{"id":452,"date":"2015-04-28T18:41:27","date_gmt":"2015-04-28T18:41:27","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/masteryart1x6xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&p=452"},"modified":"2018-07-17T19:23:37","modified_gmt":"2018-07-17T19:23:37","slug":"reading-the-baroque-art-politics-and-religion-in-seventeenth-century-europe","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/sac-artappreciation\/chapter\/reading-the-baroque-art-politics-and-religion-in-seventeenth-century-europe\/","title":{"raw":"The Baroque and Rococo","rendered":"The Baroque and Rococo"},"content":{"raw":"

\u201cBaroque\u201d\u2014the Word, the Style, the Period\u00a0<\/b><\/h2>\r\nIn the context of European history, the period from c. 1585 to c. 1700\/1730 is often called the Baroque era. The word \u201cbaroque\u201d derives from the Portuguese and Spanish words for a large, irregularly-shaped pearl (\u201cbarroco\u201d and \u201cbarrueco,\u201d respectively). Eighteenth century critics were the first to apply the term to the art of the 17th century. It was not a term of praise. To the eyes of these critics, who favored the restraint and order of Neoclassicism, the works of Bernini, Borromini, and Pietro da Cortona appeared bizarre, absurd, even diseased\u2014in other words, misshapen, like an imperfect pearl.\r\n\r\nBy the middle of the 19th century, the word had lost its pejorative implications and was used to describe the ornate and complex qualities present in many examples of 17th-century art, music and literature. Eventually, the term came to designate the historical period as a whole. In the context of painting, for example, the stark realism of Zurbaran\u2019s altarpieces, the quiet intimacy of Vermeer\u2019s domestic interiors, and restrained classicism of Poussin\u2019s landscapes are all \u201cBaroque\u201d (now with a capital \u201cB\u201d to indicate the historical period), regardless of the absence of the stylistic traits originally associated with the term.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"560\"]\"Gian Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Cathedra Petri (or Chair of St. Peter), gilded bronze, gold, wood, stained glass, 1647-53 (apse of Saint Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, Rome)[\/caption]\r\n

Rome: From the \u201cWhore of Babylon\u201d to the Resplendent Bride of Christ<\/h2>\r\nWhen Martin Luther tacked his 95 theses to the doors of Wittenburg Cathedral in 1517 protesting the Catholic Church\u2019s corruption, he initiated a movement that would transform the religious, political, and artistic landscape of Europe. For the next century, Europe would be in turmoil as new political and religious boundaries were determined, often through bloody military conflicts. Only in 1648, with the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia, did the conflicts between Protestants and Catholics subside in continental Europe.\r\n\r\nMartin Luther focused his critique on what he saw as the Church\u2019s greed and abuse of power. He called Rome, the seat of papal power, \u201cthe whore of Babylon\u201d decked out in the finest expensive art, grand architecture, and sumptuous banquets. The Church responded to the crisis in two ways: by internally addressing issues of corruption and by defending the doctrines rejected by the Protestants. Thus, while the first two decades of the 16th century were a period of lavish spending for the Papacy, the middle decades were a period of austerity. As one visitor to Rome noted in the 1560s, the entire city had become a convent. Piety and asceticism ruled the day.\r\n\r\nBy the end of the 16th century, the Catholic Church was once again feeling optimistic, even triumphant. It had emerged from the crisis with renewed vigor and clarity of purpose. Shepherding the faithful\u2014instructing them on Catholic doctrines and inspiring virtuous behavior\u2014took center stage. Keen to rebuild Rome\u2019s reputation as a holy city, the Papacy embarked on extensive building and decoration campaigns aimed at highlighting its ancient origins, its beliefs, and its divinely-sanctioned authority. In the eyes of faithful Catholics, Rome was not an unfaithful whore, but a pure bride, beautifully adorned for her union with her divine spouse. The art of this movement is called Baroque<\/strong> art and it is often thought of as the art of the Counter-Reformation.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"560\"]\"View View of the Cerasi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome with Annibale Carracci's altarpiece, The Assumption of the Virgin, 1600-01, oil on canvas, 96\u00a0in \u00d7\u00a061\u00a0inches and to the right, Caravaggio's Conversion of Saint Paul (Conversion of Saul), 1601, 91\u00a0in \u00d7\u00a069\u00a0inches[\/caption]\r\n

The Art of Persuasion: to Instruct, to Delight, to Move<\/h2>\r\nWhile the Protestants harshly criticized the cult of images, the Catholic Church ardently embraced the religious power of art. The visual arts, the Church argued, played a key role in guiding the faithful. They were certainly as important as the written and spoken word, and perhaps even more important, since they were accessible to the learned and the unlearned alike. In order to be effective in its pastoral role, religious art had to be persuasive, powerful, and understandable. Not only did it have to instruct, it had to inspire. It had to move the faithful to feel the reality of Christ\u2019s sacrifice, the suffering of the martyrs, the visions of the saints.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"560\"]\"Caravaggio, Caravaggio, The Crowning with Thorns, 1602-04, oil on canvas, 165.5 x 127 cm (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nArtists like Caravaggio turned to a powerful and dramatic realism, accentuated by bold contrasts of light and dark, and tightly-cropped compositions that enhance the physical and emotional immediacy of the depicted narrative. Others, like Giovanni Battista Gaulli, turned to daring feats of illusionism that blurred not only the boundaries between painting, sculpture, and architecture, but also those between the real and depicted worlds. In so doing, the divine was made physically present and palpable. Whether through shocking realism, dynamic movement, or exuberant ornamentation, seventeenth-century art is meant to impress. It aims to convince the viewer of the truth of its message by impacting the senses, awakening the emotions, and activating, even sharing the viewer\u2019s space. As opposed to the rejection of art by the Reformation, the Counter-Reformation embraced art in a big way! (Other artists, like Annibale Carracci, continued earlier traditions and settled on the more classical visual language of the Renaissance with idealized forms, balanced compositions, overall calmness and clarity and rational, perfect figures in staged, artificial settings.)\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"560\"]\"Giovanni Giovanni Battista Gaulli, also known as il Baciccio, The Triumph of the Name of Jesus, Il Ges\u00f9 ceiling fresco, 1672-1685[\/caption]\r\n

The Catholic Monarchs and Their Territories<\/h2>\r\nThe monarchs of Spain, Portugal, and France also embraced the more ornate elements of seventeenth century art to celebrate Catholicism. In Spain and its colonies, rulers invested vast resources on elaborate church facades, stunning, gold-covered chapels and tabernacles, and strikingly-realistic polychrome sculpture. In the Spanish Netherlands, where sacred art had suffered terribly as a result of the Protestant iconoclasm (the destruction of art), civic and religious leaders prioritized the adornment of churches as the region reclaimed its Catholic identity. Refurnishing the altars of Antwerp\u2019s churches kept Peter Paul Rubens\u2019 workshop busy for many years. Europe\u2019s monarchs also adopted this artistic vocabulary to proclaim their own power and status. Louis XIV, for example, commissioned the splendid buildings and gardens of Versailles as a visual expression of his divine right to rule.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"560\"]\"View View of paintings by Peter Paul Rubens in the Alte Pinakothek, Munich[\/caption]\r\n

The Protestant North<\/h2>\r\nIn the Protestant countries, and especially in the newly-independent Dutch Republic (modern-day Netherlands), the artistic climate changed radically due to the Reformation. In the beginning there was a period of iconoclasm (destroying images) targeting Catholic churches, many of which would be taken over by the Protestants.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"351\"]\"Judith Judith Leyster,\u00a0Self-Portrait, c. 1630, oil on canvas, 651 x 746 cm (National Gallery of Art, Washington)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nTwo of the wealthiest sources of patronage\u2014the monarchy and the Church\u2014were now gone. In their stead arose an increasingly prosperous middle and upper class eager to express their status, and a new sense of national pride, through the purchase of art.\r\n\r\nBy the middle of the 17th century a new market had emerged to meet the artistic tastes of this class. The demand was now for smaller scale paintings suitable for display in private homes. These paintings included religious subjects for private contemplation, as seen in Rembrandt\u2019s poignant paintings and prints of biblical narratives, as well as portraits documenting individual likenesses.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"560\"]\"Willem Willem Claesz Heda, Banquet Piece with Mince Pie, 1635, oil on canvas, 42 x 43-3\/4 inches (National Gallery of Art, Washington)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBut, the greatest change in the market was the dramatic increase in the popularity of secular (non-religious) art: landscapes, still-lifes, and scenes of everyday life (known as genre painting). Indeed, the proliferation of these subjects as independent artistic genres was one of the 17th century\u2019s most significant contributions to the history of Western art. In all of these genres, artists revealed a keen interest in replicating observed reality\u2014whether it be the light on the Dutch landscape, the momentary expression on a face, or the varied textures and materials of the objects the Dutch collected as they reaped the benefits of their expanding mercantile empire. These works demonstrated as much artistic virtuosity and physical immediacy as the grand decorations of the palaces and churches of Catholic Europe.\r\n

The Beginnings of Rococo<\/h2>\r\nIn the early years of the 1700s, at the end of the reign of Louis XIV (who dies in 1715), there was a shift away from the classicism and \"Grand Manner\" (based on the art of Poussin) that had governed the art of the preceding 50 years, toward a new style that we call Rococo.Versailles was abandoned by the aristocracy, who once again took up residence in Paris. A shift away from the monarchy, toward the aristocracy characterizes this period.\r\n\r\nWhat kind of lifestyle did the aristocracy lead during this period? Remember that the aristocracy had enormous political power as well as enormous wealth. Many chose leisure as a pursuit and became involved themselves in romantic intrigues. Indeed, they created a culture of luxury and excess that formed a stark contrast to the lives of most people in France. The aristocracy, only a small percentage of the population of France, owned over 90% of its wealth. A small, but growing middle class does not sit still with this for long (remember the French Revolution of 1789).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_466\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]\"Jean-Honor\u00e9<\/a> Jean-Honor\u00e9 Fragonard, The Swing, oil on canvas, 1767 (Wallace Collection, London)[\/caption]\r\n

Fragonard's The Swing<\/i><\/h2>\r\nAs with most Rococo paintings, the subject of\u00a0Fragonard's\u00a0The Swing<\/i>\u00a0is not very complicated! Two lovers have conspired to get this older fellow to push the young lady in the swing while her lover hides in the bushes. Their idea is that as she goes up in the swing, she can part her legs, and he can get a perfect view up her skirt.\r\n\r\nThey are surrounded by a lush, overgrown garden. A sculptured figure to the left puts his fingers to his mouth, as though saying \"hush,\" while another sculpture in the background has two cupid figures cuddled together. The colors are pastel -- pale pinks and greens, and although we have a sense of movement and a prominent diagonal line -- the painting lacks all of the seriousness of a baroque painting.\r\n\r\nIf you look really closely you can see the loose brushstrokes in the pink silk dress, and as she opens her legs, we get a glimpse of her garter belt. It was precisely this kind of painting that the philosophers of the Enlightenment were soon to condemn. They demanded a new style of art, one that showed an example of moral behavior, of human beings at their most noble.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/rVI5Sjm0xKI","rendered":"

\u201cBaroque\u201d\u2014the Word, the Style, the Period\u00a0<\/b><\/h2>\n

In the context of European history, the period from c. 1585 to c. 1700\/1730 is often called the Baroque era. The word \u201cbaroque\u201d derives from the Portuguese and Spanish words for a large, irregularly-shaped pearl (\u201cbarroco\u201d and \u201cbarrueco,\u201d respectively). Eighteenth century critics were the first to apply the term to the art of the 17th century. It was not a term of praise. To the eyes of these critics, who favored the restraint and order of Neoclassicism, the works of Bernini, Borromini, and Pietro da Cortona appeared bizarre, absurd, even diseased\u2014in other words, misshapen, like an imperfect pearl.<\/p>\n

By the middle of the 19th century, the word had lost its pejorative implications and was used to describe the ornate and complex qualities present in many examples of 17th-century art, music and literature. Eventually, the term came to designate the historical period as a whole. In the context of painting, for example, the stark realism of Zurbaran\u2019s altarpieces, the quiet intimacy of Vermeer\u2019s domestic interiors, and restrained classicism of Poussin\u2019s landscapes are all \u201cBaroque\u201d (now with a capital \u201cB\u201d to indicate the historical period), regardless of the absence of the stylistic traits originally associated with the term.<\/p>\n

\"Gian<\/p>\n

Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Cathedra Petri (or Chair of St. Peter), gilded bronze, gold, wood, stained glass, 1647-53 (apse of Saint Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City, Rome)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Rome: From the \u201cWhore of Babylon\u201d to the Resplendent Bride of Christ<\/h2>\n

When Martin Luther tacked his 95 theses to the doors of Wittenburg Cathedral in 1517 protesting the Catholic Church\u2019s corruption, he initiated a movement that would transform the religious, political, and artistic landscape of Europe. For the next century, Europe would be in turmoil as new political and religious boundaries were determined, often through bloody military conflicts. Only in 1648, with the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia, did the conflicts between Protestants and Catholics subside in continental Europe.<\/p>\n

Martin Luther focused his critique on what he saw as the Church\u2019s greed and abuse of power. He called Rome, the seat of papal power, \u201cthe whore of Babylon\u201d decked out in the finest expensive art, grand architecture, and sumptuous banquets. The Church responded to the crisis in two ways: by internally addressing issues of corruption and by defending the doctrines rejected by the Protestants. Thus, while the first two decades of the 16th century were a period of lavish spending for the Papacy, the middle decades were a period of austerity. As one visitor to Rome noted in the 1560s, the entire city had become a convent. Piety and asceticism ruled the day.<\/p>\n

By the end of the 16th century, the Catholic Church was once again feeling optimistic, even triumphant. It had emerged from the crisis with renewed vigor and clarity of purpose. Shepherding the faithful\u2014instructing them on Catholic doctrines and inspiring virtuous behavior\u2014took center stage. Keen to rebuild Rome\u2019s reputation as a holy city, the Papacy embarked on extensive building and decoration campaigns aimed at highlighting its ancient origins, its beliefs, and its divinely-sanctioned authority. In the eyes of faithful Catholics, Rome was not an unfaithful whore, but a pure bride, beautifully adorned for her union with her divine spouse. The art of this movement is called Baroque<\/strong> art and it is often thought of as the art of the Counter-Reformation.<\/p>\n

\"View<\/p>\n

View of the Cerasi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome with Annibale Carracci’s altarpiece, The Assumption of the Virgin, 1600-01, oil on canvas, 96\u00a0in \u00d7\u00a061\u00a0inches and to the right, Caravaggio’s Conversion of Saint Paul (Conversion of Saul), 1601, 91\u00a0in \u00d7\u00a069\u00a0inches<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

The Art of Persuasion: to Instruct, to Delight, to Move<\/h2>\n

While the Protestants harshly criticized the cult of images, the Catholic Church ardently embraced the religious power of art. The visual arts, the Church argued, played a key role in guiding the faithful. They were certainly as important as the written and spoken word, and perhaps even more important, since they were accessible to the learned and the unlearned alike. In order to be effective in its pastoral role, religious art had to be persuasive, powerful, and understandable. Not only did it have to instruct, it had to inspire. It had to move the faithful to feel the reality of Christ\u2019s sacrifice, the suffering of the martyrs, the visions of the saints.<\/p>\n

\"Caravaggio,<\/p>\n

Caravaggio, The Crowning with Thorns, 1602-04, oil on canvas, 165.5 x 127 cm (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Artists like Caravaggio turned to a powerful and dramatic realism, accentuated by bold contrasts of light and dark, and tightly-cropped compositions that enhance the physical and emotional immediacy of the depicted narrative. Others, like Giovanni Battista Gaulli, turned to daring feats of illusionism that blurred not only the boundaries between painting, sculpture, and architecture, but also those between the real and depicted worlds. In so doing, the divine was made physically present and palpable. Whether through shocking realism, dynamic movement, or exuberant ornamentation, seventeenth-century art is meant to impress. It aims to convince the viewer of the truth of its message by impacting the senses, awakening the emotions, and activating, even sharing the viewer\u2019s space. As opposed to the rejection of art by the Reformation, the Counter-Reformation embraced art in a big way! (Other artists, like Annibale Carracci, continued earlier traditions and settled on the more classical visual language of the Renaissance with idealized forms, balanced compositions, overall calmness and clarity and rational, perfect figures in staged, artificial settings.)<\/p>\n

\"Giovanni<\/p>\n

Giovanni Battista Gaulli, also known as il Baciccio, The Triumph of the Name of Jesus, Il Ges\u00f9 ceiling fresco, 1672-1685<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

The Catholic Monarchs and Their Territories<\/h2>\n

The monarchs of Spain, Portugal, and France also embraced the more ornate elements of seventeenth century art to celebrate Catholicism. In Spain and its colonies, rulers invested vast resources on elaborate church facades, stunning, gold-covered chapels and tabernacles, and strikingly-realistic polychrome sculpture. In the Spanish Netherlands, where sacred art had suffered terribly as a result of the Protestant iconoclasm (the destruction of art), civic and religious leaders prioritized the adornment of churches as the region reclaimed its Catholic identity. Refurnishing the altars of Antwerp\u2019s churches kept Peter Paul Rubens\u2019 workshop busy for many years. Europe\u2019s monarchs also adopted this artistic vocabulary to proclaim their own power and status. Louis XIV, for example, commissioned the splendid buildings and gardens of Versailles as a visual expression of his divine right to rule.<\/p>\n

\"View<\/p>\n

View of paintings by Peter Paul Rubens in the Alte Pinakothek, Munich<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

The Protestant North<\/h2>\n

In the Protestant countries, and especially in the newly-independent Dutch Republic (modern-day Netherlands), the artistic climate changed radically due to the Reformation. In the beginning there was a period of iconoclasm (destroying images) targeting Catholic churches, many of which would be taken over by the Protestants.<\/p>\n

\"Judith<\/p>\n

Judith Leyster,\u00a0Self-Portrait, c. 1630, oil on canvas, 651 x 746 cm (National Gallery of Art, Washington)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Two of the wealthiest sources of patronage\u2014the monarchy and the Church\u2014were now gone. In their stead arose an increasingly prosperous middle and upper class eager to express their status, and a new sense of national pride, through the purchase of art.<\/p>\n

By the middle of the 17th century a new market had emerged to meet the artistic tastes of this class. The demand was now for smaller scale paintings suitable for display in private homes. These paintings included religious subjects for private contemplation, as seen in Rembrandt\u2019s poignant paintings and prints of biblical narratives, as well as portraits documenting individual likenesses.<\/p>\n

\"Willem<\/p>\n

Willem Claesz Heda, Banquet Piece with Mince Pie, 1635, oil on canvas, 42 x 43-3\/4 inches (National Gallery of Art, Washington)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

But, the greatest change in the market was the dramatic increase in the popularity of secular (non-religious) art: landscapes, still-lifes, and scenes of everyday life (known as genre painting). Indeed, the proliferation of these subjects as independent artistic genres was one of the 17th century\u2019s most significant contributions to the history of Western art. In all of these genres, artists revealed a keen interest in replicating observed reality\u2014whether it be the light on the Dutch landscape, the momentary expression on a face, or the varied textures and materials of the objects the Dutch collected as they reaped the benefits of their expanding mercantile empire. These works demonstrated as much artistic virtuosity and physical immediacy as the grand decorations of the palaces and churches of Catholic Europe.<\/p>\n

The Beginnings of Rococo<\/h2>\n

In the early years of the 1700s, at the end of the reign of Louis XIV (who dies in 1715), there was a shift away from the classicism and “Grand Manner” (based on the art of Poussin) that had governed the art of the preceding 50 years, toward a new style that we call Rococo.Versailles was abandoned by the aristocracy, who once again took up residence in Paris. A shift away from the monarchy, toward the aristocracy characterizes this period.<\/p>\n

What kind of lifestyle did the aristocracy lead during this period? Remember that the aristocracy had enormous political power as well as enormous wealth. Many chose leisure as a pursuit and became involved themselves in romantic intrigues. Indeed, they created a culture of luxury and excess that formed a stark contrast to the lives of most people in France. The aristocracy, only a small percentage of the population of France, owned over 90% of its wealth. A small, but growing middle class does not sit still with this for long (remember the French Revolution of 1789).<\/p>\n

\"Jean-Honor\u00e9<\/a><\/p>\n

Jean-Honor\u00e9 Fragonard, The Swing, oil on canvas, 1767 (Wallace Collection, London)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Fragonard’s The Swing<\/i><\/h2>\n

As with most Rococo paintings, the subject of\u00a0Fragonard’s\u00a0The Swing<\/i>\u00a0is not very complicated! Two lovers have conspired to get this older fellow to push the young lady in the swing while her lover hides in the bushes. Their idea is that as she goes up in the swing, she can part her legs, and he can get a perfect view up her skirt.<\/p>\n

They are surrounded by a lush, overgrown garden. A sculptured figure to the left puts his fingers to his mouth, as though saying “hush,” while another sculpture in the background has two cupid figures cuddled together. The colors are pastel — pale pinks and greens, and although we have a sense of movement and a prominent diagonal line — the painting lacks all of the seriousness of a baroque painting.<\/p>\n

If you look really closely you can see the loose brushstrokes in the pink silk dress, and as she opens her legs, we get a glimpse of her garter belt. It was precisely this kind of painting that the philosophers of the Enlightenment were soon to condemn. They demanded a new style of art, one that showed an example of moral behavior, of human beings at their most noble.<\/p>\n