{"id":1023,"date":"2015-08-18T17:13:20","date_gmt":"2015-08-18T17:13:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/musicappreciation\/?post_type=chapter&p=1023"},"modified":"2015-09-11T21:36:42","modified_gmt":"2015-09-11T21:36:42","slug":"french-opera","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/chapter\/french-opera\/","title":{"raw":"French Opera","rendered":"French Opera"},"content":{"raw":"

Beginning of a French Tradition<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"226\"]\"\" A performance of Lully's opera Armide in the Salle du Palais-Royal in 1761[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn rivalry with imported Italian opera productions, a separate French tradition was founded by the Italian Jean-Baptiste Lully at the court of King Louis XIV. Despite his foreign origin, Lully established an Academy of Music and monopolized French opera from 1672. Starting with Cadmus et Hermione<\/i>, Lully and his librettist Quinault created trag\u00e9die en musique<\/i>, a form in which dance music and choral writing were particularly prominent. Lully's operas also show a concern for expressive recitative which matched the contours of the French language. In the eighteenth\u00a0century, Lully's most important successor was Jean-Philippe Rameau, who composed five trag\u00e9dies en musique<\/i> as well as numerous works in other genres such as op\u00e9ra-ballet, all notable for their rich orchestration and harmonic daring. Despite the popularity of Italian opera seria throughout much of Europe during the baroque period, Italian opera never gained much of a foothold in France, where its own national operatic tradition was more popular instead.\u00a0After Rameau's death, the German Gluck was persuaded to produce six operas for the Parisian stage in the 1770s. They show the influence of Rameau, but simplified and with greater focus on the drama.\r\n

Op\u00e9ra Comique<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"225\"]\"A A poster for Carmen, probably the most famous op\u00e9ra comique[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAt the same time, by the middle of the eighteenth\u00a0century another genre was gaining popularity in France: op\u00e9ra comique<\/i>.\u00a0Op\u00e9ra comique<\/i>\u00a0is a genre of French opera that contains spoken dialogue and arias\u2014much like the German Singspiel. The form arose in the early eighteenth century in the theaters of the two annual Paris fairs, the Foire Saint Germain and the Foire Saint Laurent. There, plays began to include musical numbers called vaudevilles<\/i>, which were existing popular tunes refitted with new words. The plays were humorous and often contained satirical attacks on the official theaters such as the Com\u00e9die Fran\u00e7aise. In 1715 the two fair theaters were brought under the aegis of an institution called the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre de l'Op\u00e9ra-Comique. In spite of fierce opposition from rival theaters the venture flourished and leading playwrights of the time, including Alain Ren\u00e9 Lesage and Alexis Piron, contributed works in the new form.\r\n

The Querelle des Bouffons<\/i> (1752\u201354), a quarrel between advocates of French and Italian music, was a major turning-point for op\u00e9ra comique<\/i>. Members of the pro-Italian faction, such as the philosopher and musician Jean-Jacques Rousseau, attacked serious French opera, represented by the trag\u00e9dies en musique<\/i> ofJean-Philippe Rameau, in favour of what they saw as the simplicity and \"naturalness\" of Italian comic opera (opera buffa), exemplified by Pergolesi's La serva padrona<\/i>, which had recently been performed in Paris by a travelling Italian troupe. In 1752, Rousseau produced a short opera influenced by Pergolesi, Le devin du village<\/i>, in an attempt to introduce his ideals of musical simplicity and naturalness to France. Its success attracted the attention of the Foire theaters. The next year, the head of the Saint Laurent theatre, Jean Monnet, commissioned the composer Antoine Dauvergne to produce a French opera in the style of\u00a0La serva padrona<\/i>. The result was Les troqueurs<\/i>, which Monnet passed off as the work of an Italian composer living in Vienna who was fluent in French, thus fooling the partisans of Italian music into giving it a warm welcome. Dauvergne's opera, with a simple plot, everyday characters, and Italianate melodies, had a huge influence on subsequent op\u00e9ra comique<\/i>, setting a fashion for composing new music, rather than recycling old tunes. Where it differed from later op\u00e9ras comiques<\/i>, however, was that it contained no spoken dialogue. In this, Dauvergne was following the example of Pergolesi's La serva padrona<\/i>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"225\"]\"Portrait Andr\u00e9 Ernest Modeste Gr\u00e9try, the most famous composer of op\u00e9ra comique before the French Revolution[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe short, catchy melodies which replaced the vaudevilles<\/i> were known as ariettes<\/i> and many op\u00e9ras comiques<\/i> in the late eighteenth\u00a0century were styled com\u00e9dies m\u00eal\u00e9es d'ariettes<\/i>. Their librettists were often playwrights, skilled at keeping up with the latest trends in the theatre. Louis Anseaume, Michel-Jean Sedaine andCharles Simon Favart were among the most famous of these dramatists.\u00a0Notable composers of op\u00e9ras comiques<\/i> in the 1750s and 1760s include Egidio Duni, Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny and Fran\u00e7ois-Andr\u00e9 Danican Philidor. Duni, an Italian working at the francophile court of Parma, set Anseaume's libretto Le peintre amoureux amoureux de son mod\u00e8le<\/i> in 1757. Its success encouraged the composer to move to Paris permanently and he wrote twenty\u00a0or so more works for the French stage.\u00a0Monsigny collaborated with Sedaine in works which mixed comedy with a serious social and political element. Le roi et le fermier<\/i> (1762) contains Enlightenment themes such as the virtues of the common people and the need for liberty and equality. Their biggest success, Le d\u00e9serteur<\/i> (1769), concerns the story of a soldier who has been condemned to death for deserting the army.\u00a0Philidor's most famous op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> was Tom Jones<\/i> (1765), based on Henry Fielding's novel of the same name. It is notable for its realistic characters and its many ensembles.\r\n\r\nThe most important and popular composer of op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> in the late eighteenth\u00a0century was Andr\u00e9 Ernest Modeste Gr\u00e9try. Gr\u00e9try successfully blended Italian tunefulness with a careful setting of the French language. He was a versatile composer who expanded the range of op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> to cover a wide variety of subjects from the Oriental fairy tale Z\u00e9mire et Azor<\/i> (1772) to the musical satire of\u00a0Le jugement de Midas<\/i> (1778) and the domestic farce of L'amant jaloux<\/i> (also 1778). His most famous work was the historical \"rescue opera\", Richard Coeur-de-lion<\/i> (1784), which achieved international popularity, reaching London in 1786 and Boston in 1797.\r\n\r\nBetween 1724 and 1762 the Op\u00e9ra-Comique theatre was located at the Foire Saint Germain. In 1762 the company was merged with the Com\u00e9die-Italienne and moved to the H\u00f4tel de Bourgogne. In 1783 a new, larger home was created for it at the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Italien (later renamed the Salle Favart).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"225\"]\"\" Title page of the first edition of the full score of M\u00e9d\u00e9e by Cherubini, 1797[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe French Revolution brought many changes to musical life in Paris. In 1793, the name of the Com\u00e9die-Italienne was changed to the Op\u00e9ra-Comique, but it no longer had a monopoly on performing operas with spoken dialogue and faced serious rivalry from the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Feydeau, which also produced works in the op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> style. Op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> generally became more dramatic and less comic and began to show the influence of musical romanticism.\u00a0The chief composers at the Op\u00e9ra-Comique during the Revolutionary era were \u00c9tienne M\u00e9hul, Nicolas Dalayrac, Rodolphe Kreutzer and Henri Montan Berton. Those at the Feydeau included Luigi Cherubini, Pierre Gaveaux, Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Le Sueur and Fran\u00e7ois Devienne.\u00a0The works of M\u00e9hul (for example Stratonice<\/i>, 1792; Ariodant<\/i>, 1799), Cherubini (Lodoiska<\/i>, 1791; M\u00e9d\u00e9e<\/i>, 1797; Les deux journ\u00e9es<\/i>, 1800) and Le Sueur (La caverne<\/i>, 1793) in particular show the influence of serious French opera, especially Gluck, and a willingness to take on previously taboo subjects (e.g. incest in M\u00e9hul's M\u00e9lidore et Phrosine<\/i>, 1794; infanticide in Cherubini's famous\u00a0M\u00e9d\u00e9e<\/i>). Orchestration and harmony are more complex than in the music of the previous generation; attempts are made to reduce the amount of spoken dialogue; and unity is provided by techniques such as the \"reminiscence motif\" (recurring musical themes representing a character or idea).\r\n\r\nIn 1801 the Op\u00e9ra-Comique and the Feydeau merged for financial reasons. The changing political climate - more stable under the rule of Napoleon - was reflected in musical fashion as comedy began to creep back into op\u00e9ra-comique<\/i>. The lighter new offerings of Boieldieu (such as Le calife de Bagdad<\/i>, 1800) andIsouard (Cendrillon<\/i>, 1810) were a great success.\u00a0<\/span>Parisian audiences of the time also loved Italian opera, visiting the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Italien to see opera buffa<\/i> and works in the newly fashionable bel canto style, especially those by Rossini, whose fame was sweeping across Europe. Rossini's influence began to pervade French op\u00e9ra comique<\/i>. Its presence is felt in Boieldieu's greatest success, La dame blanche<\/i> (1825) as well as later works by Auber (Fra Diavolo<\/i>, 1830; Le domino noir<\/i>, 1837), H\u00e9rold (Zampa<\/i>, 1831), and Adolphe Adam (Le postillon de Longjumeau<\/i>, 1836).\r\n\r\nBy the 1820s, Gluckian influence in France had given way to a taste for Italian bel canto, especially after the arrival of Rossini in Paris. Rossini's Guillaume Tell\u00a0<\/i>helped found the new genre of Grand Opera, a form whose most famous exponent was another foreigner, Giacomo Meyerbeer. Meyerbeer's works, such as Les Huguenots<\/i> emphasised virtuoso singing and extraordinary stage effects. Lighter op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> also enjoyed tremendous success in the hands of Bo\u00efeldieu, Auber,\u00a0H\u00e9rold and Adolphe Adam. In this climate, the operas of the French-born composer Hector Berlioz struggled to gain a hearing. Berlioz's epic masterpiece Les Troyens<\/i>, the culmination of the Gluckian tradition, was not given a full performance for almost a hundred years.\r\n\r\nIn the second half of the nineteenth\u00a0century, Jacques Offenbach created operetta with witty and cynical works such as Orph\u00e9e aux enfers<\/i>, as well as the opera Les Contes d'Hoffmann<\/i>; Charles Gounod scored a massive success with Faust<\/i>; and Bizet composed Carmen<\/i>, which, once audiences learned to accept its blend of romanticism and realism, became the most popular of all op\u00e9ra comiques. Jules Massenet, Camille Saint-Sa\u00ebns and L\u00e9o Delibes all composed works which are still part of the standard repertory, examples being Massenet's Manon<\/i>, Saint-Sa\u00ebns' Samson et Dalila<\/i> and Delibes' Lakm\u00e9<\/i>.\u00a0<\/span>At the same time, the influence ofRichard Wagner was felt as a challenge to the French tradition. Many French critics angrily rejected Wagner's music dramas while many French composers closely imitated them with variable success. Perhaps the most interesting response came from Claude Debussy. As in Wagner's works, the orchestra plays a leading role in Debussy's unique opera Pell\u00e9as et M\u00e9lisande<\/i> (1902) and there are no real arias, only recitative. But the drama is understated, enigmatic and completely unWagnerian.\r\n\r\nOther notable 20th century names include Ravel, Dukas, Roussel and Milhaud. Francis Poulenc is one of the very few post-war composers of any nationality whose operas (which include Dialogues des Carm\u00e9lites<\/i>) have gained a foothold in the international repertory. Olivier Messiaen's lengthy sacred drama Saint Fran\u00e7ois d'Assise<\/i> (1983) has also attracted widespread attention.","rendered":"

Beginning of a French Tradition<\/h2>\n
\"\"<\/p>\n

A performance of Lully’s opera Armide in the Salle du Palais-Royal in 1761<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

In rivalry with imported Italian opera productions, a separate French tradition was founded by the Italian Jean-Baptiste Lully at the court of King Louis XIV. Despite his foreign origin, Lully established an Academy of Music and monopolized French opera from 1672. Starting with Cadmus et Hermione<\/i>, Lully and his librettist Quinault created trag\u00e9die en musique<\/i>, a form in which dance music and choral writing were particularly prominent. Lully’s operas also show a concern for expressive recitative which matched the contours of the French language. In the eighteenth\u00a0century, Lully’s most important successor was Jean-Philippe Rameau, who composed five trag\u00e9dies en musique<\/i> as well as numerous works in other genres such as op\u00e9ra-ballet, all notable for their rich orchestration and harmonic daring. Despite the popularity of Italian opera seria throughout much of Europe during the baroque period, Italian opera never gained much of a foothold in France, where its own national operatic tradition was more popular instead.\u00a0After Rameau’s death, the German Gluck was persuaded to produce six operas for the Parisian stage in the 1770s. They show the influence of Rameau, but simplified and with greater focus on the drama.<\/p>\n

Op\u00e9ra Comique<\/h2>\n
\"A<\/p>\n

A poster for Carmen, probably the most famous op\u00e9ra comique<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

At the same time, by the middle of the eighteenth\u00a0century another genre was gaining popularity in France: op\u00e9ra comique<\/i>.\u00a0Op\u00e9ra comique<\/i>\u00a0is a genre of French opera that contains spoken dialogue and arias\u2014much like the German Singspiel. The form arose in the early eighteenth century in the theaters of the two annual Paris fairs, the Foire Saint Germain and the Foire Saint Laurent. There, plays began to include musical numbers called vaudevilles<\/i>, which were existing popular tunes refitted with new words. The plays were humorous and often contained satirical attacks on the official theaters such as the Com\u00e9die Fran\u00e7aise. In 1715 the two fair theaters were brought under the aegis of an institution called the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre de l’Op\u00e9ra-Comique. In spite of fierce opposition from rival theaters the venture flourished and leading playwrights of the time, including Alain Ren\u00e9 Lesage and Alexis Piron, contributed works in the new form.<\/p>\n

The Querelle des Bouffons<\/i> (1752\u201354), a quarrel between advocates of French and Italian music, was a major turning-point for op\u00e9ra comique<\/i>. Members of the pro-Italian faction, such as the philosopher and musician Jean-Jacques Rousseau, attacked serious French opera, represented by the trag\u00e9dies en musique<\/i> ofJean-Philippe Rameau, in favour of what they saw as the simplicity and “naturalness” of Italian comic opera (opera buffa), exemplified by Pergolesi’s La serva padrona<\/i>, which had recently been performed in Paris by a travelling Italian troupe. In 1752, Rousseau produced a short opera influenced by Pergolesi, Le devin du village<\/i>, in an attempt to introduce his ideals of musical simplicity and naturalness to France. Its success attracted the attention of the Foire theaters. The next year, the head of the Saint Laurent theatre, Jean Monnet, commissioned the composer Antoine Dauvergne to produce a French opera in the style of\u00a0La serva padrona<\/i>. The result was Les troqueurs<\/i>, which Monnet passed off as the work of an Italian composer living in Vienna who was fluent in French, thus fooling the partisans of Italian music into giving it a warm welcome. Dauvergne’s opera, with a simple plot, everyday characters, and Italianate melodies, had a huge influence on subsequent op\u00e9ra comique<\/i>, setting a fashion for composing new music, rather than recycling old tunes. Where it differed from later op\u00e9ras comiques<\/i>, however, was that it contained no spoken dialogue. In this, Dauvergne was following the example of Pergolesi’s La serva padrona<\/i>.<\/p>\n

\"Portrait<\/p>\n

Andr\u00e9 Ernest Modeste Gr\u00e9try, the most famous composer of op\u00e9ra comique before the French Revolution<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

The short, catchy melodies which replaced the vaudevilles<\/i> were known as ariettes<\/i> and many op\u00e9ras comiques<\/i> in the late eighteenth\u00a0century were styled com\u00e9dies m\u00eal\u00e9es d’ariettes<\/i>. Their librettists were often playwrights, skilled at keeping up with the latest trends in the theatre. Louis Anseaume, Michel-Jean Sedaine andCharles Simon Favart were among the most famous of these dramatists.\u00a0Notable composers of op\u00e9ras comiques<\/i> in the 1750s and 1760s include Egidio Duni, Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny and Fran\u00e7ois-Andr\u00e9 Danican Philidor. Duni, an Italian working at the francophile court of Parma, set Anseaume’s libretto Le peintre amoureux amoureux de son mod\u00e8le<\/i> in 1757. Its success encouraged the composer to move to Paris permanently and he wrote twenty\u00a0or so more works for the French stage.\u00a0Monsigny collaborated with Sedaine in works which mixed comedy with a serious social and political element. Le roi et le fermier<\/i> (1762) contains Enlightenment themes such as the virtues of the common people and the need for liberty and equality. Their biggest success, Le d\u00e9serteur<\/i> (1769), concerns the story of a soldier who has been condemned to death for deserting the army.\u00a0Philidor’s most famous op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> was Tom Jones<\/i> (1765), based on Henry Fielding’s novel of the same name. It is notable for its realistic characters and its many ensembles.<\/p>\n

The most important and popular composer of op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> in the late eighteenth\u00a0century was Andr\u00e9 Ernest Modeste Gr\u00e9try. Gr\u00e9try successfully blended Italian tunefulness with a careful setting of the French language. He was a versatile composer who expanded the range of op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> to cover a wide variety of subjects from the Oriental fairy tale Z\u00e9mire et Azor<\/i> (1772) to the musical satire of\u00a0Le jugement de Midas<\/i> (1778) and the domestic farce of L’amant jaloux<\/i> (also 1778). His most famous work was the historical “rescue opera”, Richard Coeur-de-lion<\/i> (1784), which achieved international popularity, reaching London in 1786 and Boston in 1797.<\/p>\n

Between 1724 and 1762 the Op\u00e9ra-Comique theatre was located at the Foire Saint Germain. In 1762 the company was merged with the Com\u00e9die-Italienne and moved to the H\u00f4tel de Bourgogne. In 1783 a new, larger home was created for it at the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Italien (later renamed the Salle Favart).<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/p>\n

Title page of the first edition of the full score of M\u00e9d\u00e9e by Cherubini, 1797<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

The French Revolution brought many changes to musical life in Paris. In 1793, the name of the Com\u00e9die-Italienne was changed to the Op\u00e9ra-Comique, but it no longer had a monopoly on performing operas with spoken dialogue and faced serious rivalry from the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Feydeau, which also produced works in the op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> style. Op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> generally became more dramatic and less comic and began to show the influence of musical romanticism.\u00a0The chief composers at the Op\u00e9ra-Comique during the Revolutionary era were \u00c9tienne M\u00e9hul, Nicolas Dalayrac, Rodolphe Kreutzer and Henri Montan Berton. Those at the Feydeau included Luigi Cherubini, Pierre Gaveaux, Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Le Sueur and Fran\u00e7ois Devienne.\u00a0The works of M\u00e9hul (for example Stratonice<\/i>, 1792; Ariodant<\/i>, 1799), Cherubini (Lodoiska<\/i>, 1791; M\u00e9d\u00e9e<\/i>, 1797; Les deux journ\u00e9es<\/i>, 1800) and Le Sueur (La caverne<\/i>, 1793) in particular show the influence of serious French opera, especially Gluck, and a willingness to take on previously taboo subjects (e.g. incest in M\u00e9hul’s M\u00e9lidore et Phrosine<\/i>, 1794; infanticide in Cherubini’s famous\u00a0M\u00e9d\u00e9e<\/i>). Orchestration and harmony are more complex than in the music of the previous generation; attempts are made to reduce the amount of spoken dialogue; and unity is provided by techniques such as the “reminiscence motif” (recurring musical themes representing a character or idea).<\/p>\n

In 1801 the Op\u00e9ra-Comique and the Feydeau merged for financial reasons. The changing political climate – more stable under the rule of Napoleon – was reflected in musical fashion as comedy began to creep back into op\u00e9ra-comique<\/i>. The lighter new offerings of Boieldieu (such as Le calife de Bagdad<\/i>, 1800) andIsouard (Cendrillon<\/i>, 1810) were a great success.\u00a0<\/span>Parisian audiences of the time also loved Italian opera, visiting the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre Italien to see opera buffa<\/i> and works in the newly fashionable bel canto style, especially those by Rossini, whose fame was sweeping across Europe. Rossini’s influence began to pervade French op\u00e9ra comique<\/i>. Its presence is felt in Boieldieu’s greatest success, La dame blanche<\/i> (1825) as well as later works by Auber (Fra Diavolo<\/i>, 1830; Le domino noir<\/i>, 1837), H\u00e9rold (Zampa<\/i>, 1831), and Adolphe Adam (Le postillon de Longjumeau<\/i>, 1836).<\/p>\n

By the 1820s, Gluckian influence in France had given way to a taste for Italian bel canto, especially after the arrival of Rossini in Paris. Rossini’s Guillaume Tell\u00a0<\/i>helped found the new genre of Grand Opera, a form whose most famous exponent was another foreigner, Giacomo Meyerbeer. Meyerbeer’s works, such as Les Huguenots<\/i> emphasised virtuoso singing and extraordinary stage effects. Lighter op\u00e9ra comique<\/i> also enjoyed tremendous success in the hands of Bo\u00efeldieu, Auber,\u00a0H\u00e9rold and Adolphe Adam. In this climate, the operas of the French-born composer Hector Berlioz struggled to gain a hearing. Berlioz’s epic masterpiece Les Troyens<\/i>, the culmination of the Gluckian tradition, was not given a full performance for almost a hundred years.<\/p>\n

In the second half of the nineteenth\u00a0century, Jacques Offenbach created operetta with witty and cynical works such as Orph\u00e9e aux enfers<\/i>, as well as the opera Les Contes d’Hoffmann<\/i>; Charles Gounod scored a massive success with Faust<\/i>; and Bizet composed Carmen<\/i>, which, once audiences learned to accept its blend of romanticism and realism, became the most popular of all op\u00e9ra comiques. Jules Massenet, Camille Saint-Sa\u00ebns and L\u00e9o Delibes all composed works which are still part of the standard repertory, examples being Massenet’s Manon<\/i>, Saint-Sa\u00ebns’ Samson et Dalila<\/i> and Delibes’ Lakm\u00e9<\/i>.\u00a0<\/span>At the same time, the influence ofRichard Wagner was felt as a challenge to the French tradition. Many French critics angrily rejected Wagner’s music dramas while many French composers closely imitated them with variable success. Perhaps the most interesting response came from Claude Debussy. As in Wagner’s works, the orchestra plays a leading role in Debussy’s unique opera Pell\u00e9as et M\u00e9lisande<\/i> (1902) and there are no real arias, only recitative. But the drama is understated, enigmatic and completely unWagnerian.<\/p>\n

Other notable 20th century names include Ravel, Dukas, Roussel and Milhaud. Francis Poulenc is one of the very few post-war composers of any nationality whose operas (which include Dialogues des Carm\u00e9lites<\/i>) have gained a foothold in the international repertory. Olivier Messiaen’s lengthy sacred drama Saint Fran\u00e7ois d’Assise<\/i> (1983) has also attracted widespread attention.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":923,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1023","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":705,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1023","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/923"}],"version-history":[{"count":11,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1023\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2064,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1023\/revisions\/2064"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/705"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1023\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1023"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1023"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1023"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/music-app-rford\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1023"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}