{"id":4607,"date":"2020-04-21T00:19:07","date_gmt":"2020-04-21T00:19:07","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/chapter\/module-5-overview\/"},"modified":"2020-04-22T22:17:16","modified_gmt":"2020-04-22T22:17:16","slug":"module-5-overview","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/chapter\/module-5-overview\/","title":{"raw":"Introduction to Early Counting Systems","rendered":"Introduction to Early Counting Systems"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>What you\u2019ll learn to do: Convert between our number system and early counting systems<\/h2>\r\nAs we begin our journey through the history of mathematics, one question to be asked is \u201cWhere do we start?\u201d Depending on how you view mathematics or numbers, you could choose any of a number of launching points from which to begin. Howard Eves suggests the following list of possibilities.[footnote]Eves, Howard; An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, p. 9.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nWhere to start the study of the history of mathematics\u2026\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>At the first logical geometric \u201cproofs\u201d traditionally credited to Thales of Miletus (600 BCE).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>With the formulation of methods of measurement made by the Egyptians and Mesopotamians\/Babylonians.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Where prehistoric peoples made efforts to organize the concepts of size, shape, and number.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In pre-human times in the very simple number sense and pattern recognition that can be displayed by certain animals, birds, etc.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Even before that in the amazing relationships of numbers and shapes found in plants.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>With the spiral nebulae, the natural course of planets, and other universe phenomena.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nWe can choose no starting point at all and instead agree that mathematics has <em>always<\/em> existed and has simply been waiting in the wings for humans to discover. Each of these positions can be defended to some degree and which one you adopt (if any) largely depends on your philosophical ideas about mathematics and numbers.\r\n\r\nNevertheless, we need a starting point. Without passing judgment on the validity of any of these particular possibilities, we will choose as our starting point the emergence of the idea of number and the process of counting as our launching pad. This is done primarily as a practical matter given the nature of this course. In the following chapter, we will try to focus on two main ideas. The first will be an examination of basic number and counting systems and the symbols that we use for numbers. We will look at our own modern (Western) number system as well those of a couple of selected civilizations to see the differences and diversity that is possible when humans start counting. The second idea we will look at will be base systems. By comparing our own base-ten (decimal) system with other bases, we will quickly become aware that the system that we are so used to, when slightly changed, will challenge our notions about numbers and what symbols for those numbers actually mean.\r\n<h3>Recognition of More vs. Less<\/h3>\r\nThe idea of number and the process of counting goes back far beyond history began to be recorded. There is some archeological evidence that suggests that humans were counting as far back as 50,000 years ago.[footnote]Eves, p. 9.[\/footnote]\u00a0However, we do not really know how this process started or developed over time. The best we can do is to make a good guess as to how things progressed. It is probably not hard to believe that even the earliest humans had some sense of <em>more<\/em> and <em>less<\/em>. Even some small animals have been shown to have such a sense. For example, one naturalist tells of how he would secretly remove one egg each day from a plover\u2019s nest. The mother was diligent in laying an extra egg every day to make up for the missing egg. Some research has shown that hens can be trained to distinguish between even and odd numbers of pieces of food.[footnote]McLeish, John; The Story of Numbers\u2014How Mathematics Has Shaped Civilization, p. 7.[\/footnote]\u00a0With these sorts of findings in mind, it is not hard to conceive that early humans had (at least) a similar sense of more and less. However, our conjectures about how and when these ideas emerged among humans are simply that; educated guesses based on our own assumptions of what might or could have been.","rendered":"<h2>What you\u2019ll learn to do: Convert between our number system and early counting systems<\/h2>\n<p>As we begin our journey through the history of mathematics, one question to be asked is \u201cWhere do we start?\u201d Depending on how you view mathematics or numbers, you could choose any of a number of launching points from which to begin. Howard Eves suggests the following list of possibilities.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Eves, Howard; An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, p. 9.\" id=\"return-footnote-4607-1\" href=\"#footnote-4607-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Where to start the study of the history of mathematics\u2026<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>At the first logical geometric \u201cproofs\u201d traditionally credited to Thales of Miletus (600 BCE).<\/li>\n<li>With the formulation of methods of measurement made by the Egyptians and Mesopotamians\/Babylonians.<\/li>\n<li>Where prehistoric peoples made efforts to organize the concepts of size, shape, and number.<\/li>\n<li>In pre-human times in the very simple number sense and pattern recognition that can be displayed by certain animals, birds, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Even before that in the amazing relationships of numbers and shapes found in plants.<\/li>\n<li>With the spiral nebulae, the natural course of planets, and other universe phenomena.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>We can choose no starting point at all and instead agree that mathematics has <em>always<\/em> existed and has simply been waiting in the wings for humans to discover. Each of these positions can be defended to some degree and which one you adopt (if any) largely depends on your philosophical ideas about mathematics and numbers.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, we need a starting point. Without passing judgment on the validity of any of these particular possibilities, we will choose as our starting point the emergence of the idea of number and the process of counting as our launching pad. This is done primarily as a practical matter given the nature of this course. In the following chapter, we will try to focus on two main ideas. The first will be an examination of basic number and counting systems and the symbols that we use for numbers. We will look at our own modern (Western) number system as well those of a couple of selected civilizations to see the differences and diversity that is possible when humans start counting. The second idea we will look at will be base systems. By comparing our own base-ten (decimal) system with other bases, we will quickly become aware that the system that we are so used to, when slightly changed, will challenge our notions about numbers and what symbols for those numbers actually mean.<\/p>\n<h3>Recognition of More vs. Less<\/h3>\n<p>The idea of number and the process of counting goes back far beyond history began to be recorded. There is some archeological evidence that suggests that humans were counting as far back as 50,000 years ago.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Eves, p. 9.\" id=\"return-footnote-4607-2\" href=\"#footnote-4607-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0However, we do not really know how this process started or developed over time. The best we can do is to make a good guess as to how things progressed. It is probably not hard to believe that even the earliest humans had some sense of <em>more<\/em> and <em>less<\/em>. Even some small animals have been shown to have such a sense. For example, one naturalist tells of how he would secretly remove one egg each day from a plover\u2019s nest. The mother was diligent in laying an extra egg every day to make up for the missing egg. Some research has shown that hens can be trained to distinguish between even and odd numbers of pieces of food.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"McLeish, John; The Story of Numbers\u2014How Mathematics Has Shaped Civilization, p. 7.\" id=\"return-footnote-4607-3\" href=\"#footnote-4607-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0With these sorts of findings in mind, it is not hard to conceive that early humans had (at least) a similar sense of more and less. However, our conjectures about how and when these ideas emerged among humans are simply that; educated guesses based on our own assumptions of what might or could have been.<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-4607\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Mathematics for the Liberal Arts I. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/eli.nvcc.edu\/\">http:\/\/eli.nvcc.edu\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Revision and Adaptation. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Deborah Devlin. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-4607-1\">Eves, Howard; An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, p. 9. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4607-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4607-2\">Eves, p. 9. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4607-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-4607-3\">McLeish, John; The Story of Numbers\u2014How Mathematics Has Shaped Civilization, p. 7. <a href=\"#return-footnote-4607-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":17533,"menu_order":19,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Mathematics for the Liberal Arts I\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/eli.nvcc.edu\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Revision and Adaptation\",\"author\":\"Deborah Devlin\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"4ea1ad48-90f5-4bce-8502-f4af29854fa9","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-4607","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":4588,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4607","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/17533"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4607\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4688,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4607\/revisions\/4688"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/4588"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/4607\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4607"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=4607"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=4607"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/mathforliberalartscorequisite\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=4607"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}