At the simplest of levels, iconography is the containment of deeper meanings in simple representations. It makes use of symbolism to generate narrative, which in turn develops a work’s meaning. Symbolic representation is when a representation takes on meaning that is unrelated to what it depicts. For example, when lilies are pictured with the Christian Virgin Mary, they symbolically represent the idea of chastity. Chastity and lilies have no direct connection; therefore the meaning is symbolic.

Jan van Eyck, Arnolfini Portrait, 1434, oil on canvas. Work is in the public domain.

Each of the objects in van Eyck’s painting has a specific meaning here beyond imagery. In fact, this painting is actually a painted marriage contract designed to solidify the agreement between these two families. It is especially important to remember that this is not a painting of an actual scene, but an image constructed to communicate specific things.

1. You notice that the bride is pregnant. She wasn’t at the time of the painting but this is a symbolic act to represent that she will become fruitful.
2. The little dog at her feet is a symbol of fidelity, and is often seen with portraits of women paid for by their husbands.
3. The discarded shoes are often a symbol of the sanctity of marriage.
4. The single candle lit in the daylight (look at the chandelier) is a symbol of the bridal candle, a devotional candle that was to burn all night the first night of the marriage.
5. The chair back has a carving of St. Margaret, the patron saint of childbirth.
6. The orange on the windowsill and the rich clothing are symbols of future material wealth (in 1434 oranges were hand carried from India and very expensive).
7. The circular mirror at the back reflects both the artist and another man, and the artist’s signature reads, “Jan van Eyck was present”—both are witnesses to the betrothal in the picture. (We don’t think of this much anymore, but a promise to marry was a legal contract).  The circular forms around the mirror are tiny paintings of the Stations of the Cross.

You can see how densely populated iconography in imagery can convey specific hidden meanings.  The problem here is to know what all of this means if we want to understand the work. Iconography helps situate an artwork in a specific time in history and also the cultural context, because certain symbolic meanings may only be meaningful to a specific culture (e.g., Christian versus pagan symbols).

Another more contemporary painting with icons embedded in it is Grant Wood’s American Gothic from the 1930s. The dower expressions on the figures’ faces signify the toughness of a Midwestern American farm couple. Indeed, one critic complained that the woman in the painting had a “face that could sour milk”. Notice how the trees and bushes in the painting’s background and the small cameo the woman wears mirror the soft roundness of her face: these traditional symbols of femininity carry throughout the work.  In contrast, the man’s straight-backed stance is reflected in the pitchfork he holds, and again in the window frames on the house behind him. Even the stitching on his overalls mimics the form of the pitchfork. The arched window frame at the top center of the painting in particular is a symbol of the gothic architecture from 12^th century Europe.

In addition, a popular genre in painting from sixteenth-century northern Europe, especially the Netherlands, is known as vanitas painting. These still life paintings are heavily dependent upon symbolic objects that project the joy and accomplishments life affords, yet at the same time remind us of our mortality. Edward Collier’s painting below is a good example of how crowded these could be:

Edward Collier, A Vanitas, 1669, oil on canvas. Work is in the public domain.

The armor, weapons, and medals show a focus on military accomplishments. The open book alludes to knowledge, and in this case the drawing of a canon mirrors the overall theme. The globe is a symbol of both travel and our common existence as earth-bound beings. Contemporary vanitas paintings could certainly include allusions to air and space travel. On the far right of the work, behind the book and in the shadows, lies a skull, again reminding us of the shortness of life and the inevitability of death.

We can find evidence of the process by which iconography, or representations, take on specific meanings in popular culture, as well. The “Golden Arches” means fast food, the silhouette of an apple (with a bite out of it) means a brand of computer, and the artist Andy Warhol’s soup can image forever links Campbell’s soup with Pop Art.