Walkthrough of Unit 4: Graphs of Trig Functions

Learning Outcomes

  • Determine amplitude, period, phase shift, and vertical shift of a sine or cosine graph from its equation.
  • Graph variations of y=cos x and y=sin x .
  • Determine a function formula that would have a given sinusoidal graph.
  • Determine functions that model circular and periodic motion.
  • Analyze the graph of  y=tan x and y=cot x.
  • Graph variations of  y=tan x and y=cot x.
  • Determine a function formula from a tangent or cotangent graph.
  • Analyze the graphs of  y=sec x  and  y=csc x.
  • Graph variations of  y=sec x  and  y=csc x.
  • Determine a function formula from a secant or cosecant graph.

Graph variations of  y=sin( x )  and  y=cos( x )

Recall that the sine and cosine functions relate real number values to the x– and y-coordinates of a point on the unit circle. So what do they look like on a graph on a coordinate plane? Let’s start with the sine function. We can create a table of values and use them to sketch a graph. The table below lists some of the values for the sine function on a unit circle.

x 0 [latex]\frac{\pi}{6}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\pi}{4}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\pi}{3}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\pi}{2}[/latex] [latex]\frac{2\pi}{3}[/latex] [latex]\frac{3\pi}{4}[/latex] [latex]\frac{5\pi}{6}[/latex] [latex]\pi[/latex]
[latex]\sin(x)[/latex] 0 [latex]\frac{1}{2}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}[/latex] 1 [latex]\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}[/latex] [latex]\frac{1}{2}[/latex] 0

Plotting the points from the table and continuing along the x-axis gives the shape of the sine function. See Figure 2.

A graph of sin(x). Local maximum at (pi/2, 1). Local minimum at (3pi/2, -1). Period of 2pi.

Figure 2. The sine function

Notice how the sine values are positive between 0 and π, which correspond to the values of the sine function in quadrants I and II on the unit circle, and the sine values are negative between π and 2π, which correspond to the values of the sine function in quadrants III and IV on the unit circle. See Figure 3.

A side-by-side graph of a unit circle and a graph of sin(x). The two graphs show the equivalence of the coordinates.

Figure 3. Plotting values of the sine function

Now let’s take a similar look at the cosine function. Again, we can create a table of values and use them to sketch a graph. The table below lists some of the values for the cosine function on a unit circle.

x 0 [latex]\frac{\pi}{6}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\pi}{4}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\pi}{3}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\pi}{2}[/latex] [latex]\frac{2\pi}{3}[/latex] [latex]\frac{3\pi}{4}[/latex] [latex]\frac{5\pi}{6}[/latex] [latex]\pi[/latex]
[latex]\cos(x)[/latex] 1 [latex]\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}[/latex] [latex]\frac{1}{2}[/latex] 0 [latex]-\frac{1}{2}[/latex] [latex]-\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}[/latex] [latex]-\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}[/latex] −1

As with the sine function, we can plots points to create a graph of the cosine function as in Figure 4.

A graph of cos(x). Local maxima at (0,1) and (2pi, 1). Local minimum at (pi, -1). Period of 2pi.

Figure 4. The cosine function

Because we can evaluate the sine and cosine of any real number, both of these functions are defined for all real numbers. By thinking of the sine and cosine values as coordinates of points on a unit circle, it becomes clear that the range of both functions must be the interval [−1,1].

In both graphs, the shape of the graph repeats after 2π,which means the functions are periodic with a period of [latex]2π[/latex]. A periodic function is a function for which a specific horizontal shift, P, results in a function equal to the original function: [latex]f (x + P) = f(x)[/latex] for all values of x in the domain of f. When this occurs, we call the smallest such horizontal shift with [latex]P > 0[/latex] the period of the function. Figure 5 shows several periods of the sine and cosine functions.

Side-by-side graphs of sin(x) and cos(x). Graphs show period lengths for both functions, which is 2pi.

Figure 5

Looking again at the sine and cosine functions on a domain centered at the y-axis helps reveal symmetries. As we can see in Figure 6, the sine function is symmetric about the origin. Recall from The Other Trigonometric Functions that we determined from the unit circle that the sine function is an odd function because [latex]\sin(−x)=−\sin x[/latex]. Now we can clearly see this property from the graph.

A graph of sin(x) that shows that sin(x) is an odd function due to the odd symmetry of the graph.

Figure 6. Odd symmetry of the sine function

Figure 7 shows that the cosine function is symmetric about the y-axis. Again, we determined that the cosine function is an even function. Now we can see from the graph that [latex]\cos(−x)=\cos x[/latex].

A graph of cos(x) that shows that cos(x) is an even function due to the even symmetry of the graph.

Figure 7. Even symmetry of the cosine function

A General Note: Characteristics of Sine and Cosine Functions

The sine and cosine functions have several distinct characteristics:

  • They are periodic functions with a period of 2π.
  • The domain of each function is [latex]\left(-\infty,\infty\right)[/latex] and the range is [latex]\left[−1,1\right][/latex].
  • The graph of [latex]y=\sin x[/latex] is symmetric about the origin, because it is an odd function.
  • The graph of [latex]y=\cos x[/latex] is symmetric about the y-axis, because it is an even function.

Investigating Sinusoidal Functions

As we can see, sine and cosine functions have a regular period and range. If we watch ocean waves or ripples on a pond, we will see that they resemble the sine or cosine functions. However, they are not necessarily identical. Some are taller or longer than others. A function that has the same general shape as a sine or cosine function is known as a sinusoidal function. The general forms of sinusoidal functions are

[latex]y = A\sin (Bx−C) + D[/latex]

and

[latex]y = A\cos (Bx−C) + D[/latex]

Determining the Period of Sinusoidal Functions

Looking at the forms of sinusoidal functions, we can see that they are transformations of the sine and cosine functions. We can use what we know about transformations to determine the period.

In the general formula, B is related to the period by [latex]P=\frac{2π}{|B|}[/latex]. If [latex]|B| > 1[/latex], then the period is less than [latex]2π[/latex] and the function undergoes a horizontal compression, whereas if [latex]|B| < 1[/latex], then the period is greater than [latex]2π[/latex] and the function undergoes a horizontal stretch. For example, [latex]f(x) = \sin(x), B= 1[/latex], so the period is [latex]2π[/latex], which we knew. If [latex]f(x) =\sin (2x)[/latex], then [latex]B= 2[/latex], so the period is [latex]π[/latex] and the graph is compressed. If [latex]f(x) = \sin\left(\frac{x}{2} \right)[/latex], then [latex]B=\frac{1}{2}[/latex], so the period is [latex]4π[/latex] and the graph is stretched. Notice in Figure 8 how the period is indirectly related to [latex]|B|[/latex].

A graph with three items. The x-axis ranges from 0 to 2pi. The y-axis ranges from -1 to 1. The first item is the graph of sin(x) for one full period. The second is the graph of sin(2x) over two periods. The third is the graph of sin(x/2) for one half of a period.

Figure 8

A General Note: Period of Sinusoidal Functions

If we let C = 0 and D = 0 in the general form equations of the sine and cosine functions, we obtain the forms

[latex]y=A\sin\left(Bx\right)[/latex]

[latex]y=A\cos\left(Bx\right)[/latex]

The period is [latex]\frac{2π}{|B|}[/latex].

Example 1: Identifying the Period of a Sine or Cosine Function

Determine the period of the function [latex]f(x) = \sin\left(\frac{π}{6}x\right)[/latex].

Try It

Determine the period of the function [latex]g(x)=\cos\left(\frac{x}{3}\right)[/latex].

Determining Amplitude

Returning to the general formula for a sinusoidal function, we have analyzed how the variable B relates to the period. Now let’s turn to the variable A so we can analyze how it is related to the amplitude, or greatest distance from rest. A represents the vertical stretch factor, and its absolute value |A| is the amplitude. The local maxima will be a distance |A| above the vertical midline of the graph, which is the line = D; because D = 0 in this case, the midline is the x-axis. The local minima will be the same distance below the midline. If |A| > 1, the function is stretched. For example, the amplitude of [latex]f(x)=4\sin\left(x\right)[/latex] is twice the amplitude of

[latex]f(x)=2\sin\left(x\right)[/latex]

If [latex]|A| < 1[/latex], the function is compressed. Figure 9 compares several sine functions with different amplitudes.

A graph with four items. The x-axis ranges from -6pi to 6pi. The y-axis ranges from -4 to 4. The first item is the graph of sin(x), which has an amplitude of 1. The second is a graph of 2sin(x), which has amplitude of 2. The third is a graph of 3sin(x), which has an amplitude of 3. The fourth is a graph of 4 sin(x) with an amplitude of 4.

Figure 9

A General Note: Amplitude of Sinusoidal Functions

If we let = 0 and D = 0 in the general form equations of the sine and cosine functions, we obtain the forms

[latex]y=A\sin(Bx)[/latex] and [latex]y=A\cos(Bx)[/latex]

The amplitude is A, and the vertical height from the midline is |A|. In addition, notice in the example that

[latex]|A|=\text{amplitude}=\frac{1}{2}|\text{maximum}−\text{minimum}|[/latex]

Example 2: Identifying the Amplitude of a Sine or Cosine Function

What is the amplitude of the sinusoidal function [latex]f(x)=−4\sin(x)[/latex]? Is the function stretched or compressed vertically?

Try It

What is the amplitude of the sinusoidal function [latex]f(x)=12\sin (x)[/latex]? Is the function stretched or compressed vertically?

Analyzing Graphs of Variations of y = sin x and y = cos x

Now that we understand how A and B relate to the general form equation for the sine and cosine functions, we will explore the variables and D. Recall the general form:

[latex]y = A \sin(Bx−C)+D[/latex] and [latex]y=A\cos(Bx−C)+D[/latex]
or
[latex]y=A\sin(B(x−\frac{C}{B}))+D[/latex] and [latex]y=A\cos(B(x−\frac{C}{B}))+D[/latex]

The value [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex] for a sinusoidal function is called the phase shift, or the horizontal displacement of the basic sine or cosine function. If C > 0, the graph shifts to the right. If C < 0,the graph shifts to the left. The greater the value of |C|, the more the graph is shifted. Figure 11 shows that the graph of [latex]f(x)=\sin(x−π)[/latex] shifts to the right by π units, which is more than we see in the graph of [latex]f(x)=\sin(x−\frac{π}{4})[/latex], which shifts to the right by [latex]\frac{π}{4}[/latex]units.

A graph with three items. The first item is a graph of sin(x). The second item is a graph of sin(x-pi/4), which is the same as sin(x) except shifted to the right by pi/4. The third item is a graph of sin(x-pi), which is the same as sin(x) except shifted to the right by pi.

Figure 11

While C relates to the horizontal shift, D indicates the vertical shift from the midline in the general formula for a sinusoidal function. The function [latex]y=\cos(x)+D[/latex] has its midline at [latex]y=D[/latex].

A graph of y=Asin(x)+D. Graph shows the midline of the function at y=D.

Figure 12

Any value of D other than zero shifts the graph up or down. Figure 13 compares [latex]f(x)=\sin x[/latex] with [latex]f(x)=\sin (x)+2[/latex], which is shifted 2 units up on a graph.

A graph with two items. The first item is a graph of sin(x). The second item is a graph of sin(x)+2, which is the same as sin(x) except shifted up by 2.

Figure 13

A General Note: Variations of Sine and Cosine Functions

Given an equation in the form [latex]f(x)=A\sin(Bx−C)+D[/latex] or [latex]f(x)=A\cos(Bx−C)+D[/latex], [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex]is the phase shift and D is the vertical shift.

Example 3: Identifying the Phase Shift of a Function

Determine the direction and magnitude of the phase shift for [latex]f(x)=\sin(x+\frac{π}{6})−2[/latex].

Try It

Determine the direction and magnitude of the phase shift for [latex]f(x)=3\cos(x−\frac{\pi}{2})[/latex].

Example 4: Identifying the Vertical Shift of a Function

Determine the direction and magnitude of the vertical shift for [latex]f(x)=\cos(x)−3[/latex].

Try It

Determine the direction and magnitude of the vertical shift for [latex]f(x)=3\sin(x)+2[/latex].

How To: Given a sinusoidal function in the form [latex]f(x)=A\sin(Bx−C)+D[/latex], identify the midline, amplitude, period, and phase shift.

  1. Determine the amplitude as |A|.
  2. Determine the period as [latex]P=\frac{2π}{|B|}[/latex].
  3. Determine the phase shift as [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex].
  4. Determine the midline as = D.

Example 5: Identifying the Variations of a Sinusoidal Function from an Equation

Determine the midline, amplitude, period, and phase shift of the function [latex]y=3\sin(2x)+1[/latex].

Try It

Determine the midline, amplitude, period, and phase shift of the function [latex]y=\frac{1}{2}\cos(\frac{x}{3}−\frac{π}{3})[/latex].

Try It

Example 6: Identifying the Equation for a Sinusoidal Function from a Graph

Determine the formula for the cosine function in Figure 15.

A graph of -0.5cos(x)+0.5. The graph has an amplitude of 0.5. The graph has a period of 2pi. The graph has a range of [0, 1]. The graph is also reflected about the x-axis from the parent function cos(x).

Figure 15

Try It

Determine the formula for the sine function in Figure 16.

A graph of sin(x)+2. Period of 2pi, amplitude of 1, and range of [1, 3].

Figure 16

Try It

Example 7: Identifying the Equation for a Sinusoidal Function from a Graph

Determine the equation for the sinusoidal function in Figure 17.

A graph of 3cos(pi/3x-pi/3)-2. Graph has amplitude of 3, period of 6, range of [-5,1].

Figure 17

Try It

Write a formula for the function graphed in Figure 18.

A graph of 4sin((pi/5)x-pi/5)+4. Graph has period of 10, amplitude of 4, range of [0,8].

Figure 18

Try It

Graphing Variations of y = sin x and y = cos x

Throughout this section, we have learned about types of variations of sine and cosine functions and used that information to write equations from graphs. Now we can use the same information to create graphs from equations.

Instead of focusing on the general form equations

[latex]y=A\sin(Bx−C)+D[/latex] and [latex]y=A\cos(Bx−C)+D[/latex],

we will let C = 0 and D = 0 and work with a simplified form of the equations in the following examples.

How To: Given the function [latex]y=Asin(Bx)[/latex], sketch its graph.

  1. Identify the amplitude,|A|.
  2. Identify the period, [latex]P=\frac{2π}{|B|}[/latex].
  3. Start at the origin, with the function increasing to the right if A is positive or decreasing if A is negative.
  4. At [latex]x=\frac{π}{2|B|}[/latex] there is a local maximum for A > 0 or a minimum for A < 0, with y = A.
  5. The curve returns to the x-axis at [latex]x=\frac{π}{|B|}[/latex].
  6. There is a local minimum for A > 0 (maximum for < 0) at [latex]x=\frac{3π}{2|B|}[/latex] with = –A.
  7. The curve returns again to the x-axis at [latex]x=\frac{π}{2|B|}[/latex].

Example 8: Graphing a Function and Identifying the Amplitude and Period

Sketch a graph of [latex]f(x)=−2\sin(\frac{πx}{2})[/latex].

Try It

Sketch a graph of [latex]g(x)=−0.8\cos(2x)[/latex]. Determine the midline, amplitude, period, and phase shift.

How To: Given a sinusoidal function with a phase shift and a vertical shift, sketch its graph.

  1. Express the function in the general form [latex]y=A\sin(Bx−C)+D[/latex] or [latex]y=A\cos(Bx−C)+D[/latex].
  2. Identify the amplitude, |A|.
  3. Identify the period, [latex]P=2π|B|[/latex].
  4. Identify the phase shift, [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex].
  5. Draw the graph of [latex]f(x)=A\sin(Bx)[/latex] shifted to the right or left by [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex] and up or down by D.

Example 9: Graphing a Transformed Sinusoid

Sketch a graph of [latex]f(x)=3\sin\left(\frac{π}{4}x−\frac{π}{4}\right)[/latex].

 Try It

Draw a graph of [latex]g(x)=−2\cos(\frac{\pi}{3}x+\frac{\pi}{6})[/latex]. Determine the midline, amplitude, period, and phase shift.

Try It

Example 10: Identifying the Properties of a Sinusoidal Function

Given [latex]y=−2\cos\left(\frac{\pi}{2}x+\pi\right)+3[/latex], determine the amplitude, period, phase shift, and horizontal shift. Then graph the function.


Using Transformations of Sine and Cosine Functions

We can use the transformations of sine and cosine functions in numerous applications. As mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, circular motion can be modeled using either the sine or cosine function.

Example 11: Finding the Vertical Component of Circular Motion

A point rotates around a circle of radius 3 centered at the origin. Sketch a graph of the y-coordinate of the point as a function of the angle of rotation.

Try It

What is the amplitude of the function [latex]f(x)=7\cos(x)[/latex]? Sketch a graph of this function.

Example 12: Finding the Vertical Component of Circular Motion

A circle with radius 3 ft is mounted with its center 4 ft off the ground. The point closest to the ground is labeled P, as shown in Figure 23. Sketch a graph of the height above the ground of the point P as the circle is rotated; then find a function that gives the height in terms of the angle of rotation.

An illustration of a circle lifted 4 feet off the ground. Circle has radius of 3 ft. There is a point P labeled on the circle's circumference.

Figure 23

Try It

A weight is attached to a spring that is then hung from a board, as shown in Figure 25. As the spring oscillates up and down, the position y of the weight relative to the board ranges from –1 in. (at time x = 0) to –7in. (at time x = π) below the board. Assume the position of y is given as a sinusoidal function of x. Sketch a graph of the function, and then find a cosine function that gives the position y in terms of x.

An illustration of a spring with length y.

Figure 25

Example 13: Determining a Rider’s Height on a Ferris Wheel

The London Eye is a huge Ferris wheel with a diameter of 135 meters (443 feet). It completes one rotation every 30 minutes. Riders board from a platform 2 meters above the ground. Express a rider’s height above ground as a function of time in minutes.

Try It

Analyzing the Graph of y = tan x and Its Variations

We will begin with the graph of the tangent function, plotting points as we did for the sine and cosine functions. Recall that

[latex]\tan x=\frac{\sin x}{\cos x}[/latex]

The period of the tangent function is π because the graph repeats itself on intervals of where k is a constant. If we graph the tangent function on [latex]−\dfrac{\pi}{2}\text{ to }\dfrac{\pi}{2}[/latex], we can see the behavior of the graph on one complete cycle. If we look at any larger interval, we will see that the characteristics of the graph repeat.

We can determine whether tangent is an odd or even function by using the definition of tangent.

[latex]\begin{align}\tan(−x)&=\frac{\sin(−x)}{\cos(−x)} && \text{Definition of tangent.} \\ &=\frac{−\sin x}{\cos x} && \text{Sine is an odd function, cosine is even.} \\ &=−\frac{\sin x}{\cos x} && \text{The quotient of an odd and an even function is odd.} \\ &=−\tan x && \text{Definition of tangent.} \end{align}[/latex]

Therefore, tangent is an odd function. We can further analyze the graphical behavior of the tangent function by looking at values for some of the special angles, as listed in the table below.

x [latex]-\frac{\pi}{6}[/latex] [latex]-\frac{\pi}{3}[/latex] [latex]-\frac{\pi}{4}[/latex] [latex]-\frac{\pi}{6}[/latex] 0 [latex]\frac{\pi}{6}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\pi}{4}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\pi}{3}[/latex] [latex]\frac{\pi}{2}[/latex]
tan (x) undefined [latex]−\sqrt{3}[/latex] –1 [latex]−\dfrac{\sqrt{3}}{3}[/latex] 0 [latex]\dfrac{\sqrt{3}}{3}[/latex] 1 [latex]\sqrt{3}[/latex] undefined

These points will help us draw our graph, but we need to determine how the graph behaves where it is undefined. If we look more closely at values when [latex]\frac{\pi}{3}x < 1.57 as shown in the table below.

x 1.3 1.5 1.55 1.56
tan x 3.6 14.1 48.1 92.6

As x approaches [latex]\frac{\pi}{2}[/latex], the outputs of the function get larger and larger. Because [latex]y=\tan x[/latex] is an odd function, we see the corresponding table of negative values in the table below.

x −1.3 −1.5 −1.55 −1.56
tan x −3.6 −14.1 −48.1 −92.6

We can see that, as x approaches [latex]−\dfrac{\pi}{2}[/latex], the outputs get smaller and smaller. Remember that there are some values of x for which cos x = 0. For example, [latex]\cos\left(\frac{\pi}{2}\right)=0[/latex] and [latex]\cos\left(\frac{3\pi}{2}\right)=0[/latex]. At these values, the tangent function is undefined, so the graph of [latex]y=\tan x[/latex] has discontinuities at [latex]x=\frac{\pi}{2}[/latex] and [latex]\frac{3\pi}{2}[/latex]. At these values, the graph of the tangent has vertical asymptotes. Figure 1 represents the graph of [latex]y=\tan x[/latex]. The tangent is positive from 0 to [latex]\frac{\pi}{2}[/latex] and from π to [latex]\frac{3\pi}{2}[/latex], corresponding to quadrants I and III of the unit circle.

A graph of y=tangent of x. Asymptotes at -pi over 2 and pi over 2.

Figure 26. Graph of the tangent function

Graphing Variations of y = tan x

As with the sine and cosine functions, the tangent function can be described by a general equation.

[latex]y=A\tan(Bx)[/latex]

We can identify horizontal and vertical stretches and compressions using values of A and B. The horizontal stretch can typically be determined from the period of the graph. With tangent graphs, it is often necessary to determine a vertical stretch using a point on the graph.

Because there are no maximum or minimum values of a tangent function, the term amplitude cannot be interpreted as it is for the sine and cosine functions. Instead, we will use the phrase stretching/compressing factor when referring to the constant A.

A General Note: Features of the Graph of y = Atan(Bx)

  • The stretching factor is |A| .
  • The period is [latex]P=\frac{\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  • The domain is all real numbers x, where [latex]x\ne \frac{\pi}{2|B|} + \frac{\pi}{|B|} k[/latex] such that k is an integer.
  • The range is [latex]\left(-\infty,\infty\right)[/latex].
  • The asymptotes occur at [latex]x=\frac{\pi}{2|B|} + \frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  • [latex]y = A \tan (Bx)[/latex] is an odd function.

Graphing One Period of a Stretched or Compressed Tangent Function

We can use what we know about the properties of the tangent function to quickly sketch a graph of any stretched and/or compressed tangent function of the form [latex]f(x)=A\tan(Bx)[/latex]. We focus on a single period of the function including the origin, because the periodic property enables us to extend the graph to the rest of the function’s domain if we wish. Our limited domain is then the interval [latex](−\frac{P}{2}, \frac{P}{2})[/latex] and the graph has vertical asymptotes at [latex]\pm \frac{P}{2}[/latex] where [latex]P=\frac{\pi}{B}[/latex]. On [latex](−\dfrac{\pi}{2}, \dfrac{\pi}{2})[/latex], the graph will come up from the left asymptote at [latex]x=−\dfrac{\pi}{2}[/latex], cross through the origin, and continue to increase as it approaches the right asymptote at [latex]x=\frac{\pi}{2}[/latex]. To make the function approach the asymptotes at the correct rate, we also need to set the vertical scale by actually evaluating the function for at least one point that the graph will pass through. For example, we can use

[latex]f\left(\frac{P}{4}\right)=A \tan\left(B\frac{P}{4}\right)=A\tan\left(B\frac{\pi}{4B}\right)=A[/latex]

because  [latex]\tan\left(\frac{\pi}{4}\right)=1[/latex].

How To: Given the function [latex]f(x)=A\tan(Bx)[/latex], graph one period.

  1. Identify the stretching factor, |A|.
  2. Identify B and determine the period, [latex]P=\frac{\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  3. Draw vertical asymptotes at  [latex]x=−\dfrac{P}{2}[/latex] and [latex]x=\frac{P}{2}[/latex].
  4. For A > 0 , the graph approaches the left asymptote at negative output values and the right asymptote at positive output values (reverse for A < 0 ).
  5. Plot reference points at [latex]\left(\frac{P}{4},A\right)[/latex] (0, 0), and ([latex]−\dfrac{P}{4}[/latex],− A), and draw the graph through these points.

Example 14: Sketching a Compressed Tangent

Sketch a graph of one period of the function [latex]y=0.5\tan\left(\frac{\pi}{2}x\right)[/latex].

Try It

Sketch a graph of [latex]f(x)=3\tan\left(\frac{\pi}{6}x\right)[/latex].

Try It

Graphing One Period of a Shifted Tangent Function

Now that we can graph a tangent function that is stretched or compressed, we will add a vertical and/or horizontal (or phase) shift. In this case, we add C and D to the general form of the tangent function.

[latex]f(x)=A\tan(Bx−C)+D[/latex]

The graph of a transformed tangent function is different from the basic tangent function tan x in several ways:

A General Note: Features of the Graph of [latex]y = A\tan\left(Bx−C\right)+D[/latex]

  • The stretching factor is |A|.
  • The period is [latex]\frac{\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  • The domain is [latex]x\ne\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  • The range is (−∞,−|A|] ∪ [|A|, ∞).
  • The vertical asymptotes occur at [latex]x=\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{2|B|}k[/latex], where k is an odd integer.
  • There is no amplitude.
  • [latex]y=A\tan(Bx)[/latex] is an odd function because it is the quotient of odd and even functions (sine and cosine respectively).

How To: Given the function [latex]y=A\tan(Bx−C)+D[/latex], sketch the graph of one period.

  1. Express the function given in the form [latex]y=A\tan(Bx−C)+D[/latex].
  2. Identify the stretching/compressing factor, |A|.
  3. Identify B and determine the period, [latex]P=\frac{\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  4. Identify C and determine the phase shift, [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex].
  5. Draw the graph of [latex]y=A\tan(Bx)[/latex] shifted to the right by [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex] and up by D.
  6. Sketch the vertical asymptotes, which occur at [latex]x=\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{2|B|}k[/latex], where k is an odd integer.
  7. Plot any three reference points and draw the graph through these points.

Example 15: Graphing One Period of a Shifted Tangent Function

Graph one period of the function [latex]y=−2\tan(\pi x+\pi)−1[/latex].

Try It

How would the graph in Example 2 look different if we made A = 2 instead of −2?

How To: Given the graph of a tangent function, identify horizontal and vertical stretches.

  1. Find the period P from the spacing between successive vertical asymptotes or x-intercepts.
  2. Write [latex]f(x)=A\tan\left(\frac{\pi}{P}x\right)[/latex].
  3. Determine a convenient point (x, f(x)) on the given graph and use it to determine A.

Example 16: Identifying the Graph of a Stretched Tangent

Find a formula for the function graphed in Figure 5.

A graph of two periods of a modified tangent function, with asymptotes at x=-4 and x=4.

Figure 30

Try It

Find a formula for the function in Figure 6.

A graph of four periods of a modified tangent function, Vertical asymptotes at -3pi/4, -pi/4, pi/4, and 3pi/4.

Figure 31

Try It

Using the Graphs of Trigonometric Functions to Solve Real-World Problems

Many real-world scenarios represent periodic functions and may be modeled by trigonometric functions. As an example, let’s return to the scenario from the section opener. Have you ever observed the beam formed by the rotating light on a police car and wondered about the movement of the light beam itself across the wall? The periodic behavior of the distance the light shines as a function of time is obvious, but how do we determine the distance? We can use the tangent function .

Example 17: Using Trigonometric Functions to Solve Real-World Scenarios

Suppose the function [latex]y=5\tan\left(\frac{\pi}{4}t\right)[/latex] marks the distance in the movement of a light beam from the top of a police car across a wall where t is the time in seconds and y is the distance in feet from a point on the wall directly across from the police car.

  1. Find and interpret the stretching factor and period.
  2. Graph on the interval [0, 5].
  3. Evaluate f(1) and discuss the function’s value at that input.

Analyzing the Graphs of y = sec x and y = cscx and Their Variations

The secant was defined by the reciprocal identity [latex]\sec x=\frac{1}{\cos x}[/latex]. Notice that the function is undefined when the cosine is 0, leading to vertical asymptotes at [latex]\frac{\pi}{2},\frac{3\pi}{2}\text{, etc}[/latex]. Because the cosine is never more than 1 in absolute value, the secant, being the reciprocal, will never be less than 1 in absolute value.

We can graph [latex]y=\sec x[/latex] by observing the graph of the cosine function because these two functions are reciprocals of one another. See Figure 9. The graph of the cosine is shown as a dashed orange wave so we can see the relationship. Where the graph of the cosine function decreases, the graph of the secant function increases. Where the graph of the cosine function increases, the graph of the secant function decreases. When the cosine function is zero, the secant is undefined.

The secant graph has vertical asymptotes at each value of x where the cosine graph crosses the x-axis; we show these in the graph below with dashed vertical lines, but will not show all the asymptotes explicitly on all later graphs involving the secant and cosecant.

Note that, because cosine is an even function, secant is also an even function. That is, [latex]\sec(−x)=\sec x[/latex].

A graph of cosine of x and secant of x. Asymptotes for secant of x shown at -3pi/2, -pi/2, pi/2, and 3pi/2.

Figure 34. Graph of the secant function, [latex]f(x)=\sec x=\frac{1}{\cos x}[/latex]

As we did for the tangent function, we will again refer to the constant |A| as the stretching factor, not the amplitude.

A General Note: Features of the Graph of y = Asec(Bx)

  • The stretching factor is |A|.
  • The period is [latex]\frac{2\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  • The domain is [latex]x\ne \frac{\pi}{2|B|}k[/latex], where k is an odd integer.
  • The range is (−∞, −|A|] ∪ [|A|, ∞).
  • The vertical asymptotes occur at [latex]x=\frac{\pi}{2|B|}k[/latex], where k is an odd integer.
  • There is no amplitude.
  • [latex]y=A\sec(Bx)[/latex] is an even function because cosine is an even function.

Similar to the secant, the cosecant is defined by the reciprocal identity [latex]\csc x=1\sin x[/latex]. Notice that the function is undefined when the sine is 0, leading to a vertical asymptote in the graph at 0, π, etc. Since the sine is never more than 1 in absolute value, the cosecant, being the reciprocal, will never be less than 1 in absolute value.

We can graph [latex]y=\csc x[/latex] by observing the graph of the sine function because these two functions are reciprocals of one another. See Figure 10. The graph of sine is shown as a dashed orange wave so we can see the relationship. Where the graph of the sine function decreases, the graph of the cosecant function increases. Where the graph of the sine function increases, the graph of the cosecant function decreases.

The cosecant graph has vertical asymptotes at each value of x where the sine graph crosses the x-axis; we show these in the graph below with dashed vertical lines.

Note that, since sine is an odd function, the cosecant function is also an odd function. That is, [latex]\csc(−x)=−\csc x[/latex].

The graph of cosecant, which is shown in Figure 10, is similar to the graph of secant.

A graph of cosecant of x and sin of x. Five vertical asymptotes shown at multiples of pi.

Figure 35. The graph of the cosecant function, [latex]f(x)=\csc x=\frac{1}{\sin x}/latex]

A General Note: Features of the Graph of [latex]y=A\csc(Bx)

  • The stretching factor is |A|.
  • The period is [latex]\frac{2\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  • The domain is [latex]x\ne\frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  • The range is ( −∞, −|A|] ∪ [|A|, ∞).
  • The asymptotes occur at [latex]x=\frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  • [latex]y=A\csc(Bx)[/latex] is an odd function because sine is an odd function.

Graphing Variations of y = sec x and = csc x

For shifted, compressed, and/or stretched versions of the secant and cosecant functions, we can follow similar methods to those we used for tangent and cotangent. That is, we locate the vertical asymptotes and also evaluate the functions for a few points (specifically the local extrema). If we want to graph only a single period, we can choose the interval for the period in more than one way. The procedure for secant is very similar, because the cofunction identity means that the secant graph is the same as the cosecant graph shifted half a period to the left. Vertical and phase shifts may be applied to the cosecant function in the same way as for the secant and other functions. The equations become the following.

[latex]y=A\sec(Bx−C)+D[/latex]
[latex]y=A\csc(Bx−C)+D[/latex]

A General Note: Features of the Graph of [latex]y=A\sec(Bx−C)+D[/latex]

  • The stretching factor is |A|.
  • The period is [latex]\frac{2\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  • The domain is [latex]x\ne \frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{2|B|}k[/latex], where k is an odd integer.
  • The range is (−∞, −|A|] ∪ [|A|, ∞).
  • The vertical asymptotes occur at [latex]x=\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{2|B|}k[/latex], where k is an odd integer.
  • There is no amplitude.
  • [latex]y=A\sec(Bx)[/latex] is an even function because cosine is an even function.

A General Note: Features of the Graph of [latex]y=A\csc(Bx−C)+D[/latex]

  • The stretching factor is |A|.
  • The period is [latex]\frac{2\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  • The domain is [latex]x\ne\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{2|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  • The range is (−∞, −|A|] ∪ [|A|, ∞).
  • The vertical asymptotes occur at [latex]x=\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  • There is no amplitude.
  • [latex]y=A\csc(Bx)[/latex] is an odd function because sine is an odd function.

How To: Given a function of the form [latex]y=A\sec(Bx)[/latex], graph one period.

  1. Express the function given in the form [latex]y=A\sec(Bx)[/latex].
  2. Identify the stretching/compressing factor, |A|.
  3. Identify B and determine the period, [latex]P=\frac{2\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  4. Sketch the graph of [latex]y=A\cos(Bx)[/latex].
  5. Use the reciprocal relationship between [latex]y=\cos x[/latex] and [latex]y=\sec x[/latex] to draw the graph of [latex]y=A\sec(Bx)[/latex].
  6. Sketch the asymptotes.
  7. Plot any two reference points and draw the graph through these points.

Example 18: Graphing a Variation of the Secant Function

Graph one period of [latex]f(x)=2.5\sec(0.4x)[/latex].

Try It

Graph one period of [latex]f(x)=−2.5\sec(0.4x)[/latex].

Q & A

Do the vertical shift and stretch/compression affect the secant’s range?

Yes. The range of [latex]f(x) = A\sec(Bx − C) + D[/latex] is ( −∞, −|A| + D] ∪ [|A| + D, ∞).

How To: Given a function of the form [latex]f(x)=A\sec (Bx−C)+D[/latex], graph one period.

  1. Express the function given in the form [latex]y=A\sec(Bx−C)+D[/latex].
  2. Identify the stretching/compressing factor, |A|.
  3. Identify B and determine the period, [latex]\frac{2\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  4. Identify C and determine the phase shift, [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex].
  5. Draw the graph of [latex]y=A\sec(Bx)[/latex]. but shift it to the right by [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex] and up by D.
  6. Sketch the vertical asymptotes, which occur at [latex]x=\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{2|B|}k[/latex], where k is an odd integer.

Example 19: Graphing a Variation of the Secant Function

Graph one period of [latex]y=4\sec \left(\frac{\pi}{3}x−\frac{\pi}{2}\right)+1[/latex].

Try It

Graph one period of [latex]f(x)=−6\sec(4x+2)−8[/latex].

Try It

Q & A

The domain of [latex]\csc x[/latex] was given to be all x such that [latex]x\ne k\pi[/latex] for any integer k. Would the domain of [latex]y=A\csc(Bx−C)+D[/latex] be [latex]x\ne\frac{C+k\pi}{B}[/latex]?

Yes. The excluded points of the domain follow the vertical asymptotes. Their locations show the horizontal shift and compression or expansion implied by the transformation to the original function’s input.

How To: Given a function of the form [latex]y=A\csc(Bx)[/latex], graph one period.

  1. Express the function given in the form [latex]y=A\csc(Bx)[/latex].
  2. |A|.
  3. Identify B and determine the period, [latex]P=\frac{2\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  4. Draw the graph of [latex]y=A\sin(Bx)[/latex].
  5. Use the reciprocal relationship between [latex]y=\sin x[/latex] and [latex]y=\csc x[/latex] to draw the graph of [latex]y=A\csc(Bx)[/latex].
  6. Sketch the asymptotes.
  7. Plot any two reference points and draw the graph through these points.

Example 20: Graphing a Variation of the Cosecant Function

Graph one period of [latex]f(x)=−3\csc(4x)[/latex].

Try It

Graph one period of [latex]f(x)=0.5\csc(2x)[/latex].

How To: Given a function of the form [latex]f(x)=A\csc(Bx−C)+D[/latex], graph one period.

  1. Express the function given in the form [latex]y=A\csc(Bx−C)+D[/latex].
  2. Identify the stretching/compressing factor, |A|.
  3. Identify B and determine the period, [latex]\frac{2\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  4. Identify C and determine the phase shift, [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex].
  5. Draw the graph of [latex]y=A\csc(Bx)[/latex] but shift it to the right by and up by D.
  6. Sketch the vertical asymptotes, which occur at [latex]x=\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.

Example 21: Graphing a Vertically Stretched, Horizontally Compressed, and Vertically Shifted Cosecant

Sketch a graph of [latex]y=2\csc\left(\frac{\pi}{2}x\right)+1[/latex]. What are the domain and range of this function?

Try It

Given the graph of [latex]f(x)=2\cos\left(\frac{\pi}{2}x\right)+1[/latex] shown in Figure 15, sketch the graph of [latex]g(x)=2\sec\left(\frac{\pi}{2}x\right)+1[/latex] on the same axes.

 

A graph of two periods of a modified cosine function. Range is [-1,3], graphed from x=-4 to x=4.

Figure 40

Analyzing the Graph of y = cot x and Its Variations

The last trigonometric function we need to explore is cotangent. The cotangent is defined by the reciprocal identity [latex]\cot x=\frac{1}{\tan x}[/latex]. Notice that the function is undefined when the tangent function is 0, leading to a vertical asymptote in the graph at 0, π, etc. Since the output of the tangent function is all real numbers, the output of the cotangent function is also all real numbers.

We can graph [latex]y=\cot x[/latex] by observing the graph of the tangent function because these two functions are reciprocals of one another. See Figure 16. Where the graph of the tangent function decreases, the graph of the cotangent function increases. Where the graph of the tangent function increases, the graph of the cotangent function decreases.

The cotangent graph has vertical asymptotes at each value of x where [latex]\tan x=0[/latex]; we show these in the graph below with dashed lines. Since the cotangent is the reciprocal of the tangent, [latex]\cot x[/latex] has vertical asymptotes at all values of x where [latex]\tan x=0[/latex] , and [latex]\cot x=0[/latex] at all values of x where tan x has its vertical asymptotes.

A graph of cotangent of x, with vertical asymptotes at multiples of pi.

Figure 41. The cotangent function

A General Note: Features of the Graph of y = Acot(Bx)

  • The stretching factor is |A|.
  • The period is [latex]P=\frac{\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  • The domain is [latex]x\ne\frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  • The range is (−∞, ∞).
  • The asymptotes occur at [latex]x=\frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  • [latex]y=A\cot(Bx)[/latex] is an odd function.

Graphing Variations of y = cot x

We can transform the graph of the cotangent in much the same way as we did for the tangent. The equation becomes the following.

[latex]y=A\cot(Bx−C)+D[/latex]

A General Note: Properties of the Graph of y = Acot(Bx−C)+D

  • The stretching factor is |A|.
  • The period is [latex]\frac{\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  • The domain is [latex]x\ne\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  • The range is (−∞, −|A|] ∪ [|A|, ∞).
  • The vertical asymptotes occur at [latex]x=\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  • There is no amplitude.
  • [latex]y=A\cot(Bx)[/latex] is an odd function because it is the quotient of even and odd functions (cosine and sine, respectively)

How To: Given a modified cotangent function of the form [latex]f(x)=A\cot(Bx)[/latex], graph one period.

  1. Express the function in the form [latex]f(x)=A\cot(Bx)[/latex].
  2. Identify the stretching factor, |A|.
  3. Identify the period, [latex]P=\frac{\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  4. Draw the graph of [latex]y=A\tan(Bx)[/latex].
  5. Plot any two reference points.
  6. Use the reciprocal relationship between tangent and cotangent to draw the graph of [latex]y=A\cot(Bx)[/latex].
  7. Sketch the asymptotes.

Example 22: Graphing Variations of the Cotangent Function

Determine the stretching factor, period, and phase shift of [latex]y=3\cot(4x)[/latex], and then sketch a graph.

How To: Given a modified cotangent function of the form [latex]f(x)=A\cot(Bx−C)+D[/latex], graph one period.

  1. Express the function in the form [latex]f(x)=A\cot(Bx−C)+D[/latex].
  2. Identify the stretching factor, |A|.
  3. Identify the period, [latex]P=\frac{\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  4. Identify the phase shift, [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex].
  5. Draw the graph of [latex]y=A\tan(Bx)[/latex] shifted to the right by [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex] and up by D.
  6. Sketch the asymptotes [latex]x =\frac{C}{B}+\frac{\pi}{|B|}k[/latex], where k is an integer.
  7. Plot any three reference points and draw the graph through these points.

Example 23: Graphing a Modified Cotangent

Sketch a graph of one period of the function [latex]f(x)=4\cot\left(\frac{\pi}{8}x−\frac{\pi}{2}\right)−2[/latex].

Key Equations

Shifted, compressed, and/or stretched tangent function [latex]y=A\tan(Bx−C)+D[/latex]
Shifted, compressed, and/or stretched secant function [latex]y=A\sec(Bx−C)+D[/latex]
Shifted, compressed, and/or stretched cosecant [latex]y=A\csc(Bx−C)+D[/latex]
Shifted, compressed, and/or stretched cotangent function [latex]y=A\cot(Bx−C)+D[/latex]

Key Concepts

  • Periodic functions repeat after a given value. The smallest such value is the period. The basic sine and cosine functions have a period of 2π.
  • The function sin x is odd, so its graph is symmetric about the origin. The function cos x is even, so its graph is symmetric about the y-axis.
  • The graph of a sinusoidal function has the same general shape as a sine or cosine function.
  • In the general formula for a sinusoidal function, the period is [latex]\text{P}=\frac{2\pi}{|B|}[/latex].
  • In the general formula for a sinusoidal function, |A|represents amplitude. If |A| > 1, the function is stretched, whereas if|A| < 1, the function is compressed.
  • The value [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex] in the general formula for a sinusoidal function indicates the phase shift.
  • The value D in the general formula for a sinusoidal function indicates the vertical shift from the midline.
  • Combinations of variations of sinusoidal functions can be detected from an equation.
  • The equation for a sinusoidal function can be determined from a graph.
  • A function can be graphed by identifying its amplitude and period.
  • A function can also be graphed by identifying its amplitude, period, phase shift, and horizontal shift.
  • Sinusoidal functions can be used to solve real-world problems.
  • The tangent function has period π.
  • [latex]f(x)=A\tan(Bx−C)+D[/latex] is a tangent with vertical and/or horizontal stretch/compression and shift.
  • The secant and cosecant are both periodic functions with a period of2π. [latex]f(x)=A\sec(Bx−C)+D[/latex] gives a shifted, compressed, and/or stretched secant function graph.
  • [latex]f(x)=A\csc(Bx−C)+D[/latex] gives a shifted, compressed, and/or stretched cosecant function graph.
  • The cotangent function has period π and vertical asymptotes at 0, ±π,±2π,....
  • The range of cotangent is (−∞,∞),and the function is decreasing at each point in its range.
  • The cotangent is zero at [latex]\pm\frac{\pi}{2}\text{, }\pm\frac{3\pi}{2}[/latex],....
  • [latex]f(x)=A\cot(Bx−C)+D[/latex] is a cotangent with vertical and/or horizontal stretch/compression and shift.
  • Real-world scenarios can be solved using graphs of trigonometric functions.

Glossary

amplitude
the vertical height of a function; the constant A appearing in the definition of a sinusoidal function
midline
the horizontal line = D, where D appears in the general form of a sinusoidal function
periodic function
a function f(x) that satisfies [latex]f(x+P)=f(x)[/latex] for a specific constant and any value of x
phase shift
the horizontal displacement of the basic sine or cosine function; the constant [latex]\frac{C}{B}[/latex]
sinusoidal function
any function that can be expressed in the form [latex]f(x)=A\sin(Bx−C)+D[/latex] or [latex]f(x)=A\cos(Bx−C)+D[/latex]