{"id":115,"date":"2014-10-27T07:58:57","date_gmt":"2014-10-27T07:58:57","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/novabiology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=115"},"modified":"2019-04-15T18:12:30","modified_gmt":"2019-04-15T18:12:30","slug":"eukaryotic-cells","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/chapter\/eukaryotic-cells\/","title":{"raw":"Eukaryotic Cells","rendered":"Eukaryotic Cells"},"content":{"raw":"<div id=\"os-content\">\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the structure of eukaryotic plant and animal cells<\/li>\r\n \t<li>State the role of the plasma membrane<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Summarize the functions of the major cellular organelles<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Distinguish cell junctions<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm6893872\">At this point, it should be clear that eukaryotic cells have a more complex structure than prokaryotic cells. Organelles allow for various functions to occur in the cell at the same time. Before discussing organelle function,\u00a0 let us first examine two important components of the cell: the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\"><header>\r\n<h3>Art Connection<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_902\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1201\"]<img class=\"wp-image-902 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2015\/07\/21032135\/Screen-Shot-2015-07-01-at-11.11.59-AM.png\" alt=\"Part a: This illustration shows a typical eukaryotic cell, which is egg shaped. The fluid inside the cell is called the cytoplasm, and the cell is surrounded by a cell membrane. The nucleus takes up about one-half of the width of the cell. Inside the nucleus is the chromatin, which is comprised of DNA and associated proteins. A region of the chromatin is condensed into the nucleolus, a structure in which ribosomes are synthesized. The nucleus is encased in a nuclear envelope, which is perforated by protein-lined pores that allow entry of material into the nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded by the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, or ER. The smooth ER is the site of lipid synthesis. The rough ER has embedded ribosomes that give it a bumpy appearance. It synthesizes membrane and secretory proteins. Besides the ER, many other organelles float inside the cytoplasm. These include the Golgi apparatus, which modifies proteins and lipids synthesized in the ER. The Golgi apparatus is made of layers of flat membranes. Mitochondria, which produce energy for the cell, have an outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane. Other, smaller organelles include peroxisomes that metabolize waste, lysosomes that digest food, and vacuoles. Ribosomes, responsible for protein synthesis, also float freely in the cytoplasm and are depicted as small dots. The last cellular component shown is the cytoskeleton, which has four different types of components: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules, and centrosomes. Microfilaments are fibrous proteins that line the cell membrane and make up the cellular cortex. Intermediate filaments are fibrous proteins that hold organelles in place. Microtubules form the mitotic spindle and maintain cell shape. Centrosomes are made of two tubular structures at right angles to one another. They form the microtubule-organizing center. Part b: This illustration depicts a typical eukaryotic plant cell. The nucleus of a plant cell contains chromatin and a nucleolus, the same as in an animal cell. Other structures that a plant cell has in common with an animal cell include rough and smooth ER, the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and ribosomes. The fluid inside the plant cell is called the cytoplasm, just as in an animal cell. The plant cell has three of the four cytoskeletal components found in animal cells: microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments. Plant cells do not have centrosomes. Plants have five structures not found in animals cells: plasmodesmata, chloroplasts, plastids, a central vacuole, and a cell wall. Plasmodesmata form channels between adjacent plant cells. Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis; they have an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and stack of membranes inside the inner membrane. The central vacuole is a very large, fluid-filled structure that maintains pressure against the cell wall. Plastids store pigments. The cell wall is localized outside the cell membrane.\" width=\"1201\" height=\"634\" \/> Figure 1: This figure shows (a) a typical animal cell and (b) a typical plant cell.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/header><section>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm11971424\">What structures does a plant cell have that are missing in an animal cell? \u00a0 What structures does an animal cell have that are missing in a plant cell?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp782960\">\r\n<h2>The Plasma Membrane<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp151205360\">Like prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane (Figure 2) made up of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment.\u00a0 A more detailed explanation of this structure will be covered in a later chapter. \u00a0 As mentioned in the chemistry unit, a phospholipid is a lipid molecule composed of two fatty acid chains and a phosphate group. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">The plasma membrane regulates the passage of materials into and out<\/span> <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">of the cell.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1142\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1142\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23214917\/5-1-1.jpeg\" alt=\"the plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer. in the bilayer, the two long hydrophobic tails of phospholipids face toward the center, and the hydrophilic head group faces the exterior. Integral membrane proteins and protein channels span the entire bilayer. Protein channels have a pore in the middle. Peripheral membrane proteins sit on the surface of the phospholipids and are associated with the head groups. On the exterior side of the membrane, carbohydrates are attached to certain proteins and lipids. Filaments of the cytoskeleton line the interior of the membrane.\" width=\"800\" height=\"394\" \/> Figure 2. The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. There are other components, such as cholesterol and carbohydrates, which can be found in the membrane in addition to phospholipids and protein.[\/caption]\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_02\"><\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp27187792\">The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are folded into fingerlike projections called microvilli (singular = microvillus). This folding increases the surface area of the plasma membrane. Such cells are typically found lining the small intestine, the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food. This is an excellent example of how important structure is to function.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp21405776\">\r\n<h2>The Cytoplasm<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp32782608\">The cytoplasm comprises the contents of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.\u00a0 It consists of organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol and the cytoskeleton (Figure 1).\u00a0 The cytoplasm consists of 70-80% water, but has a semi-solid consistency, due to the proteins found within it.\u00a0 Various other organic molecules are found within the cytoplasm allowing for many metabolic reactions, such as protein synthesis, take place.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp49015840\">\r\n<h2>The Cytoskeleton<\/h2>\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_03\"><\/figure>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1143\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1143\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23214951\/5-1-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Microfilaments line the inside of the plasma membrane, whereas microfilaments radiate out from the center of the cell. Intermediate filaments form a network throughout the cell that holds organelles in place.\" width=\"400\" height=\"510\" \/> Figure 3. Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules compose a cell\u2019s cytoskeleton.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIf you were to remove all the organelles from a cell, would the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm be the only components that remain? No. Within the cytoplasm, there is a network of protein fibers that has many functions including:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>helps to maintain cell shape;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>secures certain organelles in specific positions;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>allows cytoplasm and vesicles movement within the cell; and<\/li>\r\n \t<li>enables unicellular organisms to move independently.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nCollectively, this network of protein fibers is known as the cytoskeleton. There are three types of fibers within the cytoskeleton (Figure 3).\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp136442624\">Microfilaments, also know as actin filaments, are the thinnest of the cytoskeletal fibers and function in moving cellular components.\u00a0 This is seen quite a lot during cell division. Common in muscle cells, these components are\u00a0 responsible for muscle cell contraction. Intermediate filaments are important in maintaining the shape of the cell and anchoring organelles.\u00a0 Microtubules are the thickest of the cytoskeletal fibers. These are hollow tubes that can dissolve and reform quickly. Microtubules guide organelle movement and are the structures that pull chromosomes to their poles during cell division. \u00a0 In cilia and flagella, the microtubules are organized as a circle of nine double microtubules on the outside and two microtubules in the center.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm1366112\">The centrosome is a region near the nucleus of animal cells that functions as a microtubule-organizing center. It contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie at right angles to each other.\u00a0 The region replicates before a cell divides. The centrioles function by pulling the duplicated chromosomes to opposite ends of a dividing cell.\u00a0 Most plant cells lack centrioles leading to the idea that their role is still not completely understood.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp84576176\">\r\n<h2>Flagella and Cilia<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp115403344\">Flagella (singular = flagellum) are long, hair-like structures extending from the plasma membrane and are used to move an entire cell.\u00a0 When flagella are present, the numbers are fairly small.\u00a0 Cilia are short, hair-like structures that are used to move entire cells or substances along the outer surface of the cell.\u00a0 When cilia(singular = cilium) are present, the numbers are high and extend along the entire surface of the plasma membrane.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idm54847856\">\r\n<h2>The Endomembrane System<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp135494832\">The endomembrane system (<em>endo<\/em> = within) is a group of membranes and organelles (Figure 4) in eukaryotic cells that work together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the nucleus, the endoplasmic reticulum, and vesicles, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles\/vesicles.\u00a0 Although not technically <em>within<\/em> the cell, the plasma membrane is included in the endomembrane system because, as you will see, it interacts with the other endomembranous organelles.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp2414656\">\r\n<h3>The Nucleus<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp53392528\">Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell (Figure 4). The nucleus (plural = nuclei) houses the cell\u2019s DNA in the form of chromatin and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins. Let us look at it in more detail (Figure 4).<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1144\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"451\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1144\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23215048\/5-1-4.jpeg\" alt=\"In this illustration, chromatin floats in the nucleoplasm. The nucleoid is depicted as a dense, circular region inside the nucleus. The double nuclear membrane is perforated with protein-lined pores\" width=\"451\" height=\"304\" \/> Figure 4. The outermost boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope. Notice that the nuclear envelope consists of two phospholipid bilayers (membranes)\u2014an outer membrane and an inner membrane\u2014in contrast to the plasma membrane, which consists of only one phospholipid bilayer. (credit: modification of work by NIGMS, NIH)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus (Figure 4).\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp53405712\">The nuclear envelope is embedded with pores that permit the passage of ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleus and cytoplasm.\u00a0 The nucleus contains chromatin, thread-like DNA and proteins.\u00a0 Chromatin changes to chromosomes at cell division.\u00a0 In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures. Every species has a specific number of chromosomes in the nucleus of its body cells. For example, in humans, the chromosome number is 46, whereas in fruit flies, the chromosome number is 8.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp41267872\">Chromosomes are only visible and distinguishable from one another just before cell division. When the cell is in the growth and maintenance phases of its life cycle, the chromosomes resemble an unwound, jumbled bunch of threads(chromatin).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp130648528\">The nucleus directs the synthesis of ribosomes, but how? \u00a0 A darkly staining area within the nucleus, called the nucleolus (plural = nucleoli), collecs the ribosomal RNA with associated proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits.\u00a0 These subunits are then transported through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm to form ribosomes.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp100041920\">\r\n<h3>The Endoplasmic Reticulum<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp96833712\">The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Figure 5) is a series of interconnected membranous tubules, continuous with the nuclear envelope, that collectively modify proteins and synthesize lipids. However, these two functions are performed in separate areas of the endoplasmic reticulum: the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, respectively.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp46615216\">The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so named because the ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface giving it a studded appearance when viewed through an electron microscope. These ribosomes synthesize proteins that are transferred into the lumen of the RER where they undergo modifications.\u00a0 The RER is also responsible for the production of phospholipids making up the plasma membrane. If\u00a0 the phospholipids or modified proteins are not destined to stay in the RER, they will be packaged and transported from the RER by budding from the membrane (Figure 4).\u00a0 The RER\u00a0 is abundant in cells that secrete proteins, such as the liver.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp52297536\">The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is continuous with the RER but has few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface (see Figure 4). The functions of SER include:<\/p>\r\n(1)\u00a0 synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid hormones\r\n\r\n(2)\u00a0 detoxification of medications and poisons\r\n\r\n(3)\u00a0 alcohol metabolism\r\n\r\n(4)\u00a0 storage of calcium ions\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp54178896\">\r\n<h3>The Golgi Apparatus<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1145\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"451\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1145\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23215128\/5-1-5.jpeg\" alt=\"In this transmission electron micrograph, the Golgi apparatus appears as a stack of membranes surrounded by unnamed organelles.\" width=\"451\" height=\"227\" \/> Figure 5. The Golgi apparatus in this transmission electron micrograph of a white blood cell is visible as a stack of semicircular flattened rings in the lower portion of this image. Several vesicles can be seen near the Golgi apparatus. (credit: modification of work by Louisa Howard; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBefore reaching their final destination, the lipids or proteins for transport need to be sorted, packaged, and tagged so that they arrive at their proper site. The sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins take place in the Golgi apparatus (also called the Golgi body\/complex), a series of flattened membranous sacs (Figure 5).\r\n\r\nThe transport vesicles that form from the ER travel to the Golgi.\u00a0 They fuse with it emptying their contents into the lumen of the Golgi apparatus. As the proteins and lipids travel through the Golgi, they undergo further modifications. The most frequent modification is the addition of short chains of sugar molecules. The newly modified proteins and lipids are tagged for routing to their proper destinations.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp32348592\">Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged into vesicles that bud from the opposite face of the Golgi. Transport vesicles deposit their contents into other parts of the cell for later use.\u00a0 Secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane releasing their contents outside the cell.\u00a0 The number of Golgi in different cell types illustrates the importance of form following function within cells. Cells that engage in a great deal of secretory activity have an abundant number of Golgi.\u00a0 Examples of this can be found in cells of the salivary glands and our immune system where enzymes and antibodies are continuously secreted.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp92416528\">In plant cells, the Golgi has an additional role of synthesizing polysaccharides. \u00a0 Some of them are incorporated into the cell wall and some o are used in other parts of the cell.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp23189584\">\r\n<h3>Lysosomes<\/h3>\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_07\"><\/figure>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp120839440\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp40076928\">In animal cells, the lysosomes are the cell\u2019s \u201cgarbage disposal.\u201d Digestive enzymes within the lysosomes aid the breakdown of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles. In single-celled eukaryotes, lysosomes are important for digestion of ingested food\u00a0 and the recycling of organelles. These enzymes are active at a much lower pH (more acidic) than those located in the cytoplasm.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp48293552\">Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to destroy disease-causing organisms that might enter the cell. A good example of this occurs as part of our body\u2019s immune system. In a process known as phagocytosis, a section of the plasma membrane of the macrophage(white blood cell) folds in and engulfs a pathogen. The invaginated section containing the pathogen, pinches itself off from the plasma membrane and becomes a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with a lysosome where the hydrolytic enzymes then destroy the pathogen (Figure 6).<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1146\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"544\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1146\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23215253\/5-1-6.jpeg\" alt=\"In this illustration, a eukaryotic cell is shown consuming a bacterium. As the bacterium is consumed, it is encapsulated into a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with a lysosome, and proteins inside the lysosome digest the bacterium.\" width=\"544\" height=\"317\" \/> Figure 6. A macrophage has phagocytized a potentially pathogenic bacterium into a vesicle, which then fuses with a lysosome within the cell so that the pathogen can be destroyed. Other organelles are present in the cell, but for simplicity, are not shown.[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Vesicles and Vacuoles<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp181404192\">Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport.\u00a0 Vesicles can fuse with other membranes within the cell system while vacuoles do not fuse with other cellular components.\u00a0 Vacuoles are larger than vesicles in all eukaryotic cells.\u00a0 In plants, vacuoles are especially large taking up a great deal of space within the cell.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\"><header>\r\n<h3>Art Connection<\/h3>\r\n<\/header><section>\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_04\"><\/figure>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1147\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"450\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1147\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23215326\/5-1-7.png\" alt=\"This figure shows the nucleus, rough ER, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, and plasma membrane. The right side of the rough ER is shown with an integral membrane protein embedded in it. The part of the protein facing the inside of the ER has a carbohydrate attached to it. The protein is shown leaving the ER in a vesicle that fuses with the cis face of the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus consists of several layers of membranes, called cisternae. As the protein passes through the cisternae, it is further modified by the addition of more carbohydrates. Eventually, it leaves the trans face of the Golgi in a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with the cell membrane so that the carbohydrate that was on the inside of the vesicle faces the outside of the membrane. At the same time, the contents of the vesicle are released from the cell.\" width=\"450\" height=\"545\" \/> Figure 7. The endomembrane system works to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. (credit: modification of work by Magnus Manske)[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm10205936\">Why does the <em>cis<\/em> face of the Golgi not face the plasma membrane?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp76377136\">\r\n<h2>Ribosomes<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_903\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\" wp-image-903\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2015\/07\/21032138\/Ribosomes.jpeg\" alt=\"The ribosome consists of a small subunit and a large subunit, which is about three times as big as the small one. The large subunit sits on top of the small one. A chain of mRNA threads between the large and small subunits. A protein chain extends from the top of the large subunit.\" width=\"350\" \/> Figure 8. Ribosomes are made up of a large subunit (top) and a small subunit (bottom). During protein synthesis, ribosomes assemble amino acids into proteins.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp12745600\">Ribosomes are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. When viewed through an electron microscope, free ribosomes appear as either clusters or single tiny dots floating freely in the cytoplasm.\u00a0 As mentioned earlier, ribosomes can also be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.\u00a0 Electron microscopy has shown that ribosomes consist of large and small subunits (Figure 8).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp54800160\">Because protein synthesis is essential for all cells, ribosomes are found in practically every cell.\u00a0 In prokaryotic cells, ribosomes generally are smaller.\u00a0 They are particularly abundant in immature red blood cells for the synthesis of hemoglobin, which functions in the transport of oxygen throughout the body.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp98563536\">\r\n<h2>Mitochondria<\/h2>\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_08\"><\/figure>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp89144384\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1148\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"449\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1148\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23215431\/5-1-8.jpeg\" alt=\"This transmission electron micrograph of a mitochondrion shows an oval, outer membrane and an inner membrane with many folds called cristae. Inside of the inner membrane is a space called the mitochondrial matrix.\" width=\"449\" height=\"232\" \/> Figure 9.\u00a0This transmission electron micrograph shows a mitochondrion as viewed with an electron microscope. Notice the inner and outer membranes, the cristae, and the mitochondrial matrix. (credit: modification of work by Matthew Britton; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm1197904\">Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) are often called the \u201cpowerhouses\u201d or \u201cenergy factories\u201d of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell\u2019s main energy-carrying molecule. The formation of ATP from the breakdown of glucose is known as cellular respiration. Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles (Figure 9) that have their own ribosomes and DNA \u00a0 The inner layer has folds called cristae, which increase the surface area of the inner membrane. The internal area surrounding the folds is known as the matrix. The number of mitochondria vary in a cell.\u00a0 Muscle cells have a very high concentration of mitochondria due to the high energy required for muscle contraction.\u00a0 This is in keeping with form following function.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Peroxisomes<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp87693712\">Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes.\u00a0 Peroxisomes carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids.\u00a0 Alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes in our liver cells. A byproduct of these reactions is hydrogen peroxide, H<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub>, which is contained within the peroxisomes to prevent damage to other cellular components.\u00a0 Hydrogen peroxide is safely broken down by peroxisomal enzymes into water and oxygen.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp117947888\">\r\n<h2>Animal Cells versus Plant Cells<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp129773424\">Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells (see Table). Animal cells have centrioles, centrosomes, and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata, and plastids\u00a0 and a large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp66087520\">\r\n<h3>The Cell Wall<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm6688624\">In Figure 1b, the diagram of a plant cell, you see a structure external to the plasma membrane called the cell wall. The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell. Cell walls are also found in fungal and protist cells.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp96698608\">The major organic molecule in the plant cell wall is cellulose (Figure 10), a polysaccharide made up of long, straight chains of glucose units. When nutritional information refers to dietary fiber, it is referring to the cellulose content of food.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_904\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"880\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2015\/07\/21032139\/CellWall.jpeg\"><img class=\" wp-image-904\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2015\/07\/21032139\/CellWall.jpeg\" alt=\"This illustration shows three glucose subunits that are attached together. Dashed lines at each end indicate that many more subunits make up an entire cellulose fiber. Each glucose subunit is a closed ring composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.\" width=\"880\" \/><\/a> Figure 10. Cellulose is a long chain of \u03b2-glucose molecules connected by a 1-4 linkage. The dashed lines at each end of the figure indicate a series of many more glucose units. The size of the page makes it impossible to portray an entire cellulose molecule.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm37437216\">\r\n<h3>Chloroplasts<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm1766928\">Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also have their own DNA and ribosomes. Chloroplasts function in photosynthesis and can be found in eukaryotic cells such as plants and algae. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, water, and light energy are used to make glucose and oxygen. Plants (autotrophs) are able to make their own food, like glucose, whereas animals (heterotrophs) must rely on other organisms for their organic compounds or food source.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_09\"><\/figure>\r\n<figure><\/figure>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1149\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"401\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1149\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23222724\/5-1-11.jpeg\" alt=\"This illustration shows a chloroplast, which has an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The space between the outer and inner membranes is called the intermembrane space. Inside the inner membrane are flat, pancake-like structures called thylakoids. The thylakoids form stacks called grana. The liquid inside the inner membrane is called the stroma, and the space inside the thylakoid is called the thylakoid space.\" width=\"401\" height=\"268\" \/> Figure 11. This simplified diagram of a chloroplast shows the outer membrane, inner membrane, thylakoids, grana, and stroma.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLike mitochondria, chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by a chloroplast\u2019s inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled membrane sacs called thylakoids (Figure 11). This is the site of photosynthesis. \u00a0 Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural = grana) surrounded by a fluid, stroma.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp82374928\">The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the energy of sunlight for photosynthesis. Like plant cells, photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts. Some bacteria also perform photosynthesis, but they do not have chloroplasts. Their photosynthetic pigments are located in the thylakoid membrane within the cell itself.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp30879584\"><header>\r\n<h3>Evolution in Action:\u00a0 Endosymbiosis<\/h3>\r\n<\/header><section>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp20816560\">We have mentioned that both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA and ribosomes. Wonder why? Strong evidence points to endosymbiosis. \u00a0 Endosymbiosis (<em>endo-<\/em>= within) is a relationship in which one organism lives inside the other. Endosymbiotic relationships abound in nature. An example of this is the microbes living inside the human large intestine.\u00a0 The microbes benefit because they are protected from other organisms and are provided a stable habitat and abundant food supply.\u00a0 We benefit from absorbing the vitamin K produced by the microbes that we would otherwise not obtain.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm385840\">Scientists have long noticed that bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts are similar in size. We also know that mitochondria and chloroplasts have DNA and ribosomes, just as bacteria do. Scientists believe that host cells and bacteria formed a mutually beneficial endosymbiotic relationship.\u00a0 This occurred when the host cells ingested aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria but did not destroy them. Through evolution, these ingested bacteria became more specialized in their functions, with the aerobic bacteria becoming mitochondria and the photosynthetic bacteria becoming chloroplasts.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp52490432\">\r\n<h3>The Central Vacuole<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp92888608\">\u00a0If you look at Figure 1b, you will notice that plant cells each have a large, central vacuole that occupies most of the cell. The central vacuole plays a key role in regulating the water concentration of the cell in changing environmental conditions. In plant cells, the liquid inside the central vacuole provides turgor pressure, which is the outward pressure caused by the fluid inside the cell. What happens if you forget to water your plant?\u00a0 As the water concentration in the soil becomes lower than the water concentration in the plant, water moves out of the central vacuoles and cytoplasm and into the soil. As the central vacuole shrinks, it leaves the cell wall unsupported. This loss of support to the cell walls of a plant results in the wilted appearance.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idm15353488\">\r\n<h2>Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1150\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"449\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1150\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23222807\/5-1-12.jpeg\" alt=\"This illustration shows the plasma membrane. Embedded in the plasma membrane are integral membrane proteins called integrins. On the exterior of the cell is a vast network of collagen fibers, which are attached to the integrins via a protein called fibronectin. Proteoglycan complexes also extend from the plasma membrane into the extracellular matrix. A magnified view shows that each proteoglycan complex is composed of a polysaccharide core. Proteins branch from this core, and carbohydrates branch from the proteins. The inside of the cytoplasmic membrane is lined with microfilaments of the cytoskeleton.\" width=\"449\" height=\"488\" \/> Figure 12. The extracellular matrix consists of a network of substances secreted by cells.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm6262368\">The extracellular matrix is a protective mesh-like network of proteins and polysaccharides.\u00a0 It varies in consistency and works closely with the cytoskeleton to maintain cell shape.\u00a0 (Figure 12). The extracellular matrix hold the cells together to form a tissue and allows the cells within the tissue to communicate with each other.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_10\"><\/figure>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp99052240\">\r\n<h2>Intercellular Junctions:\u00a0 Animal vs. Plant<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp53145600\">Cells also communicate with each other by direct contact.\u00a0 Intracellular junctions occur in three distinct types within an animal cell:<\/p>\r\n(1)\u00a0 adhesion junctions(desmosomes) - act like spot welds between adjacent epithelial cells(Figure 13c);\u00a0 keep cells together in sheet-like formation\r\n\r\n(2)\u00a0 tight junctions - watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells(Figure 13b); prevents material from leaking between cells; typically found in epithelial tissue lining internal organs\/cavities and skin\r\n\r\n(3)\u00a0 gap junctions - channels between adjacent cells allowing transport of materials; enable cells to communicate(Figure 13d)\r\n\r\nPlasmodesmata (singular = plasmodesma) are junctions between plant cells.\u00a0 Generally in plants, long stretches of the plasma membranes of neighboring plant cells cannot touch one another due to the cell walls surrounding each cell. \u00a0 Plasmodesmata are numerous channels that pass between the cell walls of adjacent plant cells.\u00a0 They connect their cytoplasm and enable signal molecules and nutrients to be transported from cell to cell (Figure 13a).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1151\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"698\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1151\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23222847\/5-1-13-1024x823.jpeg\" alt=\"Part a shows two plant cells side-by-side. A channel, or plasmodesma, in the cell wall allows fluid and small molecules to pass from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm of another. Part b shows two cell membranes joined together by a matrix of tight junctions. Part c shows two cells fused together by a desmosome. Cadherins extend out from each cell and join the two cells together. Intermediate filaments connect to cadherins on the inside of the cell. Part d shows two cells joined together with protein pores called gap junctions that allow water and small molecules to pass through.\" width=\"698\" height=\"561\" \/> Figure 13. There are four kinds of connections between cells. (a) A plasmodesma is a channel between the cell walls of two adjacent plant cells. (b) Tight junctions join adjacent animal cells. (c) Desmosomes join two animal cells together. (d) Gap junctions act as channels between animal cells. (credit b, c, d: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>COMPARISION OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLULAR ORGANELLES<\/strong>\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_11\"><\/figure>\r\n<table id=\"fs-idp27375984\" summary=\"03_03_01\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th colspan=\"5\">Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells and Their Functions<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Cell Component<\/th>\r\n<th>Function<\/th>\r\n<th>Present in Prokaryotes?<\/th>\r\n<th>Present in Animal Cells?<\/th>\r\n<th>Present in Plant Cells?<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Plasma membrane<\/td>\r\n<td>Separates cell from external environment; controls passage of organic molecules, ions, water, oxygen, and wastes into and out of the cell<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Cytoplasm<\/td>\r\n<td>Provides structure to cell; site of many metabolic reactions; medium in which organelles are found<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Nucleoid<\/td>\r\n<td>Location of DNA<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Nucleus<\/td>\r\n<td>Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis of ribosomes and proteins<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Ribosomes<\/td>\r\n<td>Protein synthesis<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Mitochondria<\/td>\r\n<td>ATP production\/cellular respiration<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Peroxisomes<\/td>\r\n<td>Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids and amino acids, and detoxifies poisons<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Vesicles and vacuoles<\/td>\r\n<td>Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Centrosome<\/td>\r\n<td>Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells; source of microtubules in animal cells<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Lysosomes<\/td>\r\n<td>Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of worn-out organelles<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Cell wall<\/td>\r\n<td>Protection, structural support and maintenance of cell shape<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes, primarily peptidoglycan in bacteria but not Archaea<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes, primarily cellulose<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Chloroplasts<\/td>\r\n<td>Photosynthesis<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Endoplasmic reticulum<\/td>\r\n<td>Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Golgi apparatus<\/td>\r\n<td>Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and distributes lipids and proteins<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Cytoskeleton<\/td>\r\n<td>Maintains cell\u2019s shape, secures organelles in specific positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to move independently<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<td>Yes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Flagella<\/td>\r\n<td>Cellular locomotion<\/td>\r\n<td>Some<\/td>\r\n<td>Some<\/td>\r\n<td>No, except for some plant sperm.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Cilia<\/td>\r\n<td>Cellular locomotion, movement of particles along extracellular surface of plasma membrane, and filtration<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<td>Some<\/td>\r\n<td>No<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm68553648\"><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp25905568\">\r\n<h1>Section Summary<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp246688\">Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes, but there are a number of differences.\u00a0 A eukaryotic cell is typically larger, has a true nucleus,\u00a0 and has other membrane-bound organelles that allow for compartmentalization of functions.\u00a0 These organelles vary in animal and plant cells but each one provides a function for an overall successful cell life.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp55391312\">Animal cells communicate through their extracellular matrices and are connected to each other by various intracellular junctions. Plant cells are connected and communicate with each other by plasmodesmata, yet another difference between animal and plant cells.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.openassessments.org\/assessments\/647\r\n\r\n<\/section><section>\r\n<h1><\/h1>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Additional Self Check Questions<\/h3>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm38703808\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm6867008\"><section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp38258896\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp38259024\">1. What structures does a plant cell have that an animal cell does not? What structures does an animal cell have that a plant cell does not?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp12517232\">\r\n<div>2. Why is the plasma membrane considered a member of the endomembrane system?<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp56691968\"><\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm2423936\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm111755376\"><section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm587248\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp53032608\">3. In the context of cell biology, what do we mean by form follows function? What are at least two examples of this concept?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp60910016\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Answers<\/h3>\r\n1. Plant cells have plasmodesmata, a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and plastids. Animal cells have lysosomes and centrosomes.\r\n\r\n2. The plasma membrane interacts with other organelles within the endomembrane system.\r\n\r\n3. \u201cForm follows function\u201d refers to the idea that the function of a body part dictates the form of that body part. As an example, organisms like birds or fish that fly or swim quickly through the air or water have streamlined bodies that reduce drag. At the cellular level, in tissues involved in secretory functions, such as the salivary glands, the cells have abundant Golgi.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm23828896\"><\/section><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div id=\"os-content\">\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the structure of eukaryotic plant and animal cells<\/li>\n<li>State the role of the plasma membrane<\/li>\n<li>Summarize the functions of the major cellular organelles<\/li>\n<li>Distinguish cell junctions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm6893872\">At this point, it should be clear that eukaryotic cells have a more complex structure than prokaryotic cells. Organelles allow for various functions to occur in the cell at the same time. Before discussing organelle function,\u00a0 let us first examine two important components of the cell: the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<header>\n<h3>Art Connection<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_902\" style=\"width: 1211px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-902\" class=\"wp-image-902 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2015\/07\/21032135\/Screen-Shot-2015-07-01-at-11.11.59-AM.png\" alt=\"Part a: This illustration shows a typical eukaryotic cell, which is egg shaped. The fluid inside the cell is called the cytoplasm, and the cell is surrounded by a cell membrane. The nucleus takes up about one-half of the width of the cell. Inside the nucleus is the chromatin, which is comprised of DNA and associated proteins. A region of the chromatin is condensed into the nucleolus, a structure in which ribosomes are synthesized. The nucleus is encased in a nuclear envelope, which is perforated by protein-lined pores that allow entry of material into the nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded by the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, or ER. The smooth ER is the site of lipid synthesis. The rough ER has embedded ribosomes that give it a bumpy appearance. It synthesizes membrane and secretory proteins. Besides the ER, many other organelles float inside the cytoplasm. These include the Golgi apparatus, which modifies proteins and lipids synthesized in the ER. The Golgi apparatus is made of layers of flat membranes. Mitochondria, which produce energy for the cell, have an outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane. Other, smaller organelles include peroxisomes that metabolize waste, lysosomes that digest food, and vacuoles. Ribosomes, responsible for protein synthesis, also float freely in the cytoplasm and are depicted as small dots. The last cellular component shown is the cytoskeleton, which has four different types of components: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules, and centrosomes. Microfilaments are fibrous proteins that line the cell membrane and make up the cellular cortex. Intermediate filaments are fibrous proteins that hold organelles in place. Microtubules form the mitotic spindle and maintain cell shape. Centrosomes are made of two tubular structures at right angles to one another. They form the microtubule-organizing center. Part b: This illustration depicts a typical eukaryotic plant cell. The nucleus of a plant cell contains chromatin and a nucleolus, the same as in an animal cell. Other structures that a plant cell has in common with an animal cell include rough and smooth ER, the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, peroxisomes, and ribosomes. The fluid inside the plant cell is called the cytoplasm, just as in an animal cell. The plant cell has three of the four cytoskeletal components found in animal cells: microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments. Plant cells do not have centrosomes. Plants have five structures not found in animals cells: plasmodesmata, chloroplasts, plastids, a central vacuole, and a cell wall. Plasmodesmata form channels between adjacent plant cells. Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis; they have an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and stack of membranes inside the inner membrane. The central vacuole is a very large, fluid-filled structure that maintains pressure against the cell wall. Plastids store pigments. The cell wall is localized outside the cell membrane.\" width=\"1201\" height=\"634\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-902\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1: This figure shows (a) a typical animal cell and (b) a typical plant cell.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/header>\n<section>\n<p id=\"fs-idm11971424\">What structures does a plant cell have that are missing in an animal cell? \u00a0 What structures does an animal cell have that are missing in a plant cell?<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idp782960\">\n<h2>The Plasma Membrane<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp151205360\">Like prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane (Figure 2) made up of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins that separates the internal contents of the cell from its surrounding environment.\u00a0 A more detailed explanation of this structure will be covered in a later chapter. \u00a0 As mentioned in the chemistry unit, a phospholipid is a lipid molecule composed of two fatty acid chains and a phosphate group. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">The plasma membrane regulates the passage of materials into and out<\/span> <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">of the cell.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1142\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1142\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1142\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23214917\/5-1-1.jpeg\" alt=\"the plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer. in the bilayer, the two long hydrophobic tails of phospholipids face toward the center, and the hydrophilic head group faces the exterior. Integral membrane proteins and protein channels span the entire bilayer. Protein channels have a pore in the middle. Peripheral membrane proteins sit on the surface of the phospholipids and are associated with the head groups. On the exterior side of the membrane, carbohydrates are attached to certain proteins and lipids. Filaments of the cytoskeleton line the interior of the membrane.\" width=\"800\" height=\"394\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1142\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. There are other components, such as cholesterol and carbohydrates, which can be found in the membrane in addition to phospholipids and protein.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_02\"><\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idp27187792\">The plasma membranes of cells that specialize in absorption are folded into fingerlike projections called microvilli (singular = microvillus). This folding increases the surface area of the plasma membrane. Such cells are typically found lining the small intestine, the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food. This is an excellent example of how important structure is to function.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp21405776\">\n<h2>The Cytoplasm<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp32782608\">The cytoplasm comprises the contents of a cell between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.\u00a0 It consists of organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol and the cytoskeleton (Figure 1).\u00a0 The cytoplasm consists of 70-80% water, but has a semi-solid consistency, due to the proteins found within it.\u00a0 Various other organic molecules are found within the cytoplasm allowing for many metabolic reactions, such as protein synthesis, take place.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp49015840\">\n<h2>The Cytoskeleton<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_03\"><\/figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_1143\" style=\"width: 410px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1143\" class=\"wp-image-1143\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23214951\/5-1-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Microfilaments line the inside of the plasma membrane, whereas microfilaments radiate out from the center of the cell. Intermediate filaments form a network throughout the cell that holds organelles in place.\" width=\"400\" height=\"510\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1143\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3. Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules compose a cell\u2019s cytoskeleton.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>If you were to remove all the organelles from a cell, would the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm be the only components that remain? No. Within the cytoplasm, there is a network of protein fibers that has many functions including:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>helps to maintain cell shape;<\/li>\n<li>secures certain organelles in specific positions;<\/li>\n<li>allows cytoplasm and vesicles movement within the cell; and<\/li>\n<li>enables unicellular organisms to move independently.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Collectively, this network of protein fibers is known as the cytoskeleton. There are three types of fibers within the cytoskeleton (Figure 3).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp136442624\">Microfilaments, also know as actin filaments, are the thinnest of the cytoskeletal fibers and function in moving cellular components.\u00a0 This is seen quite a lot during cell division. Common in muscle cells, these components are\u00a0 responsible for muscle cell contraction. Intermediate filaments are important in maintaining the shape of the cell and anchoring organelles.\u00a0 Microtubules are the thickest of the cytoskeletal fibers. These are hollow tubes that can dissolve and reform quickly. Microtubules guide organelle movement and are the structures that pull chromosomes to their poles during cell division. \u00a0 In cilia and flagella, the microtubules are organized as a circle of nine double microtubules on the outside and two microtubules in the center.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm1366112\">The centrosome is a region near the nucleus of animal cells that functions as a microtubule-organizing center. It contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie at right angles to each other.\u00a0 The region replicates before a cell divides. The centrioles function by pulling the duplicated chromosomes to opposite ends of a dividing cell.\u00a0 Most plant cells lack centrioles leading to the idea that their role is still not completely understood.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idp84576176\">\n<h2>Flagella and Cilia<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp115403344\">Flagella (singular = flagellum) are long, hair-like structures extending from the plasma membrane and are used to move an entire cell.\u00a0 When flagella are present, the numbers are fairly small.\u00a0 Cilia are short, hair-like structures that are used to move entire cells or substances along the outer surface of the cell.\u00a0 When cilia(singular = cilium) are present, the numbers are high and extend along the entire surface of the plasma membrane.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm54847856\">\n<h2>The Endomembrane System<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp135494832\">The endomembrane system (<em>endo<\/em> = within) is a group of membranes and organelles (Figure 4) in eukaryotic cells that work together to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. It includes the nucleus, the endoplasmic reticulum, and vesicles, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles\/vesicles.\u00a0 Although not technically <em>within<\/em> the cell, the plasma membrane is included in the endomembrane system because, as you will see, it interacts with the other endomembranous organelles.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idp2414656\">\n<h3>The Nucleus<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp53392528\">Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell (Figure 4). The nucleus (plural = nuclei) houses the cell\u2019s DNA in the form of chromatin and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins. Let us look at it in more detail (Figure 4).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1144\" style=\"width: 461px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1144\" class=\"wp-image-1144\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23215048\/5-1-4.jpeg\" alt=\"In this illustration, chromatin floats in the nucleoplasm. The nucleoid is depicted as a dense, circular region inside the nucleus. The double nuclear membrane is perforated with protein-lined pores\" width=\"451\" height=\"304\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1144\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4. The outermost boundary of the nucleus is the nuclear envelope. Notice that the nuclear envelope consists of two phospholipid bilayers (membranes)\u2014an outer membrane and an inner membrane\u2014in contrast to the plasma membrane, which consists of only one phospholipid bilayer. (credit: modification of work by NIGMS, NIH)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus (Figure 4).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp53405712\">The nuclear envelope is embedded with pores that permit the passage of ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleus and cytoplasm.\u00a0 The nucleus contains chromatin, thread-like DNA and proteins.\u00a0 Chromatin changes to chromosomes at cell division.\u00a0 In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures. Every species has a specific number of chromosomes in the nucleus of its body cells. For example, in humans, the chromosome number is 46, whereas in fruit flies, the chromosome number is 8.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp41267872\">Chromosomes are only visible and distinguishable from one another just before cell division. When the cell is in the growth and maintenance phases of its life cycle, the chromosomes resemble an unwound, jumbled bunch of threads(chromatin).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp130648528\">The nucleus directs the synthesis of ribosomes, but how? \u00a0 A darkly staining area within the nucleus, called the nucleolus (plural = nucleoli), collecs the ribosomal RNA with associated proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits.\u00a0 These subunits are then transported through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm to form ribosomes.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp100041920\">\n<h3>The Endoplasmic Reticulum<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp96833712\">The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Figure 5) is a series of interconnected membranous tubules, continuous with the nuclear envelope, that collectively modify proteins and synthesize lipids. However, these two functions are performed in separate areas of the endoplasmic reticulum: the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, respectively.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp46615216\">The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is so named because the ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface giving it a studded appearance when viewed through an electron microscope. These ribosomes synthesize proteins that are transferred into the lumen of the RER where they undergo modifications.\u00a0 The RER is also responsible for the production of phospholipids making up the plasma membrane. If\u00a0 the phospholipids or modified proteins are not destined to stay in the RER, they will be packaged and transported from the RER by budding from the membrane (Figure 4).\u00a0 The RER\u00a0 is abundant in cells that secrete proteins, such as the liver.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp52297536\">The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is continuous with the RER but has few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface (see Figure 4). The functions of SER include:<\/p>\n<p>(1)\u00a0 synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid hormones<\/p>\n<p>(2)\u00a0 detoxification of medications and poisons<\/p>\n<p>(3)\u00a0 alcohol metabolism<\/p>\n<p>(4)\u00a0 storage of calcium ions<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp54178896\">\n<h3>The Golgi Apparatus<\/h3>\n<div id=\"attachment_1145\" style=\"width: 461px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1145\" class=\"wp-image-1145\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23215128\/5-1-5.jpeg\" alt=\"In this transmission electron micrograph, the Golgi apparatus appears as a stack of membranes surrounded by unnamed organelles.\" width=\"451\" height=\"227\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1145\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5. The Golgi apparatus in this transmission electron micrograph of a white blood cell is visible as a stack of semicircular flattened rings in the lower portion of this image. Several vesicles can be seen near the Golgi apparatus. (credit: modification of work by Louisa Howard; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Before reaching their final destination, the lipids or proteins for transport need to be sorted, packaged, and tagged so that they arrive at their proper site. The sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins take place in the Golgi apparatus (also called the Golgi body\/complex), a series of flattened membranous sacs (Figure 5).<\/p>\n<p>The transport vesicles that form from the ER travel to the Golgi.\u00a0 They fuse with it emptying their contents into the lumen of the Golgi apparatus. As the proteins and lipids travel through the Golgi, they undergo further modifications. The most frequent modification is the addition of short chains of sugar molecules. The newly modified proteins and lipids are tagged for routing to their proper destinations.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp32348592\">Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged into vesicles that bud from the opposite face of the Golgi. Transport vesicles deposit their contents into other parts of the cell for later use.\u00a0 Secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane releasing their contents outside the cell.\u00a0 The number of Golgi in different cell types illustrates the importance of form following function within cells. Cells that engage in a great deal of secretory activity have an abundant number of Golgi.\u00a0 Examples of this can be found in cells of the salivary glands and our immune system where enzymes and antibodies are continuously secreted.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp92416528\">In plant cells, the Golgi has an additional role of synthesizing polysaccharides. \u00a0 Some of them are incorporated into the cell wall and some o are used in other parts of the cell.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp23189584\">\n<h3>Lysosomes<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_07\"><\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp120839440\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp40076928\">In animal cells, the lysosomes are the cell\u2019s \u201cgarbage disposal.\u201d Digestive enzymes within the lysosomes aid the breakdown of proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids, and even worn-out organelles. In single-celled eukaryotes, lysosomes are important for digestion of ingested food\u00a0 and the recycling of organelles. These enzymes are active at a much lower pH (more acidic) than those located in the cytoplasm.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp48293552\">Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to destroy disease-causing organisms that might enter the cell. A good example of this occurs as part of our body\u2019s immune system. In a process known as phagocytosis, a section of the plasma membrane of the macrophage(white blood cell) folds in and engulfs a pathogen. The invaginated section containing the pathogen, pinches itself off from the plasma membrane and becomes a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with a lysosome where the hydrolytic enzymes then destroy the pathogen (Figure 6).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1146\" style=\"width: 554px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1146\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1146\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23215253\/5-1-6.jpeg\" alt=\"In this illustration, a eukaryotic cell is shown consuming a bacterium. As the bacterium is consumed, it is encapsulated into a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with a lysosome, and proteins inside the lysosome digest the bacterium.\" width=\"544\" height=\"317\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1146\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 6. A macrophage has phagocytized a potentially pathogenic bacterium into a vesicle, which then fuses with a lysosome within the cell so that the pathogen can be destroyed. Other organelles are present in the cell, but for simplicity, are not shown.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Vesicles and Vacuoles<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp181404192\">Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport.\u00a0 Vesicles can fuse with other membranes within the cell system while vacuoles do not fuse with other cellular components.\u00a0 Vacuoles are larger than vesicles in all eukaryotic cells.\u00a0 In plants, vacuoles are especially large taking up a great deal of space within the cell.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<header>\n<h3>Art Connection<\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<section>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_04\"><\/figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_1147\" style=\"width: 460px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1147\" class=\"wp-image-1147\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23215326\/5-1-7.png\" alt=\"This figure shows the nucleus, rough ER, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, and plasma membrane. The right side of the rough ER is shown with an integral membrane protein embedded in it. The part of the protein facing the inside of the ER has a carbohydrate attached to it. The protein is shown leaving the ER in a vesicle that fuses with the cis face of the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus consists of several layers of membranes, called cisternae. As the protein passes through the cisternae, it is further modified by the addition of more carbohydrates. Eventually, it leaves the trans face of the Golgi in a vesicle. The vesicle fuses with the cell membrane so that the carbohydrate that was on the inside of the vesicle faces the outside of the membrane. At the same time, the contents of the vesicle are released from the cell.\" width=\"450\" height=\"545\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1147\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 7. The endomembrane system works to modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins. (credit: modification of work by Magnus Manske)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm10205936\">Why does the <em>cis<\/em> face of the Golgi not face the plasma membrane?<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp76377136\">\n<h2>Ribosomes<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_903\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-903\" class=\"wp-image-903\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2015\/07\/21032138\/Ribosomes.jpeg\" alt=\"The ribosome consists of a small subunit and a large subunit, which is about three times as big as the small one. The large subunit sits on top of the small one. A chain of mRNA threads between the large and small subunits. A protein chain extends from the top of the large subunit.\" width=\"350\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-903\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 8. Ribosomes are made up of a large subunit (top) and a small subunit (bottom). During protein synthesis, ribosomes assemble amino acids into proteins.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp12745600\">Ribosomes are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. When viewed through an electron microscope, free ribosomes appear as either clusters or single tiny dots floating freely in the cytoplasm.\u00a0 As mentioned earlier, ribosomes can also be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.\u00a0 Electron microscopy has shown that ribosomes consist of large and small subunits (Figure 8).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp54800160\">Because protein synthesis is essential for all cells, ribosomes are found in practically every cell.\u00a0 In prokaryotic cells, ribosomes generally are smaller.\u00a0 They are particularly abundant in immature red blood cells for the synthesis of hemoglobin, which functions in the transport of oxygen throughout the body.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp98563536\">\n<h2>Mitochondria<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_08\"><\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp89144384\">\n<div id=\"attachment_1148\" style=\"width: 459px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1148\" class=\"wp-image-1148\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23215431\/5-1-8.jpeg\" alt=\"This transmission electron micrograph of a mitochondrion shows an oval, outer membrane and an inner membrane with many folds called cristae. Inside of the inner membrane is a space called the mitochondrial matrix.\" width=\"449\" height=\"232\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1148\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 9.\u00a0This transmission electron micrograph shows a mitochondrion as viewed with an electron microscope. Notice the inner and outer membranes, the cristae, and the mitochondrial matrix. (credit: modification of work by Matthew Britton; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm1197904\">Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) are often called the \u201cpowerhouses\u201d or \u201cenergy factories\u201d of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell\u2019s main energy-carrying molecule. The formation of ATP from the breakdown of glucose is known as cellular respiration. Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles (Figure 9) that have their own ribosomes and DNA \u00a0 The inner layer has folds called cristae, which increase the surface area of the inner membrane. The internal area surrounding the folds is known as the matrix. The number of mitochondria vary in a cell.\u00a0 Muscle cells have a very high concentration of mitochondria due to the high energy required for muscle contraction.\u00a0 This is in keeping with form following function.<\/p>\n<h2>Peroxisomes<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp87693712\">Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes.\u00a0 Peroxisomes carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids.\u00a0 Alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes in our liver cells. A byproduct of these reactions is hydrogen peroxide, H<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub>, which is contained within the peroxisomes to prevent damage to other cellular components.\u00a0 Hydrogen peroxide is safely broken down by peroxisomal enzymes into water and oxygen.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp117947888\">\n<h2>Animal Cells versus Plant Cells<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp129773424\">Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and plant cells (see Table). Animal cells have centrioles, centrosomes, and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata, and plastids\u00a0 and a large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idp66087520\">\n<h3>The Cell Wall<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm6688624\">In Figure 1b, the diagram of a plant cell, you see a structure external to the plasma membrane called the cell wall. The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives shape to the cell. Cell walls are also found in fungal and protist cells.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp96698608\">The major organic molecule in the plant cell wall is cellulose (Figure 10), a polysaccharide made up of long, straight chains of glucose units. When nutritional information refers to dietary fiber, it is referring to the cellulose content of food.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_904\" style=\"width: 890px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2015\/07\/21032139\/CellWall.jpeg\"><img decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-904\" class=\"wp-image-904\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/404\/2015\/07\/21032139\/CellWall.jpeg\" alt=\"This illustration shows three glucose subunits that are attached together. Dashed lines at each end indicate that many more subunits make up an entire cellulose fiber. Each glucose subunit is a closed ring composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.\" width=\"880\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-904\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 10. Cellulose is a long chain of \u03b2-glucose molecules connected by a 1-4 linkage. The dashed lines at each end of the figure indicate a series of many more glucose units. The size of the page makes it impossible to portray an entire cellulose molecule.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm37437216\">\n<h3>Chloroplasts<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm1766928\">Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also have their own DNA and ribosomes. Chloroplasts function in photosynthesis and can be found in eukaryotic cells such as plants and algae. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, water, and light energy are used to make glucose and oxygen. Plants (autotrophs) are able to make their own food, like glucose, whereas animals (heterotrophs) must rely on other organisms for their organic compounds or food source.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_09\"><\/figure>\n<figure><\/figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_1149\" style=\"width: 411px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1149\" class=\"wp-image-1149\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23222724\/5-1-11.jpeg\" alt=\"This illustration shows a chloroplast, which has an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The space between the outer and inner membranes is called the intermembrane space. Inside the inner membrane are flat, pancake-like structures called thylakoids. The thylakoids form stacks called grana. The liquid inside the inner membrane is called the stroma, and the space inside the thylakoid is called the thylakoid space.\" width=\"401\" height=\"268\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1149\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 11. This simplified diagram of a chloroplast shows the outer membrane, inner membrane, thylakoids, grana, and stroma.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have outer and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by a chloroplast\u2019s inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled membrane sacs called thylakoids (Figure 11). This is the site of photosynthesis. \u00a0 Each stack of thylakoids is called a granum (plural = grana) surrounded by a fluid, stroma.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp82374928\">The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the energy of sunlight for photosynthesis. Like plant cells, photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts. Some bacteria also perform photosynthesis, but they do not have chloroplasts. Their photosynthetic pigments are located in the thylakoid membrane within the cell itself.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp30879584\">\n<header>\n<h3>Evolution in Action:\u00a0 Endosymbiosis<\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<section>\n<p id=\"fs-idp20816560\">We have mentioned that both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA and ribosomes. Wonder why? Strong evidence points to endosymbiosis. \u00a0 Endosymbiosis (<em>endo-<\/em>= within) is a relationship in which one organism lives inside the other. Endosymbiotic relationships abound in nature. An example of this is the microbes living inside the human large intestine.\u00a0 The microbes benefit because they are protected from other organisms and are provided a stable habitat and abundant food supply.\u00a0 We benefit from absorbing the vitamin K produced by the microbes that we would otherwise not obtain.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm385840\">Scientists have long noticed that bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts are similar in size. We also know that mitochondria and chloroplasts have DNA and ribosomes, just as bacteria do. Scientists believe that host cells and bacteria formed a mutually beneficial endosymbiotic relationship.\u00a0 This occurred when the host cells ingested aerobic bacteria and cyanobacteria but did not destroy them. Through evolution, these ingested bacteria became more specialized in their functions, with the aerobic bacteria becoming mitochondria and the photosynthetic bacteria becoming chloroplasts.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp52490432\">\n<h3>The Central Vacuole<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp92888608\">\u00a0If you look at Figure 1b, you will notice that plant cells each have a large, central vacuole that occupies most of the cell. The central vacuole plays a key role in regulating the water concentration of the cell in changing environmental conditions. In plant cells, the liquid inside the central vacuole provides turgor pressure, which is the outward pressure caused by the fluid inside the cell. What happens if you forget to water your plant?\u00a0 As the water concentration in the soil becomes lower than the water concentration in the plant, water moves out of the central vacuoles and cytoplasm and into the soil. As the central vacuole shrinks, it leaves the cell wall unsupported. This loss of support to the cell walls of a plant results in the wilted appearance.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm15353488\">\n<h2>Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells<\/h2>\n<div id=\"attachment_1150\" style=\"width: 459px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1150\" class=\"wp-image-1150\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23222807\/5-1-12.jpeg\" alt=\"This illustration shows the plasma membrane. Embedded in the plasma membrane are integral membrane proteins called integrins. On the exterior of the cell is a vast network of collagen fibers, which are attached to the integrins via a protein called fibronectin. Proteoglycan complexes also extend from the plasma membrane into the extracellular matrix. A magnified view shows that each proteoglycan complex is composed of a polysaccharide core. Proteins branch from this core, and carbohydrates branch from the proteins. The inside of the cytoplasmic membrane is lined with microfilaments of the cytoskeleton.\" width=\"449\" height=\"488\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1150\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 12. The extracellular matrix consists of a network of substances secreted by cells.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm6262368\">The extracellular matrix is a protective mesh-like network of proteins and polysaccharides.\u00a0 It varies in consistency and works closely with the cytoskeleton to maintain cell shape.\u00a0 (Figure 12). The extracellular matrix hold the cells together to form a tissue and allows the cells within the tissue to communicate with each other.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_10\"><\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp99052240\">\n<h2>Intercellular Junctions:\u00a0 Animal vs. Plant<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp53145600\">Cells also communicate with each other by direct contact.\u00a0 Intracellular junctions occur in three distinct types within an animal cell:<\/p>\n<p>(1)\u00a0 adhesion junctions(desmosomes) &#8211; act like spot welds between adjacent epithelial cells(Figure 13c);\u00a0 keep cells together in sheet-like formation<\/p>\n<p>(2)\u00a0 tight junctions &#8211; watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells(Figure 13b); prevents material from leaking between cells; typically found in epithelial tissue lining internal organs\/cavities and skin<\/p>\n<p>(3)\u00a0 gap junctions &#8211; channels between adjacent cells allowing transport of materials; enable cells to communicate(Figure 13d)<\/p>\n<p>Plasmodesmata (singular = plasmodesma) are junctions between plant cells.\u00a0 Generally in plants, long stretches of the plasma membranes of neighboring plant cells cannot touch one another due to the cell walls surrounding each cell. \u00a0 Plasmodesmata are numerous channels that pass between the cell walls of adjacent plant cells.\u00a0 They connect their cytoplasm and enable signal molecules and nutrients to be transported from cell to cell (Figure 13a).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1151\" style=\"width: 708px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1151\" class=\"wp-image-1151\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23222847\/5-1-13-1024x823.jpeg\" alt=\"Part a shows two plant cells side-by-side. A channel, or plasmodesma, in the cell wall allows fluid and small molecules to pass from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm of another. Part b shows two cell membranes joined together by a matrix of tight junctions. Part c shows two cells fused together by a desmosome. Cadherins extend out from each cell and join the two cells together. Intermediate filaments connect to cadherins on the inside of the cell. Part d shows two cells joined together with protein pores called gap junctions that allow water and small molecules to pass through.\" width=\"698\" height=\"561\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1151\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 13. There are four kinds of connections between cells. (a) A plasmodesma is a channel between the cell walls of two adjacent plant cells. (b) Tight junctions join adjacent animal cells. (c) Desmosomes join two animal cells together. (d) Gap junctions act as channels between animal cells. (credit b, c, d: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>COMPARISION OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLULAR ORGANELLES<\/strong><\/p>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch03_03_11\"><\/figure>\n<table id=\"fs-idp27375984\" summary=\"03_03_01\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th colspan=\"5\">Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells and Their Functions<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Cell Component<\/th>\n<th>Function<\/th>\n<th>Present in Prokaryotes?<\/th>\n<th>Present in Animal Cells?<\/th>\n<th>Present in Plant Cells?<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Plasma membrane<\/td>\n<td>Separates cell from external environment; controls passage of organic molecules, ions, water, oxygen, and wastes into and out of the cell<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cytoplasm<\/td>\n<td>Provides structure to cell; site of many metabolic reactions; medium in which organelles are found<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Nucleoid<\/td>\n<td>Location of DNA<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Nucleus<\/td>\n<td>Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis of ribosomes and proteins<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ribosomes<\/td>\n<td>Protein synthesis<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Mitochondria<\/td>\n<td>ATP production\/cellular respiration<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Peroxisomes<\/td>\n<td>Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids and amino acids, and detoxifies poisons<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Vesicles and vacuoles<\/td>\n<td>Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Centrosome<\/td>\n<td>Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells; source of microtubules in animal cells<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Lysosomes<\/td>\n<td>Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of worn-out organelles<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cell wall<\/td>\n<td>Protection, structural support and maintenance of cell shape<\/td>\n<td>Yes, primarily peptidoglycan in bacteria but not Archaea<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Yes, primarily cellulose<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Chloroplasts<\/td>\n<td>Photosynthesis<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Endoplasmic reticulum<\/td>\n<td>Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Golgi apparatus<\/td>\n<td>Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and distributes lipids and proteins<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cytoskeleton<\/td>\n<td>Maintains cell\u2019s shape, secures organelles in specific positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to move independently<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<td>Yes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Flagella<\/td>\n<td>Cellular locomotion<\/td>\n<td>Some<\/td>\n<td>Some<\/td>\n<td>No, except for some plant sperm.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Cilia<\/td>\n<td>Cellular locomotion, movement of particles along extracellular surface of plasma membrane, and filtration<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<td>Some<\/td>\n<td>No<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p id=\"fs-idm68553648\">\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp25905568\">\n<h1>Section Summary<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idp246688\">Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes, but there are a number of differences.\u00a0 A eukaryotic cell is typically larger, has a true nucleus,\u00a0 and has other membrane-bound organelles that allow for compartmentalization of functions.\u00a0 These organelles vary in animal and plant cells but each one provides a function for an overall successful cell life.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp55391312\">Animal cells communicate through their extracellular matrices and are connected to each other by various intracellular junctions. Plant cells are connected and communicate with each other by plasmodesmata, yet another difference between animal and plant cells.<\/p>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/assessments\/load?src_url=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api\/assessments\/647.xml&#38;results_end_point=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api&#38;assessment_id=647&#38;confidence_levels=true&#38;enable_start=true&#38;eid=https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/chapter\/eukaryotic-cells\/\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h1><\/h1>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Additional Self Check Questions<\/h3>\n<section id=\"fs-idm38703808\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm6867008\">\n<section>\n<div id=\"fs-idp38258896\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp38259024\">1. What structures does a plant cell have that an animal cell does not? What structures does an animal cell have that a plant cell does not?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp12517232\">\n<div>2. Why is the plasma membrane considered a member of the endomembrane system?<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp56691968\"><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm2423936\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm111755376\">\n<section>\n<div id=\"fs-idm587248\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp53032608\">3. In the context of cell biology, what do we mean by form follows function? What are at least two examples of this concept?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp60910016\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Answers<\/h3>\n<p>1. Plant cells have plasmodesmata, a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and plastids. Animal cells have lysosomes and centrosomes.<\/p>\n<p>2. The plasma membrane interacts with other organelles within the endomembrane system.<\/p>\n<p>3. \u201cForm follows function\u201d refers to the idea that the function of a body part dictates the form of that body part. As an example, organisms like birds or fish that fly or swim quickly through the air or water have streamlined bodies that reduce drag. At the cellular level, in tissues involved in secretory functions, such as the salivary glands, the cells have abundant Golgi.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm23828896\"><\/section>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":18,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-115","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":94,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/115","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/18"}],"version-history":[{"count":26,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/115\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1591,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/115\/revisions\/1591"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/94"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/115\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=115"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=115"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=115"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=115"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}