{"id":2627,"date":"2016-06-06T16:07:43","date_gmt":"2016-06-06T16:07:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/biologyxwaymakerxmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2627"},"modified":"2023-09-05T22:36:43","modified_gmt":"2023-09-05T22:36:43","slug":"transcription","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/ivytech-wmopen-nmbiology\/chapter\/transcription\/","title":{"raw":"Transcription","rendered":"Transcription"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>What you'll learn to do: Outline the process of transcription<\/h2>\r\nHave you ever had to transcribe something? Maybe someone left a message on your voicemail, and you had to write it down on paper. Or maybe you took notes in class, then rewrote them neatly to help you review.\r\n\r\nAs these examples show, <em>transcription<\/em> is a process in which information is rewritten. Transcription is something we do in our everyday lives, and it's also something our cells must do, in a more specialized and narrowly defined way. In biology, <strong>transcription<\/strong> is the process of copying out the DNA sequence of a gene in the similar alphabet of RNA.\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Understand the basic steps in the transcription of DNA into RNA<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Understand the difference between pre-RNA and mRNA<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Steps of Transcription<\/h2>\r\nThe process of <strong>Transcription<\/strong> takes place in the cytoplasm in prokaryotes and in nucleus in eukaryotes. It uses DNA as a template to make an RNA (mRNA) molecule. During transcription, a strand of mRNA is made that is complementary to a strand of DNA. Figure\u00a01\u00a0shows how this occurs. Eventually portions of the transcribed mRNA will be made into functional proteins.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2697\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"500\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-2697\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/06\/13153134\/transcription.png\" alt=\"Overview of transcription of DNA to mRNA\" width=\"500\" height=\"358\" \/> Figure\u00a01. Overview of Transcription. Transcription uses the sequence of bases in a strand of DNA to make a complementary strand of mRNA. Triplets are groups of three successive nucleotide bases in DNA. Codons are complementary groups of bases in mRNA.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_2699\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\"wp-image-2699\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/06\/13153312\/steps.png\" alt=\"Steps of transcription: initiation, elongation, termination\" width=\"400\" height=\"484\" \/> Figure\u00a02. Transcription occurs in the three steps\u2014initiation, elongation, and termination\u2014all shown here.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nTranscription takes place in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. The steps are illustrated in Figure\u00a02.\r\n<h3>Step 1: Initiation<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Initiation<\/strong> is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme <strong>RNA polymerase<\/strong> binds to a region of a gene called the <strong>promoter<\/strong>. This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can \u2018\u2018read\u2019\u2019 the bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is now ready to make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases.\r\n<h3>Step 2: Elongation<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Elongation<\/strong> is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand. RNA polymerase reads the unwound DNA strand and builds the mRNA molecule, using complementary base pairs.\u00a0 During this process, an adenine (A) in the DNA binds to an uracil (U) in the RNA.\r\n<h3>Step 3: Termination<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Termination<\/strong> is the ending of transcription, and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a <strong>stop (termination) sequence<\/strong> in the gene. The mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches from DNA.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">This video provides a review of these steps. You can stop watching the video at 5:35. (After this point, it discusses translation, which we'll discuss in the next outcome.)https:\/\/youtu.be\/h3b9ArupXZg\r\n\r\nVisit this BioStudio animation to see the process of prokaryotic transcription.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/WsofH466lqk\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>pre-RNA and mRNA<\/h2>\r\nAfter transcription, eukaryotic <strong>pre-mRNA<\/strong>s must undergo several processing steps before they can be translated. Eukaryotic (and prokaryotic) tRNAs and rRNAs also undergo processing before they can function as components in the protein synthesis machinery.\r\n<h3>mRNA Processing<\/h3>\r\nThe eukaryotic pre-mRNA undergoes extensive processing before it is ready to be translated. The additional steps involved in eukaryotic mRNA maturation create a molecule with a much longer half-life than a prokaryotic mRNA. Eukaryotic mRNAs last for several hours, whereas the typical\u00a0<em>E. coli<\/em> mRNA lasts no more than five seconds.\r\n\r\nThe three most important steps of pre-mRNA processing are the addition of stabilizing and signaling factors at the 5\u2032 and 3\u2032 ends of the molecule, and the removal of intervening sequences that do not specify the appropriate amino acids.\r\n<h4>5\u2032 Capping<\/h4>\r\n<strong>A cap<\/strong> is added to the 5\u2032 end of the growing transcript by a phosphate linkage. This addition protects the mRNA from degradation. In addition, factors involved in protein synthesis recognize the cap to help initiate translation by ribosomes.\r\n<h4>3\u2032 Poly-A Tail<\/h4>\r\nOnce elongation is complete, an enzyme called poly-A polymerase adds a string of approximately 200 A residues, called the\u00a0<strong>poly-A tail <\/strong>to the pre-mRNA. This modification further protects the pre-mRNA from degradation and signals the export of the cellular factors that the transcript needs to the cytoplasm.\r\n<h4>Pre-mRNA Splicing<\/h4>\r\nEukaryotic genes are composed of\u00a0<strong>exons<\/strong>, which correspond to protein-coding sequences (<em>ex-<\/em>on signifies that they are <em>ex<\/em>pressed), and <em>int<\/em>ervening sequences called <strong>introns<\/strong> (<em>int<\/em>ron denotes their <em>int<\/em>ervening role), which are removed from the pre-mRNA during processing. Intron sequences in mRNA do not encode functional proteins.\r\n\r\nAll of a pre-mRNA's introns must be completely and precisely removed before protein synthesis. If the process errs by even a single nucleotide, the reading frame of the rejoined exons would shift, and the resulting protein would be dysfunctional. The process of removing introns and reconnecting exons is called\u00a0<strong>splicing<\/strong> (Figure 3).\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4556\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"884\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-4556\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1087\/2017\/03\/23214857\/Figure_15_04_02.jpg\" alt=\"Illustration shows a spliceosome bound to mRNA. An intron is wrapped around snRNPs associated with the spliceosome. When the splice is complete, the exons on either side of the intron are fused together, and the intron forms a ring structure.\" width=\"884\" height=\"240\" \/> Figure 3. Pre-mRNA splicing involves the precise removal of introns from the primary RNA transcript. The splicing process is catalyzed by protein complexes called spliceosomes that are composed of proteins and RNA molecules called snRNAs. Spliceosomes recognize sequences at the 5\u2032 and 3\u2032 end of the intron.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nErrors in splicing are implicated in cancers and other human diseases. What kinds of mutations might lead to splicing errors?\r\n\r\n[practice-area rows=\"2\"][\/practice-area]\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"454729\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"454729\"]Think of different possible outcomes if splicing errors occur. Mutations in the spliceosome recognition sequence at each end of the intron, or in the proteins and RNAs that make up the spliceosome, may impair splicing. Mutations may also add new spliceosome recognition sites. Splicing errors could lead to introns being retained in spliced RNA, exons being excised, or changes in the location of the splice site.[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dnalc.org\/resources\/animations\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">See how introns are removed during RNA splicing\u00a0at this website.<\/a><\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Check Your Understanding<\/h3>\r\n________ takes place in the nucleus.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Respiration<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Translation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Transcription<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<details><summary>Show Answer<\/summary>Transcription\r\n\r\n<\/details><\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<h2>What you&#8217;ll learn to do: Outline the process of transcription<\/h2>\n<p>Have you ever had to transcribe something? Maybe someone left a message on your voicemail, and you had to write it down on paper. Or maybe you took notes in class, then rewrote them neatly to help you review.<\/p>\n<p>As these examples show, <em>transcription<\/em> is a process in which information is rewritten. Transcription is something we do in our everyday lives, and it&#8217;s also something our cells must do, in a more specialized and narrowly defined way. In biology, <strong>transcription<\/strong> is the process of copying out the DNA sequence of a gene in the similar alphabet of RNA.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Understand the basic steps in the transcription of DNA into RNA<\/li>\n<li>Understand the difference between pre-RNA and mRNA<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Steps of Transcription<\/h2>\n<p>The process of <strong>Transcription<\/strong> takes place in the cytoplasm in prokaryotes and in nucleus in eukaryotes. It uses DNA as a template to make an RNA (mRNA) molecule. During transcription, a strand of mRNA is made that is complementary to a strand of DNA. Figure\u00a01\u00a0shows how this occurs. Eventually portions of the transcribed mRNA will be made into functional proteins.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_2697\" style=\"width: 510px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2697\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2697\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/06\/13153134\/transcription.png\" alt=\"Overview of transcription of DNA to mRNA\" width=\"500\" height=\"358\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-2697\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure\u00a01. Overview of Transcription. Transcription uses the sequence of bases in a strand of DNA to make a complementary strand of mRNA. Triplets are groups of three successive nucleotide bases in DNA. Codons are complementary groups of bases in mRNA.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_2699\" style=\"width: 410px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-2699\" class=\"wp-image-2699\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/110\/2016\/06\/13153312\/steps.png\" alt=\"Steps of transcription: initiation, elongation, termination\" width=\"400\" height=\"484\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-2699\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure\u00a02. Transcription occurs in the three steps\u2014initiation, elongation, and termination\u2014all shown here.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Transcription takes place in three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. The steps are illustrated in Figure\u00a02.<\/p>\n<h3>Step 1: Initiation<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Initiation<\/strong> is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme <strong>RNA polymerase<\/strong> binds to a region of a gene called the <strong>promoter<\/strong>. This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can \u2018\u2018read\u2019\u2019 the bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is now ready to make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases.<\/p>\n<h3>Step 2: Elongation<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Elongation<\/strong> is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand. RNA polymerase reads the unwound DNA strand and builds the mRNA molecule, using complementary base pairs.\u00a0 During this process, an adenine (A) in the DNA binds to an uracil (U) in the RNA.<\/p>\n<h3>Step 3: Termination<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Termination<\/strong> is the ending of transcription, and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a <strong>stop (termination) sequence<\/strong> in the gene. The mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches from DNA.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">This video provides a review of these steps. You can stop watching the video at 5:35. (After this point, it discusses translation, which we&#8217;ll discuss in the next outcome.)https:\/\/youtu.be\/h3b9ArupXZg<\/p>\n<p>Visit this BioStudio animation to see the process of prokaryotic transcription.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Transcription\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/WsofH466lqk?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>pre-RNA and mRNA<\/h2>\n<p>After transcription, eukaryotic <strong>pre-mRNA<\/strong>s must undergo several processing steps before they can be translated. Eukaryotic (and prokaryotic) tRNAs and rRNAs also undergo processing before they can function as components in the protein synthesis machinery.<\/p>\n<h3>mRNA Processing<\/h3>\n<p>The eukaryotic pre-mRNA undergoes extensive processing before it is ready to be translated. The additional steps involved in eukaryotic mRNA maturation create a molecule with a much longer half-life than a prokaryotic mRNA. Eukaryotic mRNAs last for several hours, whereas the typical\u00a0<em>E. coli<\/em> mRNA lasts no more than five seconds.<\/p>\n<p>The three most important steps of pre-mRNA processing are the addition of stabilizing and signaling factors at the 5\u2032 and 3\u2032 ends of the molecule, and the removal of intervening sequences that do not specify the appropriate amino acids.<\/p>\n<h4>5\u2032 Capping<\/h4>\n<p><strong>A cap<\/strong> is added to the 5\u2032 end of the growing transcript by a phosphate linkage. This addition protects the mRNA from degradation. In addition, factors involved in protein synthesis recognize the cap to help initiate translation by ribosomes.<\/p>\n<h4>3\u2032 Poly-A Tail<\/h4>\n<p>Once elongation is complete, an enzyme called poly-A polymerase adds a string of approximately 200 A residues, called the\u00a0<strong>poly-A tail <\/strong>to the pre-mRNA. This modification further protects the pre-mRNA from degradation and signals the export of the cellular factors that the transcript needs to the cytoplasm.<\/p>\n<h4>Pre-mRNA Splicing<\/h4>\n<p>Eukaryotic genes are composed of\u00a0<strong>exons<\/strong>, which correspond to protein-coding sequences (<em>ex-<\/em>on signifies that they are <em>ex<\/em>pressed), and <em>int<\/em>ervening sequences called <strong>introns<\/strong> (<em>int<\/em>ron denotes their <em>int<\/em>ervening role), which are removed from the pre-mRNA during processing. Intron sequences in mRNA do not encode functional proteins.<\/p>\n<p>All of a pre-mRNA&#8217;s introns must be completely and precisely removed before protein synthesis. If the process errs by even a single nucleotide, the reading frame of the rejoined exons would shift, and the resulting protein would be dysfunctional. The process of removing introns and reconnecting exons is called\u00a0<strong>splicing<\/strong> (Figure 3).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Practice Question<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_4556\" style=\"width: 894px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4556\" class=\"size-full wp-image-4556\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1087\/2017\/03\/23214857\/Figure_15_04_02.jpg\" alt=\"Illustration shows a spliceosome bound to mRNA. An intron is wrapped around snRNPs associated with the spliceosome. When the splice is complete, the exons on either side of the intron are fused together, and the intron forms a ring structure.\" width=\"884\" height=\"240\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4556\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3. Pre-mRNA splicing involves the precise removal of introns from the primary RNA transcript. The splicing process is catalyzed by protein complexes called spliceosomes that are composed of proteins and RNA molecules called snRNAs. Spliceosomes recognize sequences at the 5\u2032 and 3\u2032 end of the intron.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Errors in splicing are implicated in cancers and other human diseases. What kinds of mutations might lead to splicing errors?<\/p>\n<p><textarea aria-label=\"Your Answer\" rows=\"2\"><\/textarea><\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q454729\">Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q454729\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Think of different possible outcomes if splicing errors occur. Mutations in the spliceosome recognition sequence at each end of the intron, or in the proteins and RNAs that make up the spliceosome, may impair splicing. Mutations may also add new spliceosome recognition sites. Splicing errors could lead to introns being retained in spliced RNA, exons being excised, or changes in the location of the splice site.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dnalc.org\/resources\/animations\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">See how introns are removed during RNA splicing\u00a0at this website.<\/a><\/div>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Check Your Understanding<\/h3>\n<p>________ takes place in the nucleus.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Respiration<\/li>\n<li>Translation<\/li>\n<li>Transcription<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<details>\n<summary>Show Answer<\/summary>\n<p>Transcription<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2627\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Transcription. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Shelli Carter and Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Overview of transcription. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Khan Academy. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/science\/biology\/gene-expression-central-dogma\/transcription-of-dna-into-rna\/a\/overview-of-transcription\">https:\/\/www.khanacademy.org\/science\/biology\/gene-expression-central-dogma\/transcription-of-dna-into-rna\/a\/overview-of-transcription<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Transcription of DNA to RNA. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CK-12. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ck12.org\/biology\/Transcription-of-DNA-to-RNA\/lesson\/Transcription-of-DNA-to-RNA-BIO\/\">http:\/\/www.ck12.org\/biology\/Transcription-of-DNA-to-RNA\/lesson\/Transcription-of-DNA-to-RNA-BIO\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Biology. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Transcription and Translation. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Bozeman Science. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/h3b9ArupXZg\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/h3b9ArupXZg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":17,"menu_order":20,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Transcription\",\"author\":\"Shelli Carter and Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen 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