, therefore, are prokaryotes. (credit: modification of work by Eric Gaba)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>A\u00a0phylogenetic tree can be read like a map of evolutionary history. Many phylogenetic trees have a single lineage at the base representing a common ancestor. Scientists call such trees rooted, which means there is a single ancestral lineage (typically drawn from the bottom or left) to which all organisms represented in the diagram relate. Notice in the rooted phylogenetic tree that the three domains\u2014Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya\u2014diverge from a single point and branch off. The small branch that plants and animals (including humans) occupy in this diagram shows how recent and minuscule these groups are compared with other organisms. Unrooted trees don\u2019t show a common ancestor but do show relationships among species (Figure\u00a06).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_5614\" style=\"width: 1290px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5614\" class=\"wp-image-5614 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2318\/2016\/04\/16180214\/1280px-CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg_.png\" alt=\"An unrooted phylogenetic tree. It does not resemble a living tree; rather, groups of organisms within the Archaea, Eukarya, and Bacteria domains are arranged in a circle. Lines connect the groups within each domain. The groups within Archaea and Eukarya are then connected together. A line from the Archaea\/ Eukarya domains, and another from the Bacteria meet in the center of the circle. There is no root, and therefore no indication of which domain arose first.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"845\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5614\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure\u00a06. An unrooted phylogenetic tree<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Carl Woese and the Phylogenetic Tree<\/h3>\n<p>In the past, biologists grouped living organisms into five kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi, protists, and bacteria. The organizational scheme was based mainly on physical features, as opposed to physiology, biochemistry, or molecular biology, all of which are used by modern systematics. The pioneering work of American microbiologist Carl Woese in the early 1970s has shown, however, that life on Earth has evolved along three lineages, now called domains\u2014Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The first two are prokaryotic groups of\u00a0microbes that lack membrane-enclosed nuclei and organelles. The third domain contains the eukaryotes and includes unicellular microorganisms together with the four original kingdoms (excluding bacteria). Woese defined Archaea as a new domain, and this resulted in a new taxonomic tree (Figure\u00a05). Many organisms belonging to the Archaea domain live under extreme conditions and are called extremophiles. To construct his tree, Woese used genetic relationships rather than similarities based on morphology (shape).<\/p>\n<p>Woese&#8217;s tree was constructed from comparative sequencing of the genes that are universally distributed, present in every organism, and conserved (meaning that these genes have remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution). Woese&#8217;s approach was revolutionary because comparisons of physical features are insufficient to differentiate between the prokaryotes that appear fairly similar in spite of their tremendous biochemical diversity and genetic variability (Figure\u00a07). The comparison of homologous DNA and RNA sequences provided Woese with a sensitive device that revealed the extensive variability of prokaryotes, and which justified the separation of the prokaryotes into two domains: bacteria and archaea.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1521\" style=\"width: 1000px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1521\" class=\"size-large wp-image-1521\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/05\/02202719\/Figure_01_02_17abcd-990x1024.png\" alt=\"Photo depict: A: bacterial cells. Photo depict: B: a natural hot vent. Photo depict: C: a sunflower. Photo depict: D: a lion.\" width=\"990\" height=\"1024\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1521\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure\u00a07. These organisms\u00a0represent different domains. The (a) bacteria in this micrograph belong to Domain Bacteria, while the (b) extremophiles (not visible) living in this hot vent belong to Domain Archaea. Both the (c) sunflower and (d) lion are part of Domain Eukarya. (credit a: modification of work by Drew March; credit b: modification of work by Steve Jurvetson; credit c: modification of work by Michael Arrighi; credit d: modification of work by Leszek Leszcynski)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Taxonomy<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Taxonomy<\/strong> (which literally means \u201carrangement law\u201d) is the science of classifying organisms to construct internationally shared classification systems with each organism placed into more and more inclusive groupings. Think about how a grocery store is organized. One large space is divided into departments, such as produce, dairy, and meats. Then each department further divides into aisles, then each aisle into categories and brands, and then finally a single product. This organization from larger to smaller, more specific categories is called a hierarchical system.<\/p>\n<p>In the eighteenth century, a scientist named Carl Linnaeus first proposed organizing the known <strong>species<\/strong> of organisms into a hierarchical taxonomy. In this system, species that are most similar to each other are put together within a grouping known as a <strong>genus<\/strong>. Furthermore, similar genera (the plural of genus) are put together within a <strong>family<\/strong>. This grouping continues until all organisms are collected together into groups at the highest level. The current taxonomic system now has eight levels in its hierarchy, from lowest to highest, they are: <strong>species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain<\/strong>. Thus species are grouped within genera, genera are grouped within families, families are grouped within orders, and so on\u00a0(Figure\u00a08).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6427\" style=\"width: 199px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3116\/2016\/04\/06192706\/Screenshot-2022-12-06-at-11.25.56-AM1.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6427\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-6427\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/3116\/2016\/04\/06192706\/Screenshot-2022-12-06-at-11.25.56-AM1-189x300.png\" alt=\"Diagram showing the levels of taxonomic hierarchy for a dog, from the broadest category\u2014domain Eukarya\u2014to the most specific\u2014species Canis lupus as a table. Each row is a taxonomic level that contains pictures of living things that belong to that category. The image of the dog is in each row.\" width=\"189\" height=\"300\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6427\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. This diagram shows the levels of taxonomic hierarchy for a dog, from the broadest category\u2014domain\u2014to the most specific\u2014species. Click for a larger image.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The kingdom Animalia stems from the Eukarya domain. For the common dog, the classification levels would be as shown in Figure\u00a08. Therefore, the full name of an organism technically has eight terms. For the dog, it is: Eukarya, Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Carnivora, Canidae,\u00a0<em>Canis, <\/em>and<em> lupus<\/em>. Notice that each name is capitalized except for species, and the genus and species names are italicized. Scientists generally refer to an organism only by its genus and species, which is its two-word scientific name, in what is called\u00a0<strong>binomial nomenclature<\/strong>. Therefore, the scientific name of the dog is <em>Canis lupus<\/em>. The name at each level is also called a <strong>taxon<\/strong>. In other words, dogs are in order Carnivora. Carnivora is the name of the taxon at the order level; Canidae is the taxon at the family level, and so forth. Organisms also have a common name that people typically use, in this case, dog. Note that the dog is additionally a subspecies: the \u201c<em>familiaris<\/em>\u201d in <em>Canis lupus familiaris. <\/em>Subspecies are members of the same species that are capable of mating and reproducing viable offspring, but they are considered separate subspecies due to geographic or behavioral isolation or other factors.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Check Your Understanding<\/h3>\n<p>The most inclusive measure of biodiversity is ________.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>species diversity<\/li>\n<li>ecosystem diversity<\/li>\n<li>variation within a species<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<details>\n<summary>Show Answer<\/summary>\n<p>ecosystem diversity<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1066\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Taxonomy. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Shelli Carter and Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Biology. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8<\/li><li>Biodiversity. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CK-12. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ck12.org\/biology\/Biodiversity\/lesson\/Biodiversity-BIO\/?referrer=featured_content\">http:\/\/www.ck12.org\/biology\/Biodiversity\/lesson\/Biodiversity-BIO\/?referrer=featured_content<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Conserving Australia&#039;s biological diversity. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Energy. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.environment.gov.au\/sustainability\/education\/publications\/conserving-australias-biological-diversity-teachers-notes\">https:\/\/www.environment.gov.au\/sustainability\/education\/publications\/conserving-australias-biological-diversity-teachers-notes<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Long-beaked Echidna. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Jaganath. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Long-beakedEchidna.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Long-beakedEchidna.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Scale of Biodiversity. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Measurement_of_biodiversity#Scale\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Measurement_of_biodiversity#Scale<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Taxonomic hierarchy of the domestic dog. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Veronica Amaku. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Houston Community College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.hccs.edu\/\">http:\/\/www.hccs.edu\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>dog. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: ccbarr. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dAsmE\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dAsmE<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Coyote. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Ariel Matzuk. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/7HfK28\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/7HfK28<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Fox. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Jans Canon. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/bw9swB\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/bw9swB<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Lion at Franklin Park Zoo in Boston. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Corey Leopold. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4Zu4fA\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4Zu4fA<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>HUMAN WOMAN. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: matt smith. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cantD\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cantD<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Coiled Snake. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Seattleye. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4VK5ud\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4VK5ud<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Paramecium \/ Trichocysten - Opalblau. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Picturepest. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dqbAxg\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dqbAxg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Tree. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sheila in Moonducks. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/8Jtz9Q\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/8Jtz9Q<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Fungi. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Nick Bramhall. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/8KLrgq\">https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/8KLrgq<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Biodiversity - from The Wild Classroom. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Rob &amp; Jonas Filmmaking Tips. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/vGxJArebKoc\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/vGxJArebKoc<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>EPIC Earth Image. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: NASA. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/image-feature\/nasa-captures-epic-earth-image\">http:\/\/www.nasa.gov\/image-feature\/nasa-captures-epic-earth-image<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Collapsed tree Labels. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: TimVickers, SVG conversion by User_A1. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:CollapsedtreeLabels-simplified.svg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":17,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Biology\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax 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