{"id":58,"date":"2015-04-10T18:35:29","date_gmt":"2015-04-10T18:35:29","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/masteryart1x6xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&p=58"},"modified":"2020-05-19T14:36:56","modified_gmt":"2020-05-19T14:36:56","slug":"oer-1-9","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/sac-artappreciation\/chapter\/oer-1-9\/","title":{"raw":"Elements of Art","rendered":"Elements of Art"},"content":{"raw":"

1. Line<\/h2>\r\nThere are many different types of lines, all characterized by their length being greater than their width. Lines can be static or dynamic depending on how the artist chooses to use them. They help determine the motion, direction and energy in a work of art. We see line all around us in our daily lives; telephone wires, tree branches, jet contrails and winding roads are just a few examples.\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\nThe Nazca lines<\/a>\u00a0in the arid coastal plains of Peru date to nearly 500 BCE were scratched into the rocky soil, depicting animals on an incredible scale, so large that they are best viewed from the air. Let\u2019s look at how the different kinds of line are made.\r\n\r\n\"Image\r\n\r\nDiego Velazquez\u2019s Las Meninas<\/em>\u00a0from 1656, ostensibly a portrait of the Infanta Margarita, the daughter of King Philip IV and Queen Mariana of Spain, offers a sumptuous amount of artistic genius; its sheer size (almost ten feet square), painterly style of naturalism, lighting effects, and the enigmatic figures placed throughout the canvas\u2013including the artist himself \u2013is one of the great paintings in western art history. Let\u2019s examine it (below) to uncover how Velazquez uses basic elements and principles of art to achieve such a masterpiece.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"357\"]\"M3_Image3_LasMeninas.jpeg\" Diego Velazquez, Las Meninas, 1656, oil on canvas, 125.2\u201d x 108.7\u201d. Prado, Madrid.\u00a0CC BY-SA[\/caption]\r\n\r\nActual lines <\/strong>are those that are physically present. The edge of the wooden stretcher bar at the left of Las Meninas<\/em>\u00a0is an actual line, as are the picture frames in the background and the linear decorative elements on some of the figures' dresses. How many other actual lines can you find in the painting?\r\n\r\nImplied lines <\/strong>are those created by visually connecting two or more areas together. The gaze to the Infanta Margarita\u2014the blonde central figure in the composition\u2014from the meninas<\/em>, or maids of honor, to the left and right of her, are implied lines. Implied lines can also be created when two areas of different colors or tones come together. Can you identify more implied lines in the painting? Where? Implied lines are found in three-dimensional artworks, too. The sculpture of the Laocoon <\/em>below, <\/em>a figure from Greek and Roman mythology, is, along with his sons, being strangled by sea snakes sent by the goddess Athena as wrath against his warnings to the Trojans not to accept the Trojan horse. The sculpture sets implied lines in motion as the figures writhe in agony against the snakes.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"361\"]\"M3_Image4_GreekStatue.jpeg\" Laocoon Group, Roman copy of Greek original, Vatican Museum, Rome. Photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen. CC BY-SA[\/caption]\r\n\r\nStraight or classic lines <\/strong>provide structure to a composition. They can be oriented to the horizontal, vertical, or diagonal axis of a surface. Straight lines are by nature visually stable, while still giving direction to a composition. In\u00a0Las Meninas<\/em>, you can see them in the canvas supports on the left, the wall supports and doorways on the right, and in the background in matrices on the wall spaces between the framed pictures. Moreover, the small horizontal lines created in the stair edges in the background help anchor the entire visual design of the painting. Vertical and horizontal straight lines provide the most stable compositions. Diagonal straight lines are usually more visually dynamic, unstable, and tension-filled.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"300\"]\"M3_Image5_StraightLines.jpeg\" Straight lines, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\nExpressive lines <\/strong>are curved, adding an organic, more dynamic character to a work of art. Expressive lines are often rounded and follow undetermined paths. In Las Meninas<\/em> you can see them in the aprons on the girls\u2019 dresses and in the dog\u2019s folded hind leg and coat pattern. Look again at the Laocoon<\/em> to see expressive lines in the figures\u2019 flailing limbs and the sinuous form of the snakes. Indeed, the sculpture seems to be made up of nothing but expressive lines, shapes and forms.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"300\"]\"M3_Image6_OrganicLines.jpeg\" Organic lines, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThere are other kinds of line that encompass the characteristics of those above yet, taken together, help create additional artistic elements and richer, more varied compositions. Refer to the images and examples below to become familiar with these types of line.\r\n\r\nOutline, or contour line <\/strong>is the simplest of these. They create a path around the edge of a shape. In fact, outlines often define shapes.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"300\"]\"M3_Image7_Outline.jpeg\" Outline, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\nHatch lines <\/strong>are repeated at short intervals in generally one direction. They give shading and visual texture to the surface of an object.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"300\"]\"M3_Image8_HatchLines.jpeg\" Hatch, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\nCrosshatch lines <\/strong>provide additional tone and texture. They can be oriented in any direction. Multiple layers of crosshatch lines can give rich and varied shading to objects by manipulating the pressure of the drawing tool to create a large range of values.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"300\"]\"M3_Image9_CrossHatchLines.jpeg\" Crosshatch, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLine quality <\/strong>is that sense of character embedded in the way a line presents itself. Certain lines have qualities that distinguish them from others. Hard-edged, jagged lines have a staccato visual movement while organic, flowing lines create a more comfortable feeling. Meandering lines can be either geometric or expressive, and you can see in the examples how their indeterminate paths animate a surface to different degrees.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"300\"]\"M3_Image10_ALline.jpeg\" Lines, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAlthough line as a visual element generally plays a supporting role in visual art, there are wonderful examples in which line carries a strong cultural significance as the primary subject matter.\r\n\r\nCalligraphic lines <\/strong>use quickness and gesture, more akin to paint strokes, to imbue an artwork with a fluid, lyrical character. To see this unique line quality, look up the work of Chinese poet and artist Dong Qichang, dating from the Ming dynasty (1555-1637). A more geometric example from the Koran<\/a>, created in the Arabic calligraphic style, dates from the 9th<\/sup> century.\r\n\r\nBoth these examples show how artists use line as both a form of writing and a visual art form. American artist Mark Tobey (1890\u20131976) was influenced by Oriental calligraphy, adapting its form to the act of pure painting within a modern abstract style described as white writing.\r\n

2. Shape<\/h2>\r\nA shape is defined as an enclosed area in two dimensions. By definition shapes are always flat, but the combination of shapes, color, and other means can make shapes appear three-dimensional, as forms<\/em>. Shapes can be created in many ways, the simplest by enclosing an area with an outline. They can also be made by surrounding an area with other shapes or the placement of different textures next to each other\u2014for instance, the shape of an island surrounded by water. Because they are more complex than lines, shapes are usually more important in the arrangement of compositions. The examples below give us an idea of how shapes are made.\r\n\r\nReferring back to Velazquez\u2019s Las Meninas<\/em>, it is fundamentally an arrangement of shapes; organic and hard-edged, light, dark and mid-toned, that solidifies the composition within the larger shape of the canvas. Looking at it this way, we can view any work of art, whether two or three-dimensional, realistic, abstract or non-objective, in terms of shapes alone.\r\n

Geometric Shapes vs. Organic Shapes<\/h3>\r\nShapes can be further categorized into geometric and organic. Examples of geometric<\/strong> shapes are the ones we can recognize and name: squares, triangles, circles, hexagons, etc. Organic<\/strong> shapes are those that are based on organic or living things or are more free form: the shape of a tree, face, monkey, cloud, etc.\r\n\r\n \r\n

3. Form<\/h2>\r\nForm is sometimes used to describe a shape that has an implied third dimension. In other words, an artist may try to make parts of a flat image appear three-dimensional. Notice in the drawing below how the artist makes the different shapes appear three-dimensional through the use of shading. It's a flat image but appears three-dimensional. Form is used to make people, animals, trees, or anything appear three-dimensional.\r\n

\"\"<\/a>This image is free of copyright restrictions.<\/p>\r\n

When an image is incredibly realistic in terms of its forms (as well as color, space, etc.) such as this painting by Edwaert Collier, we call that trompe l'oeil<\/em>, French for \"fool the eye.\"<\/p>\r\n

\"\"<\/a>Edweart Collier, Trompe l'oeil with Writing Materials<\/em>,\r\noil on canvas, c. 1702.\r\nThis image is in the public domain.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

4. Space<\/h2>\r\nSpace is the area surrounding or between real or implied objects. Humans categorize space: there is outer space, that limitless void we enter beyond our sky; inner space, which resides in people\u2019s minds and imaginations, and personal space, the important but intangible area that surrounds each individual and which is violated if someone else gets too close. Pictorial space is flat, and the digital realm resides in cyberspace. Art responds to all of these kinds of space.\r\n\r\nMany artists are as concerned with space in their works as they are with, say, color or form. There are many ways for the artist to present ideas of space. Remember that many cultures traditionally use pictorial space as a window to view subject matter through, and through the subject matter they present ideas, narratives and symbolic content. The innovation of linear perspective, <\/em><\/strong>an implied geometric pictorial construct dating from fifteenth-century Europe, affords us the accurate illusion of three-dimensional space on a flat surface, and appears to recede into the distance through the use of a horizon line<\/em><\/strong> and vanishing point(s)<\/em><\/strong>. You can see how one-point linear perspective<\/strong> is set up in the examples below:\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"301\"]\"M3_Image16_VP.jpeg\" One-Point Linear Perspective, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOne-point perspective<\/em><\/strong> occurs when the receding lines appear to converge at a single point on the horizon and used when the flat front of an object is facing the viewer. Note: Perspective can be used to show the relative size and recession into space of any object, but is most effective with hard-edged three-dimensional objects such as buildings.\r\n\r\nA classic Renaissance artwork using one point perspective is Leonardo da Vinci\u2019s The Last Supper<\/em>\u00a0from 1498. Da Vinci composes the work by locating the vanishing point directly behind the head of Christ, thus drawing the viewer\u2019s attention to the center. His arms mirror the receding wall lines, and, if we follow them as lines, would converge at the same vanishing point.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_812\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"636\"]\"Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_The_Last_Supper_high_res\"<\/a> Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, 1498. Fresco. Santa Maria della Grazie. Work\u00a0is in the public domain.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nTwo-point perspective <\/em><\/strong>occurs when the vertical edge of a cube is facing the viewer, exposing two sides that recede into the distance, one to each vanishing point.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"301\"]\"M3_Image18_2pt.jpeg\" Two-Point Perspective, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison. CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\nView Gustave Caillebotte\u2019s Paris Street, Rainy Weather<\/a>\u00a0from 1877 to see how two-point perspective is used to give an accurate view to an urban scene.\u00a0 The artist\u2019s composition, however, is more complex than just his use of perspective. The figures are deliberately placed to direct the viewer\u2019s eye from the front right of the picture to the building\u2019s front edge on the left, which, like a ship\u2019s bow, acts as a cleaver to plunge both sides toward the horizon. In the midst of this visual recession a lamp post stands firmly in the middle to arrest our gaze from going right out the back of the painting. Caillebotte includes the little metal arm at the top right of the post to direct us again along a horizontal path, now keeping us from traveling off the top of the canvas. As relatively spare as the left side of the work is, the artist crams the right side with hard-edged and organic shapes and forms in a complex play of positive and negative space.\r\n\r\nThe perspective system is a cultural convention well suited to a traditional western European idea of the \"truth,\" that is, an accurate, clear rendition of observed reality. Even after the invention of linear perspective, many artists and cultures continued to use other ways to show pictorial space, relying on overlapping,\u00a0<\/strong>size differences (smaller=further), <\/strong>vertical placement (lower=closer; higher=further), aerial or atmospheric perspective (hazy, less detailed-further; clear, crisp, detailed=closer)<\/strong>. THESE ARE IMPORTANT!\u00a0 MAKE SURE YOU UNDERSTAND WHAT THEY MEAN.<\/span>\r\n\r\nExamine the miniature painting of the Third Court of the Topkapi Palace\u00a0<\/em>from fourteenth-century Turkey to contrast its pictorial space with that of linear perspective. It\u2019s composed from a number of different vantage points (as opposed to vanishing points), all very flat to the picture plane. While the overall image is seen from above, the figures and trees appear as cutouts, seeming to float in mid air. Notice the towers on the far left and right are sideways to the picture plane. The trees and people occupying the upper parts are meant to be perceived as further from the viewer as compared to those trees, buildings and people located near the bottom of the painting. This is an example of vertical placement.\r\n\r\nAs \"incorrect\" as it looks, the painting does give a detailed description of the landscape and structures on the palace grounds.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"456\"]\"M3_Image20_3rdCt.jpeg\" Third Court of the Topkapi Palace, from the Hunername, 1548. Ottoman miniature painting, Topkapi Museum, Istanbul. CC BY-SA[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAfter nearly five hundred years using linear perspective, western ideas about how space is depicted accurately in two dimensions went through a revolution at the beginning of the 20th<\/sup> century. A young Spanish artist, Pablo Picasso, moved to Paris, then western culture\u2019s capital of art, and largely reinvented pictorial space with the invention of Cubism, ushered in dramatically by his painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon<\/a>\u00a0in 1907. He was influenced in part by the chiseled forms, angular surfaces and disproportion of African sculpture (refer back to the Male Figure\u00a0<\/em>from Cameroon) and mask-like faces of early Iberian artworks. For more information about this important painting, listen to the following question and answer.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/pngGDycLQuE\r\n\r\nIn the early 20th century, Picasso, his friend Georges Braque and a handful of other artists struggled to develop a new space that relied on, ironically, the flatness of the picture plane<\/strong> to carry and animate traditional subject matter including figures, still life and landscape. Cubist pictures, and eventually sculptures, became amalgams of different points of view, light sources and planar constructs. It was as if they were presenting their subject matter in many ways at once, all the while shifting foreground, middle ground and background so the viewer is not sure where one starts and the other ends. In an interview, the artist explained cubism this way: \u201cThe problem is now to pass, to go around the object, and give a plastic expression to the result. All of this is my struggle to break with the two-dimensional aspect*\u201d(from Alexander Liberman, An Artist in His Studio, 1960, page 113<\/em>). Public and critical reaction to cubism was understandably negative, but the artists\u2019 experiments with spatial relationships reverberated with others and became \u2013 along with new ways of using color \u2013 a driving force in the development of a modern art movement that based itself on the flatness of the picture plane. Instead of a window to look into, the flat surface becomes a ground on which to construct formal arrangements of shapes, colors and compositions. For another perspective on this idea, refer back to module one\u2019s discussion of \u2018abstraction\u2019.\r\n\r\nYou can see the radical changes cubism made in George Braque\u2019s landscape La Roche Guyon\u00a0<\/em>from 1909. The trees, houses, castle and surrounding rocks comprise almost a single complex form, stair-stepping up the canvas to mimic the distant hill at the top, all of it struggling upwards and leaning to the right within a shallow pictorial space.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"330\"]\"M3_Image21_Braque.jpeg\" George Braque,\u00a0Castle at La Roche Guyon,\u00a01909. Oil on canvas. Stedelijk van Abbe Museum, Eindhoven, Netherlands. Licensed through GNU\u00a0and Creative Commons[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAs the cubist style developed, its forms became even flatter. Juan Gris\u2019s The Sunblind\u00a0<\/em>from 1914 splays the still life it represents across the canvas. Collage elements like newspaper reinforce pictorial flatness.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"330\"]\"M3_Image22_TheSunblind.jpeg\" Juan Gris, The Sunblind, 1914. Gouache, collage, chalk, and charcoal on canvas. Tate Gallery, London. Image licensed under GNU Free Documentation License[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIt\u2019s not so difficult to understand the importance of this new idea of space when placed in the context of comparable advances in science surrounding the turn of the nineteenth\u00a0century. The Wright Brothers took to the air with powered flight in 1903, the same year Marie Curie won the first of two Nobel prizes for her pioneering work in radiation. Sigmund Freud\u2019s new ideas on the inner spaces of the mind and its effect on behavior were published in 1902, and Albert Einstein\u2019s calculations on relativity, the idea that space and time are intertwined, first appeared in 1905. Each of these discoveries added to human understanding and realligned the way we look at ourselves and our world. Indeed, Picasso, speaking of his struggle to define cubism, said \u201cEven Einstein did not know it either! The condition of discovery is outside ourselves; but the terrifying thing is that despite all this, we can only find what we know\u201d (from Picasso on Art, A Selection of Views<\/em> by Dore Ashton, (Souchere, 1960, page 15).\r\n

5. Value and Contrast<\/h2>\r\nValue (or tone)<\/strong> is the relative lightness or darkness of a shape in relation to another. The value scale, bounded on one end by pure white and on the other by black, and in between a series of progressively darker shades of grey, gives an artist the tools to make these transformations. The value scale below shows the standard variations in tones. Values near the lighter end of the spectrum are termed high-keyed, those on the darker end are low-keyed.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"736\"]\"M3_Image24_ValueScale.jpeg\" Value Scale, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison, CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn two dimensions, the use of value gives a shape the illusion of form or mass and lends an entire composition a sense of light and shadow. The two examples below show the effect value has on changing a shape to a form.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"300\"]\"M3_Image25_2Dnovalue.jpeg\" 2D Form, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison, CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\n <\/td>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"614\"]\"M3_Image26_2Dvalue.jpeg\" 3D Form, 11 July 2012, Creator: Oliver Harrison, CC BY[\/caption]\r\n\r\n <\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThis same technique brings to life what begins as a simple line drawing of a young man\u2019s head in Michelangelo\u2019s Head of a Youth and a Right Hand<\/a>\u00a0from 1508. Shading is created with line (refer to our discussion of line<\/em> earlier in this module) or tones created with a pencil. Artists vary the tones by the amount of resistance they use between the pencil and the paper they\u2019re drawing on. A drawing pencil\u2019s leads vary in hardness, each one giving a different tone than another. Washes of ink or color create values determined by the amount of water the medium is dissolved into.\r\n\r\nThe use of high contrast, <\/em><\/strong>placing lighter areas of value against much darker ones, creates a dramatic effect, while low contrast <\/em><\/strong>gives more subtle results. These differences in effect are evident in \u2018Guiditta and Oloferne\u2019 by the Italian painter Caravaggio, and Robert Adams\u2019 photograph Untitled, Denver<\/a>\u00a0from 1970-74. Caravaggio uses a high contrast palette to an already dramatic scene to increase the visual tension for the viewer, while Adams deliberately makes use of low contrast to underscore the drabness of the landscape surrounding the figure on the bicycle.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"432\"]\"M3_Image27_Caravaggio.jpeg\" Caravaggio, Guiditta Decapitates Oloferne, 1598, oil on canvas. National Gallery of Italian Art, Rome. This work is in the public domain[\/caption]\r\n

6. Color<\/h2>\r\nColor is the most complex artistic element because of the combinations and variations inherent in its use. \u00a0Humans respond to color combinations differently, and artists study and use color in part to give desired direction to their work.\r\n\r\nColor is fundamental to many forms of art. Its relevance, use and function in a given work depend on the medium of that work. While some concepts dealing with color are broadly applicable across media, others are not.\r\n\r\nThe full spectrum<\/em><\/strong> of colors is contained in white light. Humans perceive colors from the light reflected off objects. A red object, for example, looks red because it reflects the red part of the spectrum. It would be a different color under a different light. Color theory first appeared in the 17th<\/sup> century when English mathematician and scientist Sir Isaac Newton discovered that white light could be divided into a spectrum by passing it through a prism.\r\n\r\nThe study of color in art and design often starts with color theory<\/em>. Color theory splits up colors into three categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary.\r\n\r\nThe basic tool used is a color wheel, developed by Isaac Newton in 1666. A more complex model known as the color tree<\/a>, created by Albert Munsell, shows the spectrum made up of sets of tints and shades on connected planes.\r\n\r\nThere are a number of approaches to organizing colors into meaningful relationships. Most systems differ in structure only.\r\n

Traditional Model<\/h3>\r\nTraditional color theory is a qualitative attempt to organize colors and their relationships. It is based on Newton's color wheel, and continues to be the most common system used by artists.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"300\"]\"M3_Image28_Colorwheel.jpeg\" Blue Yellow Red Color Wheel. Released under the GNU Free Documentation License[\/caption]\r\n\r\nTraditional color theory<\/strong> uses the same principles as subtractive color mixing (see below) but prefers different primary colors.\r\n