{"id":70,"date":"2014-10-26T11:58:29","date_gmt":"2014-10-26T11:58:29","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/novabiology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=70"},"modified":"2019-05-13T13:41:33","modified_gmt":"2019-05-13T13:41:33","slug":"biological-molecules","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/chapter\/biological-molecules\/","title":{"raw":"Biological Molecules","rendered":"Biological Molecules"},"content":{"raw":"<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the ways in which carbon is critical to life<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Distinguish between monomers and polymers and the reactions involved.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the four major types of biological molecules<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Understand the functions of the four major types of molecules<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm12355040\">The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules are called monomers.\u00a0 Monomers, when bonded together, create polymers through a reaction known as dehydration.\u00a0 In a dehydration reaction, a loss of water occurs.\u00a0 Polymers can be broken down into monomers by a hydrolysis reaction.\u00a0 In this reaction, water is necessary to break the bonds holding the monomers together. \u00a0 There are four major classes of biological macromolecules (polymers), and each is an important component of the cell and performs a wide array of functions. Combined, these molecules make up the majority of a cell\u2019s mass. Biological macromolecules are <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">organic<\/span>, meaning that they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and additional minor elements.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm25618912\">\r\n<h1>Carbon<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm120518352\">It is often said that life is \u201ccarbon-based.\u201d This means that carbon atoms, bonded to other carbon atoms or other elements, form the fundamental components of many, if not most, of the molecules found uniquely in living things. Other elements play important roles in biological molecules, but carbon certainly qualifies as the \u201cfoundation\u201d element for molecules in living things. It is the bonding properties of carbon atoms that are responsible for its important role.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm33595824\">\r\n<h1>Carbon Bonding<\/h1>\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_01\"><\/figure>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1106\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"401\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1106\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23211637\/3-1-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Diagram of a methane molecule.\" width=\"401\" height=\"191\" \/> Figure 1. Carbon can form four covalent bonds to create an organic molecule. The simplest carbon molecule is methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>), depicted here.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nCarbon contains four electrons in its outer(valence)shell. Therefore, it can form four covalent bonds with other atoms or molecules. The simplest organic carbon molecule is methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>), in which four hydrogen atoms bind to a carbon atom (Figure 1).\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm26253760\">However, structures that are more complex are made using carbon. Any of the hydrogen atoms could be replaced with another carbon atom covalently bonded to the first carbon atom. In this way, long and branching chains of carbon compounds can be made (Figure <strong>2a<\/strong>). The carbon atoms may bond with atoms of other elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus (Figure <strong>2b<\/strong>). The molecules may also form rings, which themselves can link with other rings (Figure <strong>2<\/strong><strong>c<\/strong>). This diversity of molecular forms accounts for the diversity of functions of the biological macromolecules and is based to a large degree on the ability of carbon to form multiple bonds with itself and other atoms.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1107\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"544\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1107\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23211741\/3-1-2.jpeg\" alt=\"Examples of three different carbon-containing molecules.\" width=\"544\" height=\"667\" \/> Figure 2. These examples show three molecules (found in living organisms) that contain carbon atoms bonded in various ways to other carbon atoms and the atoms of other elements. (a) This molecule of stearic acid has a long chain of carbon atoms. (b) Glycine, a component of proteins, contains carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. (c) Glucose, a sugar, has a ring of carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.[\/caption]\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_02\"><\/figure>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp127141312\">\r\n<h1>Carbohydrates<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp55634080\">Carbohydrates are macromolecules with which most consumers are somewhat familiar.\u00a0 Carbohydrates are a quick, short-term energy storage molecule.\u00a0 Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits, and vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide energy to the body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar. Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans, animals, and plants.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm80257312\">Carbohydrates can be represented by the formula (CH<sub>2<\/sub>O)<sub><em>n<\/em><\/sub>, where <em>n<\/em> is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules. Carbohydrates are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp28290880\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Monosaccharides<\/span> (mono- = \u201cone\u201d; sacchar- = \u201csweet\u201d) are simple sugars, the most common of which is glucose. In monosaccharides, the number of carbon atoms usually ranges from three to six. Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix -ose. Depending on the number of carbon atoms in the sugar, they may be known as trioses (three carbon atoms), pentoses (five carbon atoms), and hexoses (six carbon atoms).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp36550496\">The chemical formula for glucose is C<sub>6<\/sub>H<sub>12<\/sub>O<sub>6<\/sub>. In most living species, glucose is an important source of energy. During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose, and that energy is used to help make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water by the process of photosynthesis, and the glucose, in turn, is used for the energy requirements of the plant. The excess synthesized glucose is often stored as starch that is broken down by other organisms that feed on plants.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_03\"><\/figure>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1108\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"450\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1108\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23211823\/3-1-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Chemical structures of glucose, galactose, and fructose.\" width=\"450\" height=\"341\" \/> Figure 3. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are isomeric monosaccharides, meaning that they have the same chemical formula but slightly different structures.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nGalactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (found in fruit) are other common monosaccharides. Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical formula (C<sub>6<\/sub>H<sub>12<\/sub>O<sub>6<\/sub>), they differ structurally and chemically because of differing arrangements of atoms in the carbon chain (Figure 3).\u00a0 For this reason, they are referred to as <em>isomers.<\/em>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm14603296\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Disaccharides<\/span> (di- = \u201ctwo\u201d) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction. During this process, the hydroxyl group (\u2013OH) of one monosaccharide combines with a hydrogen atom of another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water (H<sub>2<\/sub>O) and forming a covalent bond between atoms in the two sugar molecules.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm57322464\">Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose, or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from a dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the monomers glucose and fructose.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm87414368\">A long chain of monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds is known as a <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">polysaccharide<\/span> (poly- = \u201cmany\u201d). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of monosaccharides. Polysaccharides may be very large molecules. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are examples of polysaccharides, also referred to by many as \"complex carbs\".<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm65632\">Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants.\u00a0 Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess glucose is stored as starch in different plant parts, including roots and seeds. The starch that is consumed by animals is broken down into smaller molecules, such as glucose. The cells can then absorb the glucose.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm55991536\">Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates, and is made up of monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to release glucose.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp76517696\">Cellulose is one of the most abundant natural polysaccharides. The cell walls of plants are mostly made of cellulose, which provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are mostly cellulose in nature. Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are linked by bonds between particular carbon atoms in the glucose molecule.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm19688368\">Every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped over and packed tightly as extended long chains. This gives cellulose its rigidity and high tensile strength\u2014which is so important to plant cells. Cellulose passing through our digestive system is called dietary fiber. While the glucose-glucose bonds in cellulose cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes, herbivores such as cows, buffalos, and horses are able to digest grass that is rich in cellulose and use it as a food source because they secrete the enzyme, cellulase.\u00a0 Cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose monomers that can be used as an energy source by herbivores.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp28161680\">Carbohydrates serve other functions in different animals. Arthropods, such as insects, spiders, and crabs, have an outer skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts. This exoskeleton is made of the polysaccharide, chitin, which is a nitrogenous carbohydrate. It is made of repeating units of a modified sugar containing nitrogen.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp131172320\">Thus, through differences in molecular structure, carbohydrates are able to serve the very different functions of energy storage (starch and glycogen) and structural support and protection (cellulose and chitin) (Figure 4).<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1110\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1110\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23211944\/3-1-4-1024x731.jpeg\" alt=\"Chemical structures of starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.\" width=\"800\" height=\"571\" \/> Figure 4. Although their structures and functions differ, all polysaccharide carbohydrates are made up of monosaccharides and have the chemical formula (CH<sub>2<\/sub>O)<em>n<\/em>.[\/caption]\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_04\"><\/figure>\r\n<figure><\/figure>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp132143440\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Careers in Action<\/h3>\r\n<section>\r\n<div>\r\n<h4>Registered Dietitian<\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp71341744\" class=\"para\">Obesity is a worldwide health concern, and many diseases, such as diabetes and heart disease, are becoming more prevalent because of obesity. This is one of the reasons why registered dietitians are increasingly sought after for advice. Registered dietitians help plan food and nutrition programs for individuals in various settings. They often work with patients in health-care facilities, designing nutrition plans to prevent and treat diseases. For example, dietitians may teach a patient with diabetes how to manage blood-sugar levels by eating the correct types and amounts of carbohydrates. Dietitians may also work in nursing homes, schools, and private practices.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp54438384\" class=\"para\">To become a registered dietitian, one needs to earn at least a bachelor\u2019s degree in dietetics, nutrition, food technology, or a related field. In addition, registered dietitians must complete a supervised internship program and pass a national exam. Those who pursue careers in dietetics take courses in nutrition, chemistry, biochemistry, biology, microbiology, and human physiology. Dietitians must become experts in the chemistry and functions of food (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<h1>Lipids<\/h1>\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_05\"><\/figure>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1111\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1111\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212028\/3-1-5.jpeg\" alt=\"A photo of a river otter in the water\" width=\"350\" height=\"268\" \/> Figure 5. Hydrophobic lipids in the fur of aquatic mammals, such as this river otter, protect them from the elements. (credit: Ken Bosma)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLipids include a diverse group of compounds that are united by a common feature. Lipids are <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">hydrophobic<\/span> (\u201cwater-fearing\u201d), or insoluble in water, because they are nonpolar molecules.\u00a0 Lipids perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of lipids called fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals. For example, they help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry because of their water-repelling nature. Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and are an important constituent of the plasma membrane. Lipids include fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp47068112\">A fat molecule, such as a triglyceride, consists of two main components\u2014glycerol and fatty acids.\u00a0 Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which an acidic carboxyl group is attached, hence the name \u201cfatty acid.\u201d The number of carbons in the fatty acid may range from 4 to 36; most common are those containing 12\u201318 carbons. In a fat molecule, a fatty acid is attached to each of the three oxygen atoms in the \u2013OH groups of the glycerol molecule with a covalent bond (Figure 6).<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1112\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1112\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212110\/3-1-6-1024x829.jpeg\" alt=\"Images of the molecular structures of a saturated fatty acid, unsaturated fatty acid, triglyceride, steroid, and phospholipid.\" width=\"800\" height=\"648\" \/> Figure 6. Lipids include fats, such as triglycerides, which are made up of fatty acids and glycerol, phospholipids, and steroids.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm20978208\">Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. A fatty acid chain made up of only single covalent bonds forms a saturated fat.\u00a0 Saturated fats are saturated with hydrogen.\u00a0 The number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is at the maximum number allowed. Saturated fats tend to get packed tightly and are solid at room temperature. Animal fats contained in meat and the fat contained in butter are examples of saturated fats. Mammals store fats in specialized cells called adipocytes, where globules of fat occupy most of the cell. In plants, fat or oil is stored in seeds and is used as a source of energy during embryonic development.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp55898064\">A fatty acid chain that contains double bonds forms an unsaturated fat.\u00a0 Due to the double bond, there are fewer hydrogens attached to the carbon skeleton. \u00a0 Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are called oils. If there is one double bond in the molecule, then it is known as a monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than one double bond, then it is known as a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp47052848\">Unsaturated fats or oils are usually of plant origin and contain unsaturated fatty acids. The double bond causes a bend or a \u201ckink\u201d that prevents the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping them liquid at room temperature. Olive oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats help to improve blood cholesterol levels, whereas saturated fats contribute to plaque formation in the arteries, which increases the risk of a heart attack.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_07\"><\/figure>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1113\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1113\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212208\/3-1-7.jpeg\" alt=\"Two images show the molecular structure of a fat in the cis-conformation and the trans-conformation.\" width=\"400\" height=\"331\" \/> Figure 7.\u00a0During the hydrogenation process, the orientation around the double bonds is changed, making a trans-fat from a cis-fat. This changes the chemical properties of the molecule.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them semi-solid, leading to less spoilage and increased shelf life. Simply speaking, hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them. The orientation of the double bonds affects the chemical properties of the fat (Figure 7).\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm52827760\">Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially hydrogenated <em>trans<\/em>-fats. Recent studies have shown that an increase in <em>trans<\/em>-fats in the human diet may lead to an increase in levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or \u201cbad\u201d cholesterol.\u00a0 This may lead to plaque deposition in the arteries, resulting in heart disease. Many fast food restaurants have recently eliminated the use of <em>trans<\/em>-fats, and U.S. food labels are now required to list their <em>trans<\/em>-fat content.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm54784640\">Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that are required but not synthesized by the human body. Consequently, they must be supplemented through the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids fall into this category and are one of only two known essential fatty acids for humans (the other being omega-6 fatty acids). They are a type of polyunsaturated fat and are called omega-3 fatty acids due to the third carbon from the end of the fatty acid participating in a double bond.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm55974896\">Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids are important in brain function and normal growth and development. They may also prevent heart disease and reduce the risk of cancer.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm78146256\">Like carbohydrates, fats have received a lot of bad publicity. It is true that eating an excess of fried foods and other \u201cfatty\u201d foods leads to weight gain. However, fats do have important functions. Fats serve as long-term energy storage. They also provide insulation for the body and protect our internal organs.\u00a0 Therefore, \u201chealthy\u201d unsaturated fats in moderate amounts should be consumed on a regular basis.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm52357584\">Phospholipids are the major constituent of the plasma membrane. Like fats, they are composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or similar backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached, one fatty acid is replaced with a phosphate group. \u00a0A phospholipid has both hydrophobic(nonpolar) and hydrophilic(polar) regions. The fatty acid chains are hydrophobic and repel water, whereas the phosphate is hydrophilic and interacts with water. \u00a0Cells are surrounded by a membrane, which has a bilayer of phospholipids. The fatty acids of phospholipids face inside, away from water, whereas the phosphate group can face either the outside environment or the inside of the cell, which are both aqueous.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm81694480\">\r\n<h2>Steroids<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm51430352\">Unlike the phospholipids and fats, steroids have a ring structure. Although they do not resemble other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobic. All steroids have four, linked carbon rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm127618976\">Cholesterol is a known as a base steroid. Cholesterol is mainly synthesized in the liver.\u00a0 It is the backbone for many steroid hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Cholesterol is also the precursor of vitamins E and K and bile salts, which help in the breakdown of fats and their subsequent absorption by cells. Although cholesterol is often spoken of in negative terms, it is necessary for the proper functioning of the body. It is a key component of the plasma membranes of animal cells.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm18031456\" class=\"textbox shaded\"><header>\r\n<h3><strong>Concept in Action<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<\/header><section>For an additional perspective on lipids, explore \u201cBiomolecules: The Lipids\u201d through this interactive <a href=\"https:\/\/www.wisc-online.com\/learn\/natural-science\/life-science\/ap13204\/biomolecules---the-lipids\" target=\"_window\" rel=\"nofollow\">animation<\/a>.<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idp8690560\">\r\n<h1>Proteins<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm56053456\">Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most diverse range of functions of all macromolecules.\u00a0 Functions of proteins (and examples) include:\u00a0 (1)\u00a0 structural = collagen; (2)\u00a0 transport = hemoglobin;\u00a0 (3)\u00a0 metabolic = enzymes;\u00a0 (4)\u00a0 defense = antibodies; and (5)\u00a0 regulatory = hormones.<\/p>\r\nEach cell in a living system may contain thousands of different proteins, each with a unique function. Their structures, like their functions, vary greatly. Regardless, proteins are all polymers composed of amino acids monomers.\u00a0 There are only 20 total amino acids and these can be combined in any order.\u00a0 All proteins are made up of different arrangements of the same 20 amino acids.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1114\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"450\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1114\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212357\/3-1-8.jpeg\" alt=\"The fundamental molecular structure of an amino acid is shown. Also shown are the molecular structures of alanine, valine, lysine, and aspartic acid, which vary only in the structure of the R group\" width=\"450\" height=\"749\" \/> Figure\u00a08. Amino acids are made up of a central carbon bonded to an amino group (\u2013NH<sub>2<\/sub>), a carboxyl group (\u2013COOH), and a hydrogen atom. The central carbon\u2019s fourth bond varies among the different amino acids, as seen in these examples of alanine, valine, lysine, and aspartic acid.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nProteins have different shapes.\u00a0 Hemoglobin is a globular protein, but collagen, found in our skin, is a fibrous protein. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Protein shape is critical to its function<\/span>. Changes in temperature, pH, and chemical exposure may lead to permanent changes in the shape of the protein.\u00a0 When a protein undergoes a change in shape a process known as <strong>denaturation<\/strong> has occurred.\u00a0 Changes in shape can create changes in function.\r\n\r\nEach amino acid has the same fundamental structure, which consists of a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (\u2013NH<sub>2<\/sub>), a carboxyl group (\u2013COOH), and a hydrogen atom. Every amino acid also has another variable atom or group of atoms bonded to the central carbon atom known as the R(functional) group. The R group is the only difference in structure between the 20 amino acids. (Figure 8)\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp59830768\">The chemical nature of the R group determines the chemical nature of the amino acid within its protein. \u00a0 Is it an acid or base?\u00a0 It is polar or nonpolar?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp8665520\">The sequence and number of amino acids ultimately determine a protein\u2019s shape, size, and function. Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid by a special covalent bond.\u00a0 A <strong>peptide bond<\/strong> is a covalent bond between 2 or more amino acids formed by a dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of a second amino acid combine, releasing a water molecule.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp963792\">The products formed by such a linkage are called polypeptides. While the terms polypeptide and protein are sometimes used interchangeably. A polypeptide is technically a polymer of amino acids, whereas a protein is used for a polypeptide(s) that have combined together.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\"><header>\r\n<h3>Evolution in Action<\/h3>\r\n<\/header><section>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp46752224\">The Evolutionary Significance of Cytochrome c<\/h4>\r\nCytochrome c is an important component of the molecular machinery that harvests energy from glucose. Because this protein\u2019s role in producing cellular energy is crucial, it has changed very little over millions of years. Protein sequencing has shown that there is a considerable amount of sequence similarity among cytochrome c molecules of different species; evolutionary relationships can be assessed by measuring the similarities or differences among various species\u2019 protein sequences.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp34546400\">For example, scientists have determined that human cytochrome c contains 104 amino acids. For each cytochrome c molecule that has been sequenced to date from different organisms, 37 of these amino acids appear in the same position in each cytochrome c. This indicates that all of these organisms are descended from a common ancestor. On comparing the human and chimpanzee protein sequences, no sequence difference was found. When human and rhesus monkey sequences were compared, a single difference was found in one amino acid. In contrast, human-to-yeast comparisons show a difference in 44 amino acids, suggesting that humans and chimpanzees have a more recent common ancestor than humans and the rhesus monkey, or humans and yeast.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm18002832\">\r\n<h2>Protein Structure<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm15092592\">As discussed earlier, the shape of a protein is critical to its function. To understand how the protein gets its final shape or conformation, we need to understand the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary (Figure 8).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm52007456\">The unique sequence and number of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is its <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">primary<\/span> structure. The unique sequence for every protein is ultimately determined by the gene that encodes the protein. Any change in the gene sequence may lead to a different amino acid being added to the polypeptide chain, causing a change in protein structure and function. In sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin \u03b2 chain has a single amino acid substitution, causing a change in both the structure and function of the protein. What is most remarkable to consider is that a hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha chains and two beta chains that each consist of about 150 amino acids. The molecule, therefore, has about 600 amino acids. The structural difference between a normal hemoglobin molecule and a sickle cell molecule\u2014that dramatically decreases life expectancy\u2014is a single amino acid of the 600.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp73555264\">Because of the change of one amino acid in the chain, the normally biconcave, or disc-shaped, red blood cells assume a crescent or \u201csickle\u201d shape, which clogs arteries. This can lead to a myriad of serious health problems, such as breathlessness, dizziness, headaches, and abdominal pain for those who have this disease.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm35625488\">Folding patterns resulting from interactions between the non-R group portions of amino acids give rise to the<span style=\"text-decoration: underline\"> secondary<\/span> structure of the protein. The most common are the alpha (\u03b1)-helix and beta (\u03b2)-pleated sheet structures. Both structures are held in shape by hydrogen bonds. In the alpha helix, the bonds form between every fourth amino acid and cause a twist in the amino acid chain.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm19429680\">In the \u03b2-pleated sheet, the \u201cpleats\u201d are formed by hydrogen bonding between atoms on the backbone of the polypeptide chain. The R groups are attached to the carbons, and extend above and below the folds of the pleat. The pleated segments align parallel to each other, and hydrogen bonds form between the same pairs of atoms on each of the aligned amino acids. The \u03b1-helix and \u03b2-pleated sheet structures are found in many globular and fibrous proteins.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp14932864\">The unique three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide is known as its<span style=\"text-decoration: underline\"> tertiary<\/span> structure. This structure is caused by chemical interactions between various amino acids and regions of the polypeptide. Primarily, the interactions among R groups create the complex three-dimensional tertiary structure of a protein. There may be ionic bonds formed between R groups on different amino acids, or hydrogen bonding beyond that involved in the secondary structure. When protein folding takes place, the hydrophobic R groups of nonpolar amino acids lay in the interior of the protein, whereas the hydrophilic R groups lay on the outside. The former types of interactions are also known as hydrophobic interactions.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp84269776\">In nature, some proteins are formed from several polypeptides, also known as subunits, and the interaction of these subunits forms the <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">quaternary<\/span> structure. Weak interactions between the subunits help to stabilize the overall structure. For example, hemoglobin is a combination of four polypeptide subunits.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1115\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"650\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1115\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212510\/3-1-9-769x1024.jpeg\" alt=\"Four types of protein structure\" width=\"650\" height=\"866\" \/> Figure 9. The four levels of protein structure can be observed in these illustrations. (credit: modification of work by National Human Genome Research Institute)[\/caption]\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_09\"><\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm54908400\">Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape held together by chemical interactions.\u00a0 As mentioned earlier, if a protein is subject to changes in temperature, pH, or chemical exposure, the protein structure may change or denature.\u00a0 Denaturation is often reversible because the primary structure is preserved if the denaturing agent is removed, allowing the protein to resume its function. Sometimes denaturation is irreversible.\u00a0 This change in shape leads to a loss or change of function.\u00a0 An example is a chicken egg.\u00a0 What happens if we take it away from the chicken and place in a pan of boiling water?\u00a0 What result will I get?\u00a0 Can I return the boiled egg back to the mother and get a baby chick?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm76093712\" class=\"textbox shaded\"><header>\r\n<h3><strong>Concept in Action<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<\/header><section>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp14302288\">For an additional perspective on proteins, explore \u201cBiomolecules: The Proteins\u201d through this interactive <a href=\"https:\/\/www.wisc-online.com\/learn\/natural-science\/life-science\/ap13304\/biomolecules---the-proteins\" target=\"_window\" rel=\"nofollow\">animation<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idp46685792\">\r\n<h1>Nucleic Acids<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp81751552\">Nucleic acids are key macromolecules in the continuity of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm98343584\">The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm71936528\">The other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The DNA molecules never leave the nucleus, but instead use an RNA intermediary to communicate with the rest of the cell. Other types of RNA are also involved in protein synthesis and its regulation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1116\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"450\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1116\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212722\/3-1-10.jpeg\" alt=\"Structure of a nucleotide.\" width=\"450\" height=\"322\" \/> Figure 10. A nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm17990400\">DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known as <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">nucleotides.<\/span>Each nucleotide is made up of three components: (1) \u00a0 nitrogenous base;\u00a0 (2)\u00a0 pentose (five-carbon) sugar;\u00a0 and (3) phosphate group (Figure 10). Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar molecule, which is attached to a phosphate group.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm19716544\">\r\n<h1>DNA Double-Helical Structure<\/h1>\r\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_11\"><\/figure>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1117\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\" wp-image-1117\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212802\/3-1-11.jpeg\" alt=\"Double helix of DNA.\" width=\"350\" height=\"374\" \/> Figure 11. The double-helix model shows DNA as two parallel strands of intertwining molecules. (credit: Jerome Walker, Dennis Myts)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDNA has a double-helical structure (Figure 11). It is composed of two strands of nucleotides.\u00a0 A covalent bond joins the phosphate of one nucleotide to the 5C sugar of the neighboring nucleotide.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp71326832\">The alternating sugar and phosphate groups lie on the outside of each strand, forming the backbone of the DNA. The nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, like the steps of a staircase.\u00a0 These base pairs are held together by a hydrogen bond. The hydrogen bond is strong enough to hold the nitrogenous bases together but weak enough to twist.\u00a0 Thus, the result is the double helix.\u00a0 Within the DNA molecule, the 4 bases are adenine pairing with thymine, and guanine always pairing with cytosine.<\/p>\r\nRNA has some slight changes.\u00a0 Unlike DNA, RNA is single stranded.\u00a0 While the sugar are different in both DNA and RNA, they are still composed of five carbons.\u00a0 The other notable change occurs within the nitrogenous bases.\u00a0 Within RNA, thymine is replaced with uracil.\u00a0 RNA has many functions, but ultimately is important in protein formation.\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm53844848\">\r\n<h2>Section Summary<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm78369600\">Living things are carbon-based because carbon plays such a prominent role in the chemistry of living things. The four covalent bonding positions of the carbon atom can give rise to a wide diversity of compounds with many functions. \u00a0 Carbohydrates are a group of macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the cell and provide structural support to many organisms.\u00a0 Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm51315280\">Lipids are a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and hydrophobic in nature. Major types include fats and oils, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats and oils are a stored form of energy and can include triglycerides. Fats and oils are usually made up of fatty acids and glycerol.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm12137552\">Proteins are a class of macromolecules that can perform a diverse range of functions for the cell.\u00a0 The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Proteins are organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Protein shape and function are intricately linked. Any change in shape may lead to protein denaturation and a loss of function.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp84929280\">Nucleic acids are molecules made up of repeating units of nucleotides that direct cellular activities such as cell division and protein synthesis. Each nucleotide is made up of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA.<\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.openassessments.org\/assessments\/644\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Additional Self Check Exercises<\/h3>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp7442224\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm25434784\"><section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm80389216\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm3416752\">1. Explain at least three functions that lipids serve in plants and\/or animals.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm77231744\">\r\n<div>\u00a02. Explain what happens if even one amino acid is substituted for another in a polypeptide chain. Provide a specific example.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp7442224\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm61820528\"><section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm14720784\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Answers<\/h3>\r\n1.Fat serves as a valuable way for animals to store energy. It can also provide insulation. Phospholipids and steroids are important components of cell membranes.\r\n\r\n2. A change in gene sequence can lead to a different amino acid being added to a polypeptide chain instead of the normal one. This causes a change in protein structure and function. For example, in sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin \u03b2 chain has a single amino acid substitution. Because of this change, the disc-shaped red blood cells assume a crescent shape, which can result in serious health problems.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\"><section id=\"glossary\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>alpha-helix structure (\u03b1-helix)<\/b><\/span><b> <\/b>type of secondary structure of proteins formed by folding of the polypeptide into a helix shape with hydrogen bonds stabilizing the structure<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>amino acid <\/b>monomer of a protein; has a central carbon or alpha carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and an R group or side chain is attached; the R group is different for all 20 amino acids<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>beta-pleated sheet (\u03b2-pleated)<\/b><\/span><b> <\/b>secondary structure found in proteins in which \u201cpleats\u201d are formed by hydrogen bonding between atoms on the backbone of the polypeptide chain<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>carbohydrate <\/b>biological macromolecule in which the ratio of carbon to hydrogen and to oxygen is 1:2:1; carbohydrates serve as energy sources and structural support in cells and form the a cellular exoskeleton of arthropods<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>cellulose <\/b>polysaccharide that makes up the cell wall of plants; provides structural support to the cell<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>chaperone <\/b>(also, chaperonin) protein that helps nascent protein in the folding process<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>chitin <\/b>type of carbohydrate that forms the outer skeleton of all arthropods that include crustaceans and insects; it also forms the cell walls of fungi<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>denaturation <\/b>loss of shape in a protein as a result of changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>disaccharide <\/b>two sugar monomers that are linked together by a glycosidic bond<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>enzyme <\/b>catalyst in a biochemical reaction that is usually a complex or conjugated protein<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>glycogen <\/b>storage carbohydrate in animals<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>glycosidic bond <\/b>bond formed by a dehydration reaction between two monosaccharides with the elimination of a water molecule<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>hormone <\/b>chemical signaling molecule, usually protein or steroid, secreted by endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>lipid <\/b>macromolecule that is nonpolar and insoluble in water<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>monosaccharide <\/b>single unit or monomer of carbohydrates<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>omega fat <\/b>type of polyunsaturated fat that is required by the body; the numbering of the carbon omega starts from the methyl end or the end that is farthest from the carboxylic end<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>peptide bond <\/b>bond formed between two amino acids by a dehydration reaction<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>phospholipid <\/b>major constituent of the membranes; composed of two fatty acids and a phosphate-containing group attached to a glycerol backbone<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>polypeptide <\/b>long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>polysaccharide <\/b>long chain of monosaccharides; may be branched or unbranched<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>primary structure <\/b>linear sequence of amino acids in a protein<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>protein <\/b>biological macromolecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>quaternary structure <\/b>association of discrete polypeptide subunits in a protein<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>saturated fatty acid <\/b>long-chain of hydrocarbon with single covalent bonds in the carbon chain; the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>secondary structure <\/b>regular structure formed by proteins by intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the oxygen atom of one amino acid residue and the hydrogen attached to the nitrogen atom of another amino acid residue<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>starch <\/b>storage carbohydrate in plants<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>steroid <\/b>type of lipid composed of four fused hydrocarbon rings forming a planar structure<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>tertiary structure <\/b>three-dimensional conformation of a protein, including interactions between secondary structural elements; formed from interactions between amino acid side chains<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>trans fat <\/b>fat formed artificially by hydrogenating oils, leading to a different arrangement of double bond(s) than those found in naturally occurring lipids<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>triacylglycerol (also, triglyceride) <\/b>fat molecule; consists of three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>unsaturated fatty acid <\/b>long-chain hydrocarbon that has one or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>wax <\/b>lipid made of a long-chain fatty acid that is esterified to a long-chain alcohol; serves as a protective coating on some feathers, aquatic mammal fur, and leaves<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>","rendered":"<div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the ways in which carbon is critical to life<\/li>\n<li>Distinguish between monomers and polymers and the reactions involved.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the four major types of biological molecules<\/li>\n<li>Understand the functions of the four major types of molecules<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm12355040\">The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules are called monomers.\u00a0 Monomers, when bonded together, create polymers through a reaction known as dehydration.\u00a0 In a dehydration reaction, a loss of water occurs.\u00a0 Polymers can be broken down into monomers by a hydrolysis reaction.\u00a0 In this reaction, water is necessary to break the bonds holding the monomers together. \u00a0 There are four major classes of biological macromolecules (polymers), and each is an important component of the cell and performs a wide array of functions. Combined, these molecules make up the majority of a cell\u2019s mass. Biological macromolecules are <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">organic<\/span>, meaning that they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and additional minor elements.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idm25618912\">\n<h1>Carbon<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idm120518352\">It is often said that life is \u201ccarbon-based.\u201d This means that carbon atoms, bonded to other carbon atoms or other elements, form the fundamental components of many, if not most, of the molecules found uniquely in living things. Other elements play important roles in biological molecules, but carbon certainly qualifies as the \u201cfoundation\u201d element for molecules in living things. It is the bonding properties of carbon atoms that are responsible for its important role.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm33595824\">\n<h1>Carbon Bonding<\/h1>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_01\"><\/figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_1106\" style=\"width: 411px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1106\" class=\"wp-image-1106\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23211637\/3-1-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Diagram of a methane molecule.\" width=\"401\" height=\"191\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1106\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Carbon can form four covalent bonds to create an organic molecule. The simplest carbon molecule is methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>), depicted here.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Carbon contains four electrons in its outer(valence)shell. Therefore, it can form four covalent bonds with other atoms or molecules. The simplest organic carbon molecule is methane (CH<sub>4<\/sub>), in which four hydrogen atoms bind to a carbon atom (Figure 1).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm26253760\">However, structures that are more complex are made using carbon. Any of the hydrogen atoms could be replaced with another carbon atom covalently bonded to the first carbon atom. In this way, long and branching chains of carbon compounds can be made (Figure <strong>2a<\/strong>). The carbon atoms may bond with atoms of other elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus (Figure <strong>2b<\/strong>). The molecules may also form rings, which themselves can link with other rings (Figure <strong>2<\/strong><strong>c<\/strong>). This diversity of molecular forms accounts for the diversity of functions of the biological macromolecules and is based to a large degree on the ability of carbon to form multiple bonds with itself and other atoms.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1107\" style=\"width: 554px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1107\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1107\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23211741\/3-1-2.jpeg\" alt=\"Examples of three different carbon-containing molecules.\" width=\"544\" height=\"667\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1107\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. These examples show three molecules (found in living organisms) that contain carbon atoms bonded in various ways to other carbon atoms and the atoms of other elements. (a) This molecule of stearic acid has a long chain of carbon atoms. (b) Glycine, a component of proteins, contains carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. (c) Glucose, a sugar, has a ring of carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_02\"><\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp127141312\">\n<h1>Carbohydrates<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idp55634080\">Carbohydrates are macromolecules with which most consumers are somewhat familiar.\u00a0 Carbohydrates are a quick, short-term energy storage molecule.\u00a0 Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our diet; grains, fruits, and vegetables are all natural sources of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates provide energy to the body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar. Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans, animals, and plants.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm80257312\">Carbohydrates can be represented by the formula (CH<sub>2<\/sub>O)<sub><em>n<\/em><\/sub>, where <em>n<\/em> is the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules. Carbohydrates are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp28290880\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Monosaccharides<\/span> (mono- = \u201cone\u201d; sacchar- = \u201csweet\u201d) are simple sugars, the most common of which is glucose. In monosaccharides, the number of carbon atoms usually ranges from three to six. Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix -ose. Depending on the number of carbon atoms in the sugar, they may be known as trioses (three carbon atoms), pentoses (five carbon atoms), and hexoses (six carbon atoms).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp36550496\">The chemical formula for glucose is C<sub>6<\/sub>H<sub>12<\/sub>O<sub>6<\/sub>. In most living species, glucose is an important source of energy. During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose, and that energy is used to help make adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water by the process of photosynthesis, and the glucose, in turn, is used for the energy requirements of the plant. The excess synthesized glucose is often stored as starch that is broken down by other organisms that feed on plants.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_03\"><\/figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_1108\" style=\"width: 460px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1108\" class=\"wp-image-1108\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23211823\/3-1-3.jpeg\" alt=\"Chemical structures of glucose, galactose, and fructose.\" width=\"450\" height=\"341\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1108\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are isomeric monosaccharides, meaning that they have the same chemical formula but slightly different structures.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (found in fruit) are other common monosaccharides. Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical formula (C<sub>6<\/sub>H<sub>12<\/sub>O<sub>6<\/sub>), they differ structurally and chemically because of differing arrangements of atoms in the carbon chain (Figure 3).\u00a0 For this reason, they are referred to as <em>isomers.<\/em><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm14603296\"><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Disaccharides<\/span> (di- = \u201ctwo\u201d) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction. During this process, the hydroxyl group (\u2013OH) of one monosaccharide combines with a hydrogen atom of another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water (H<sub>2<\/sub>O) and forming a covalent bond between atoms in the two sugar molecules.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm57322464\">Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose, or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from a dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the monomers glucose and fructose.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm87414368\">A long chain of monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds is known as a <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">polysaccharide<\/span> (poly- = \u201cmany\u201d). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of monosaccharides. Polysaccharides may be very large molecules. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are examples of polysaccharides, also referred to by many as &#8220;complex carbs&#8221;.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm65632\">Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants.\u00a0 Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess glucose is stored as starch in different plant parts, including roots and seeds. The starch that is consumed by animals is broken down into smaller molecules, such as glucose. The cells can then absorb the glucose.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm55991536\">Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates, and is made up of monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to release glucose.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp76517696\">Cellulose is one of the most abundant natural polysaccharides. The cell walls of plants are mostly made of cellulose, which provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are mostly cellulose in nature. Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are linked by bonds between particular carbon atoms in the glucose molecule.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm19688368\">Every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped over and packed tightly as extended long chains. This gives cellulose its rigidity and high tensile strength\u2014which is so important to plant cells. Cellulose passing through our digestive system is called dietary fiber. While the glucose-glucose bonds in cellulose cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes, herbivores such as cows, buffalos, and horses are able to digest grass that is rich in cellulose and use it as a food source because they secrete the enzyme, cellulase.\u00a0 Cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose monomers that can be used as an energy source by herbivores.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp28161680\">Carbohydrates serve other functions in different animals. Arthropods, such as insects, spiders, and crabs, have an outer skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts. This exoskeleton is made of the polysaccharide, chitin, which is a nitrogenous carbohydrate. It is made of repeating units of a modified sugar containing nitrogen.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp131172320\">Thus, through differences in molecular structure, carbohydrates are able to serve the very different functions of energy storage (starch and glycogen) and structural support and protection (cellulose and chitin) (Figure 4).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1110\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1110\" class=\"wp-image-1110\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23211944\/3-1-4-1024x731.jpeg\" alt=\"Chemical structures of starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.\" width=\"800\" height=\"571\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1110\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4. Although their structures and functions differ, all polysaccharide carbohydrates are made up of monosaccharides and have the chemical formula (CH<sub>2<\/sub>O)<em>n<\/em>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_04\"><\/figure>\n<figure><\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp132143440\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Careers in Action<\/h3>\n<section>\n<div>\n<h4>Registered Dietitian<\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idp71341744\" class=\"para\">Obesity is a worldwide health concern, and many diseases, such as diabetes and heart disease, are becoming more prevalent because of obesity. This is one of the reasons why registered dietitians are increasingly sought after for advice. Registered dietitians help plan food and nutrition programs for individuals in various settings. They often work with patients in health-care facilities, designing nutrition plans to prevent and treat diseases. For example, dietitians may teach a patient with diabetes how to manage blood-sugar levels by eating the correct types and amounts of carbohydrates. Dietitians may also work in nursing homes, schools, and private practices.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp54438384\" class=\"para\">To become a registered dietitian, one needs to earn at least a bachelor\u2019s degree in dietetics, nutrition, food technology, or a related field. In addition, registered dietitians must complete a supervised internship program and pass a national exam. Those who pursue careers in dietetics take courses in nutrition, chemistry, biochemistry, biology, microbiology, and human physiology. Dietitians must become experts in the chemistry and functions of food (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<h1>Lipids<\/h1>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_05\"><\/figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_1111\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1111\" class=\"wp-image-1111\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212028\/3-1-5.jpeg\" alt=\"A photo of a river otter in the water\" width=\"350\" height=\"268\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1111\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5. Hydrophobic lipids in the fur of aquatic mammals, such as this river otter, protect them from the elements. (credit: Ken Bosma)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are united by a common feature. Lipids are <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">hydrophobic<\/span> (\u201cwater-fearing\u201d), or insoluble in water, because they are nonpolar molecules.\u00a0 Lipids perform many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of lipids called fats. Lipids also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals. For example, they help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry because of their water-repelling nature. Lipids are also the building blocks of many hormones and are an important constituent of the plasma membrane. Lipids include fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp47068112\">A fat molecule, such as a triglyceride, consists of two main components\u2014glycerol and fatty acids.\u00a0 Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which an acidic carboxyl group is attached, hence the name \u201cfatty acid.\u201d The number of carbons in the fatty acid may range from 4 to 36; most common are those containing 12\u201318 carbons. In a fat molecule, a fatty acid is attached to each of the three oxygen atoms in the \u2013OH groups of the glycerol molecule with a covalent bond (Figure 6).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1112\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1112\" class=\"wp-image-1112\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212110\/3-1-6-1024x829.jpeg\" alt=\"Images of the molecular structures of a saturated fatty acid, unsaturated fatty acid, triglyceride, steroid, and phospholipid.\" width=\"800\" height=\"648\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1112\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 6. Lipids include fats, such as triglycerides, which are made up of fatty acids and glycerol, phospholipids, and steroids.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm20978208\">Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. A fatty acid chain made up of only single covalent bonds forms a saturated fat.\u00a0 Saturated fats are saturated with hydrogen.\u00a0 The number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is at the maximum number allowed. Saturated fats tend to get packed tightly and are solid at room temperature. Animal fats contained in meat and the fat contained in butter are examples of saturated fats. Mammals store fats in specialized cells called adipocytes, where globules of fat occupy most of the cell. In plants, fat or oil is stored in seeds and is used as a source of energy during embryonic development.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp55898064\">A fatty acid chain that contains double bonds forms an unsaturated fat.\u00a0 Due to the double bond, there are fewer hydrogens attached to the carbon skeleton. \u00a0 Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and are called oils. If there is one double bond in the molecule, then it is known as a monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than one double bond, then it is known as a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp47052848\">Unsaturated fats or oils are usually of plant origin and contain unsaturated fatty acids. The double bond causes a bend or a \u201ckink\u201d that prevents the fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping them liquid at room temperature. Olive oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats help to improve blood cholesterol levels, whereas saturated fats contribute to plaque formation in the arteries, which increases the risk of a heart attack.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_07\"><\/figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_1113\" style=\"width: 410px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1113\" class=\"wp-image-1113\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212208\/3-1-7.jpeg\" alt=\"Two images show the molecular structure of a fat in the cis-conformation and the trans-conformation.\" width=\"400\" height=\"331\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1113\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 7.\u00a0During the hydrogenation process, the orientation around the double bonds is changed, making a trans-fat from a cis-fat. This changes the chemical properties of the molecule.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to make them semi-solid, leading to less spoilage and increased shelf life. Simply speaking, hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them. The orientation of the double bonds affects the chemical properties of the fat (Figure 7).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm52827760\">Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially hydrogenated <em>trans<\/em>-fats. Recent studies have shown that an increase in <em>trans<\/em>-fats in the human diet may lead to an increase in levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or \u201cbad\u201d cholesterol.\u00a0 This may lead to plaque deposition in the arteries, resulting in heart disease. Many fast food restaurants have recently eliminated the use of <em>trans<\/em>-fats, and U.S. food labels are now required to list their <em>trans<\/em>-fat content.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm54784640\">Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that are required but not synthesized by the human body. Consequently, they must be supplemented through the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids fall into this category and are one of only two known essential fatty acids for humans (the other being omega-6 fatty acids). They are a type of polyunsaturated fat and are called omega-3 fatty acids due to the third carbon from the end of the fatty acid participating in a double bond.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm55974896\">Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids are important in brain function and normal growth and development. They may also prevent heart disease and reduce the risk of cancer.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm78146256\">Like carbohydrates, fats have received a lot of bad publicity. It is true that eating an excess of fried foods and other \u201cfatty\u201d foods leads to weight gain. However, fats do have important functions. Fats serve as long-term energy storage. They also provide insulation for the body and protect our internal organs.\u00a0 Therefore, \u201chealthy\u201d unsaturated fats in moderate amounts should be consumed on a regular basis.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm52357584\">Phospholipids are the major constituent of the plasma membrane. Like fats, they are composed of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or similar backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached, one fatty acid is replaced with a phosphate group. \u00a0A phospholipid has both hydrophobic(nonpolar) and hydrophilic(polar) regions. The fatty acid chains are hydrophobic and repel water, whereas the phosphate is hydrophilic and interacts with water. \u00a0Cells are surrounded by a membrane, which has a bilayer of phospholipids. The fatty acids of phospholipids face inside, away from water, whereas the phosphate group can face either the outside environment or the inside of the cell, which are both aqueous.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idm81694480\">\n<h2>Steroids<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm51430352\">Unlike the phospholipids and fats, steroids have a ring structure. Although they do not resemble other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobic. All steroids have four, linked carbon rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm127618976\">Cholesterol is a known as a base steroid. Cholesterol is mainly synthesized in the liver.\u00a0 It is the backbone for many steroid hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Cholesterol is also the precursor of vitamins E and K and bile salts, which help in the breakdown of fats and their subsequent absorption by cells. Although cholesterol is often spoken of in negative terms, it is necessary for the proper functioning of the body. It is a key component of the plasma membranes of animal cells.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm18031456\" class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<header>\n<h3><strong>Concept in Action<\/strong><\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<section>For an additional perspective on lipids, explore \u201cBiomolecules: The Lipids\u201d through this interactive <a href=\"https:\/\/www.wisc-online.com\/learn\/natural-science\/life-science\/ap13204\/biomolecules---the-lipids\" target=\"_window\" rel=\"nofollow\">animation<\/a>.<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp8690560\">\n<h1>Proteins<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idm56053456\">Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most diverse range of functions of all macromolecules.\u00a0 Functions of proteins (and examples) include:\u00a0 (1)\u00a0 structural = collagen; (2)\u00a0 transport = hemoglobin;\u00a0 (3)\u00a0 metabolic = enzymes;\u00a0 (4)\u00a0 defense = antibodies; and (5)\u00a0 regulatory = hormones.<\/p>\n<p>Each cell in a living system may contain thousands of different proteins, each with a unique function. Their structures, like their functions, vary greatly. Regardless, proteins are all polymers composed of amino acids monomers.\u00a0 There are only 20 total amino acids and these can be combined in any order.\u00a0 All proteins are made up of different arrangements of the same 20 amino acids.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1114\" style=\"width: 460px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1114\" class=\"wp-image-1114\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212357\/3-1-8.jpeg\" alt=\"The fundamental molecular structure of an amino acid is shown. Also shown are the molecular structures of alanine, valine, lysine, and aspartic acid, which vary only in the structure of the R group\" width=\"450\" height=\"749\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1114\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure\u00a08. Amino acids are made up of a central carbon bonded to an amino group (\u2013NH<sub>2<\/sub>), a carboxyl group (\u2013COOH), and a hydrogen atom. The central carbon\u2019s fourth bond varies among the different amino acids, as seen in these examples of alanine, valine, lysine, and aspartic acid.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Proteins have different shapes.\u00a0 Hemoglobin is a globular protein, but collagen, found in our skin, is a fibrous protein. <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Protein shape is critical to its function<\/span>. Changes in temperature, pH, and chemical exposure may lead to permanent changes in the shape of the protein.\u00a0 When a protein undergoes a change in shape a process known as <strong>denaturation<\/strong> has occurred.\u00a0 Changes in shape can create changes in function.<\/p>\n<p>Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure, which consists of a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (\u2013NH<sub>2<\/sub>), a carboxyl group (\u2013COOH), and a hydrogen atom. Every amino acid also has another variable atom or group of atoms bonded to the central carbon atom known as the R(functional) group. The R group is the only difference in structure between the 20 amino acids. (Figure 8)<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp59830768\">The chemical nature of the R group determines the chemical nature of the amino acid within its protein. \u00a0 Is it an acid or base?\u00a0 It is polar or nonpolar?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp8665520\">The sequence and number of amino acids ultimately determine a protein\u2019s shape, size, and function. Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid by a special covalent bond.\u00a0 A <strong>peptide bond<\/strong> is a covalent bond between 2 or more amino acids formed by a dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of a second amino acid combine, releasing a water molecule.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp963792\">The products formed by such a linkage are called polypeptides. While the terms polypeptide and protein are sometimes used interchangeably. A polypeptide is technically a polymer of amino acids, whereas a protein is used for a polypeptide(s) that have combined together.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<header>\n<h3>Evolution in Action<\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<section>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp46752224\">The Evolutionary Significance of Cytochrome c<\/h4>\n<p>Cytochrome c is an important component of the molecular machinery that harvests energy from glucose. Because this protein\u2019s role in producing cellular energy is crucial, it has changed very little over millions of years. Protein sequencing has shown that there is a considerable amount of sequence similarity among cytochrome c molecules of different species; evolutionary relationships can be assessed by measuring the similarities or differences among various species\u2019 protein sequences.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp34546400\">For example, scientists have determined that human cytochrome c contains 104 amino acids. For each cytochrome c molecule that has been sequenced to date from different organisms, 37 of these amino acids appear in the same position in each cytochrome c. This indicates that all of these organisms are descended from a common ancestor. On comparing the human and chimpanzee protein sequences, no sequence difference was found. When human and rhesus monkey sequences were compared, a single difference was found in one amino acid. In contrast, human-to-yeast comparisons show a difference in 44 amino acids, suggesting that humans and chimpanzees have a more recent common ancestor than humans and the rhesus monkey, or humans and yeast.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idm18002832\">\n<h2>Protein Structure<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm15092592\">As discussed earlier, the shape of a protein is critical to its function. To understand how the protein gets its final shape or conformation, we need to understand the four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary (Figure 8).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm52007456\">The unique sequence and number of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is its <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">primary<\/span> structure. The unique sequence for every protein is ultimately determined by the gene that encodes the protein. Any change in the gene sequence may lead to a different amino acid being added to the polypeptide chain, causing a change in protein structure and function. In sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin \u03b2 chain has a single amino acid substitution, causing a change in both the structure and function of the protein. What is most remarkable to consider is that a hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha chains and two beta chains that each consist of about 150 amino acids. The molecule, therefore, has about 600 amino acids. The structural difference between a normal hemoglobin molecule and a sickle cell molecule\u2014that dramatically decreases life expectancy\u2014is a single amino acid of the 600.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp73555264\">Because of the change of one amino acid in the chain, the normally biconcave, or disc-shaped, red blood cells assume a crescent or \u201csickle\u201d shape, which clogs arteries. This can lead to a myriad of serious health problems, such as breathlessness, dizziness, headaches, and abdominal pain for those who have this disease.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm35625488\">Folding patterns resulting from interactions between the non-R group portions of amino acids give rise to the<span style=\"text-decoration: underline\"> secondary<\/span> structure of the protein. The most common are the alpha (\u03b1)-helix and beta (\u03b2)-pleated sheet structures. Both structures are held in shape by hydrogen bonds. In the alpha helix, the bonds form between every fourth amino acid and cause a twist in the amino acid chain.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm19429680\">In the \u03b2-pleated sheet, the \u201cpleats\u201d are formed by hydrogen bonding between atoms on the backbone of the polypeptide chain. The R groups are attached to the carbons, and extend above and below the folds of the pleat. The pleated segments align parallel to each other, and hydrogen bonds form between the same pairs of atoms on each of the aligned amino acids. The \u03b1-helix and \u03b2-pleated sheet structures are found in many globular and fibrous proteins.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp14932864\">The unique three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide is known as its<span style=\"text-decoration: underline\"> tertiary<\/span> structure. This structure is caused by chemical interactions between various amino acids and regions of the polypeptide. Primarily, the interactions among R groups create the complex three-dimensional tertiary structure of a protein. There may be ionic bonds formed between R groups on different amino acids, or hydrogen bonding beyond that involved in the secondary structure. When protein folding takes place, the hydrophobic R groups of nonpolar amino acids lay in the interior of the protein, whereas the hydrophilic R groups lay on the outside. The former types of interactions are also known as hydrophobic interactions.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp84269776\">In nature, some proteins are formed from several polypeptides, also known as subunits, and the interaction of these subunits forms the <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">quaternary<\/span> structure. Weak interactions between the subunits help to stabilize the overall structure. For example, hemoglobin is a combination of four polypeptide subunits.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1115\" style=\"width: 660px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1115\" class=\"wp-image-1115\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212510\/3-1-9-769x1024.jpeg\" alt=\"Four types of protein structure\" width=\"650\" height=\"866\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1115\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 9. The four levels of protein structure can be observed in these illustrations. (credit: modification of work by National Human Genome Research Institute)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_09\"><\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idm54908400\">Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape held together by chemical interactions.\u00a0 As mentioned earlier, if a protein is subject to changes in temperature, pH, or chemical exposure, the protein structure may change or denature.\u00a0 Denaturation is often reversible because the primary structure is preserved if the denaturing agent is removed, allowing the protein to resume its function. Sometimes denaturation is irreversible.\u00a0 This change in shape leads to a loss or change of function.\u00a0 An example is a chicken egg.\u00a0 What happens if we take it away from the chicken and place in a pan of boiling water?\u00a0 What result will I get?\u00a0 Can I return the boiled egg back to the mother and get a baby chick?<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm76093712\" class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<header>\n<h3><strong>Concept in Action<\/strong><\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<section>\n<p id=\"fs-idp14302288\">For an additional perspective on proteins, explore \u201cBiomolecules: The Proteins\u201d through this interactive <a href=\"https:\/\/www.wisc-online.com\/learn\/natural-science\/life-science\/ap13304\/biomolecules---the-proteins\" target=\"_window\" rel=\"nofollow\">animation<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp46685792\">\n<h1>Nucleic Acids<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idp81751552\">Nucleic acids are key macromolecules in the continuity of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm98343584\">The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm71936528\">The other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The DNA molecules never leave the nucleus, but instead use an RNA intermediary to communicate with the rest of the cell. Other types of RNA are also involved in protein synthesis and its regulation.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1116\" style=\"width: 460px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1116\" class=\"wp-image-1116\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212722\/3-1-10.jpeg\" alt=\"Structure of a nucleotide.\" width=\"450\" height=\"322\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1116\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 10. A nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm17990400\">DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known as <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">nucleotides.<\/span>Each nucleotide is made up of three components: (1) \u00a0 nitrogenous base;\u00a0 (2)\u00a0 pentose (five-carbon) sugar;\u00a0 and (3) phosphate group (Figure 10). Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a sugar molecule, which is attached to a phosphate group.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm19716544\">\n<h1>DNA Double-Helical Structure<\/h1>\n<figure id=\"fig-ch02_03_11\"><\/figure>\n<div id=\"attachment_1117\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1117\" class=\"wp-image-1117\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/198\/2016\/11\/23212802\/3-1-11.jpeg\" alt=\"Double helix of DNA.\" width=\"350\" height=\"374\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1117\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 11. The double-helix model shows DNA as two parallel strands of intertwining molecules. (credit: Jerome Walker, Dennis Myts)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>DNA has a double-helical structure (Figure 11). It is composed of two strands of nucleotides.\u00a0 A covalent bond joins the phosphate of one nucleotide to the 5C sugar of the neighboring nucleotide.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp71326832\">The alternating sugar and phosphate groups lie on the outside of each strand, forming the backbone of the DNA. The nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, like the steps of a staircase.\u00a0 These base pairs are held together by a hydrogen bond. The hydrogen bond is strong enough to hold the nitrogenous bases together but weak enough to twist.\u00a0 Thus, the result is the double helix.\u00a0 Within the DNA molecule, the 4 bases are adenine pairing with thymine, and guanine always pairing with cytosine.<\/p>\n<p>RNA has some slight changes.\u00a0 Unlike DNA, RNA is single stranded.\u00a0 While the sugar are different in both DNA and RNA, they are still composed of five carbons.\u00a0 The other notable change occurs within the nitrogenous bases.\u00a0 Within RNA, thymine is replaced with uracil.\u00a0 RNA has many functions, but ultimately is important in protein formation.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm53844848\">\n<h2>Section Summary<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm78369600\">Living things are carbon-based because carbon plays such a prominent role in the chemistry of living things. The four covalent bonding positions of the carbon atom can give rise to a wide diversity of compounds with many functions. \u00a0 Carbohydrates are a group of macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the cell and provide structural support to many organisms.\u00a0 Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm51315280\">Lipids are a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and hydrophobic in nature. Major types include fats and oils, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats and oils are a stored form of energy and can include triglycerides. Fats and oils are usually made up of fatty acids and glycerol.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm12137552\">Proteins are a class of macromolecules that can perform a diverse range of functions for the cell.\u00a0 The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. Proteins are organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Protein shape and function are intricately linked. Any change in shape may lead to protein denaturation and a loss of function.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp84929280\">Nucleic acids are molecules made up of repeating units of nucleotides that direct cellular activities such as cell division and protein synthesis. Each nucleotide is made up of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. There are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA.<\/p>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/assessments\/load?src_url=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api\/assessments\/644.xml&#38;results_end_point=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api&#38;assessment_id=644&#38;confidence_levels=true&#38;enable_start=true&#38;eid=https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/chapter\/biological-molecules\/\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Additional Self Check Exercises<\/h3>\n<section id=\"fs-idp7442224\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm25434784\">\n<section>\n<div id=\"fs-idm80389216\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm3416752\">1. Explain at least three functions that lipids serve in plants and\/or animals.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm77231744\">\n<div>\u00a02. Explain what happens if even one amino acid is substituted for another in a polypeptide chain. Provide a specific example.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idp7442224\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm61820528\">\n<section>\n<div id=\"fs-idm14720784\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Answers<\/h3>\n<p>1.Fat serves as a valuable way for animals to store energy. It can also provide insulation. Phospholipids and steroids are important components of cell membranes.<\/p>\n<p>2. A change in gene sequence can lead to a different amino acid being added to a polypeptide chain instead of the normal one. This causes a change in protein structure and function. For example, in sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin \u03b2 chain has a single amino acid substitution. Because of this change, the disc-shaped red blood cells assume a crescent shape, which can result in serious health problems.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<section id=\"glossary\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>alpha-helix structure (\u03b1-helix)<\/b><\/span><b> <\/b>type of secondary structure of proteins formed by folding of the polypeptide into a helix shape with hydrogen bonds stabilizing the structure<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>amino acid <\/b>monomer of a protein; has a central carbon or alpha carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and an R group or side chain is attached; the R group is different for all 20 amino acids<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>beta-pleated sheet (\u03b2-pleated)<\/b><\/span><b> <\/b>secondary structure found in proteins in which \u201cpleats\u201d are formed by hydrogen bonding between atoms on the backbone of the polypeptide chain<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>carbohydrate <\/b>biological macromolecule in which the ratio of carbon to hydrogen and to oxygen is 1:2:1; carbohydrates serve as energy sources and structural support in cells and form the a cellular exoskeleton of arthropods<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>cellulose <\/b>polysaccharide that makes up the cell wall of plants; provides structural support to the cell<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>chaperone <\/b>(also, chaperonin) protein that helps nascent protein in the folding process<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>chitin <\/b>type of carbohydrate that forms the outer skeleton of all arthropods that include crustaceans and insects; it also forms the cell walls of fungi<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>denaturation <\/b>loss of shape in a protein as a result of changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>disaccharide <\/b>two sugar monomers that are linked together by a glycosidic bond<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>enzyme <\/b>catalyst in a biochemical reaction that is usually a complex or conjugated protein<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>glycogen <\/b>storage carbohydrate in animals<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>glycosidic bond <\/b>bond formed by a dehydration reaction between two monosaccharides with the elimination of a water molecule<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>hormone <\/b>chemical signaling molecule, usually protein or steroid, secreted by endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>lipid <\/b>macromolecule that is nonpolar and insoluble in water<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>monosaccharide <\/b>single unit or monomer of carbohydrates<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>omega fat <\/b>type of polyunsaturated fat that is required by the body; the numbering of the carbon omega starts from the methyl end or the end that is farthest from the carboxylic end<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>peptide bond <\/b>bond formed between two amino acids by a dehydration reaction<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>phospholipid <\/b>major constituent of the membranes; composed of two fatty acids and a phosphate-containing group attached to a glycerol backbone<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>polypeptide <\/b>long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>polysaccharide <\/b>long chain of monosaccharides; may be branched or unbranched<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>primary structure <\/b>linear sequence of amino acids in a protein<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>protein <\/b>biological macromolecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>quaternary structure <\/b>association of discrete polypeptide subunits in a protein<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>saturated fatty acid <\/b>long-chain of hydrocarbon with single covalent bonds in the carbon chain; the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>secondary structure <\/b>regular structure formed by proteins by intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the oxygen atom of one amino acid residue and the hydrogen attached to the nitrogen atom of another amino acid residue<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>starch <\/b>storage carbohydrate in plants<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>steroid <\/b>type of lipid composed of four fused hydrocarbon rings forming a planar structure<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>tertiary structure <\/b>three-dimensional conformation of a protein, including interactions between secondary structural elements; formed from interactions between amino acid side chains<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>trans fat <\/b>fat formed artificially by hydrogenating oils, leading to a different arrangement of double bond(s) than those found in naturally occurring lipids<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>triacylglycerol (also, triglyceride) <\/b>fat molecule; consists of three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>unsaturated fatty acid <\/b>long-chain hydrocarbon that has one or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><b>wax <\/b>lipid made of a long-chain fatty acid that is esterified to a long-chain alcohol; serves as a protective coating on some feathers, aquatic mammal fur, and leaves<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-70\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Concepts of Biology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Open Stax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/b3c1e1d2-839c-42b0-a314-e119a8aafbdd@8.10:1\/Concepts_of_Biology\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/b3c1e1d2-839c-42b0-a314-e119a8aafbdd@8.10:1\/Concepts_of_Biology<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":18,"menu_order":12,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Concepts of Biology\",\"author\":\"Open Stax\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/b3c1e1d2-839c-42b0-a314-e119a8aafbdd@8.10:1\/Concepts_of_Biology\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-70","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":31,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/70","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/18"}],"version-history":[{"count":26,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/70\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1552,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/70\/revisions\/1552"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/31"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/70\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=70"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=70"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=70"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/nemcc-biology1v2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=70"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}