{"id":1270,"date":"2016-05-14T02:22:39","date_gmt":"2016-05-14T02:22:39","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontosociology-waymaker\/?post_type=chapter&p=1270"},"modified":"2016-07-19T21:06:56","modified_gmt":"2016-07-19T21:06:56","slug":"reading-social-mobility","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/sanjacinto-introsociology-1\/chapter\/reading-social-mobility\/","title":{"raw":"Reading: Social Mobility","rendered":"Reading: Social Mobility"},"content":{"raw":"

Social Mobility<\/h2>\r\n
Social mobility<\/span><\/strong> refers to the ability to change positions within a social stratification system. When people improve or diminish their economic status in a way that affects social class, they experience social mobility.\r\n

Individuals can experience upward or downward social mobility for a variety of reasons. Upward mobility<\/span><\/strong> refers to an increase\u2014or upward shift\u2014in social class. In the United States, people applaud the rags-to-riches achievements of celebrities like Jennifer Lopez or Michael Jordan. Bestselling author Stephen King worked as a janitor prior to being published. Oprah Winfrey grew up in poverty in rural Mississippi before becoming a powerful media personality. There are many stories of people rising from modest beginnings to fame and fortune. But the truth is that relative to the overall population, the number of people who rise from poverty to wealth is very small. Still, upward mobility is not only about becoming rich and famous. In the United States, people who earn a college degree, get a job promotion, or marry someone with a good income may move up socially. In contrast, downward mobility<\/span><\/strong> indicates a lowering of one\u2019s social class. Some people move downward because of business setbacks, unemployment, or illness. Dropping out of school, losing a job, or getting a divorce may result in a loss of income or status and, therefore, downward social mobility.<\/p>\r\n

It is not uncommon for different generations of a family to belong to varying social classes. This is known as intergenerational mobility<\/span><\/strong>. For example, an upper-class executive may have parents who belonged to the middle class. In turn, those parents may have been raised in the lower class. Patterns of intergenerational mobility can reflect long-term societal changes.<\/p>\r\n

Similarly, intragenerational mobility<\/span> describes a difference in social class that between different members of the same generation. For example, the wealth and prestige experienced by one person may be quite different from that of his or her siblings.<\/p>\r\n

Structural mobility<\/span><\/strong> happens when societal changes enable a whole group of people to move up or down the social class ladder. Structural mobility is attributable to changes in society as a whole, not individual changes. In the first half of the twentieth century, industrialization expanded the U.S. economy, raising the standard of living and leading to upward structural mobility. In today\u2019s work economy, the recent recession and the outsourcing of jobs overseas have contributed to high unemployment rates. Many people have experienced economic setbacks, creating a wave of downward structural mobility.<\/p>\r\n

When analyzing the trends and movements in social mobility, sociologists consider all modes of mobility. Scholars recognize that mobility is not as common or easy to achieve as many people think. In fact, some consider social mobility a myth.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section>

\r\n
\r\n

Turn-of-the-Century \u201cSocial Problem Novels\u201d: Sociological Gold Mines<\/h3>\r\n

Class distinctions were sharper in the nineteenth century and earlier, in part because people easily accepted them. The ideology of social order made class structure seem natural, right, and just.<\/p>\r\n

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, U.S. and British novelists played a role in changing public perception. They published novels in which characters struggled to survive against a merciless class system. These dissenting authors used gender and morality to question the class system and expose its inequalities. They protested the suffering of urbanization and industrialization, drawing attention to these issues.<\/p>\r\n

These \u201csocial problem novels,\u201d sometimes called Victorian realism, forced middle-class readers into an uncomfortable position: they had to question and challenge the natural order of social class.<\/p>\r\nFor speaking out so strongly about the social issues of class, authors were both praised and criticized. Most authors did not want to dissolve the class system. They wanted to bring about an awareness that would improve conditions for the lower classes, while maintaining their own higher class positions (DeVine 2005).\r\n

Soon, middle-class readers were not their only audience. In 1870, Forster\u2019s Elementary Education Act required all children ages five through twelve in England and Wales to attend school. The act increased literacy levels among the urban poor, causing a rise in sales of cheap newspapers and magazines. The increasing number of people who rode public transit systems created a demand for \u201crailway literature,\u201d as it was called (Williams 1984). These reading materials are credited with the move toward democratization in England. By 1900 the British middle class had established a rigid definition for itself, and England\u2019s working class also began to self-identify and demand a better way of life.<\/p>\r\n

Many of the novels of that era are seen as sociological goldmines. They are studied as existing sources because they detail the customs and mores of the upper, middle, and lower classes of that period in history.<\/p>\r\n

Examples of \u201csocial problem\u201d novels include Charles Dickens\u2019s The Adventures of Oliver Twist<\/em> (1838), which shocked readers with its brutal portrayal of the realities of poverty, vice, and crime. Thomas Hardy\u2019s Tess of the d\u2019Urbervilles<\/em> (1891) was considered revolutionary by critics for its depiction of working-class women (DeVine 2005), and U.S. novelist Theodore Dreiser\u2019s Sister Carrie<\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>

\r\n
\r\n

Further Research<\/h3>\r\n

PBS made a documentary about social class called \u201cPeople Like Us: Social Class in America\u201d in 2001. The filmmakers interviewed people who lived in Park Avenue penthouses and Appalachian trailer parks. The accompanying web site<\/a> is full of information, interactive games, and life stories from those who participated. You can watch the entire episode here<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

\r\n

Practice<\/h3>\r\n
\r\n
\r\n
1. Structural mobility occurs when:<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n
\r\n
\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. an individual moves up the class ladder<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. an individual moves down the class ladder<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. a large group moves up or down the class ladder due to societal changes<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. a member of a family belongs to a different class than his or her siblings<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
    \r\n
    [reveal-answer q=\"419782\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"419782\"]c[\/hidden-answer]<\/div>\r\n
    \r\n
    <\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n
    \r\n
    \r\n

    2. Which of the following scenarios is an example of intragenerational mobility?<\/p>\r\n\r\n

      \r\n \t
    1. A janitor belongs to the same social class as his grandmother did.<\/li>\r\n \t
    2. An executive belongs to a different class than her parents.<\/li>\r\n \t
    3. An editor shares the same social class as his cousin.<\/li>\r\n \t
    4. A lawyer belongs to a different class than her sister.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n
      [reveal-answer q=\"808728\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"808728\"]b[\/hidden-answer]<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

      [reveal-answer q=\"163428\"]Show Glossary[\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"163428\"]<\/p>\r\n\r\n

      \r\n \t
      downward mobility:<\/dt>\r\n \t
      a lowering of one\u2019s social class<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n
      \r\n \t
      intergenerational mobility:<\/dt>\r\n \t
      a difference in social class between different generations of a family<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n
      \r\n \t
      intragenerational mobility:<\/dt>\r\n \t
      a difference in social class between different members of the same generation<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n
      \r\n \t
      social mobility:<\/dt>\r\n \t
      the ability to change positions within a social stratification system<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n
      \r\n \t
      structural mobility:<\/dt>\r\n \t
      a societal change that enables a whole group of people to move up or down the class ladder<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n
      \r\n \t
      upward mobility:<\/dt>\r\n \t
      an increase\u2014or upward shift\u2014in social class<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n

      [\/hidden-answer]<\/p>\r\n\r\n

      Self-Check: Social Stratification in the United States<\/h2>\r\n

      You\u2019ll have more success on the Self-Check, if you\u2019ve completed the three Readings in this section.<\/span><\/p>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/1016\r\n\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"

      Social Mobility<\/h2>\n
      Social mobility<\/span><\/strong> refers to the ability to change positions within a social stratification system. When people improve or diminish their economic status in a way that affects social class, they experience social mobility.<\/p>\n

      Individuals can experience upward or downward social mobility for a variety of reasons. Upward mobility<\/span><\/strong> refers to an increase\u2014or upward shift\u2014in social class. In the United States, people applaud the rags-to-riches achievements of celebrities like Jennifer Lopez or Michael Jordan. Bestselling author Stephen King worked as a janitor prior to being published. Oprah Winfrey grew up in poverty in rural Mississippi before becoming a powerful media personality. There are many stories of people rising from modest beginnings to fame and fortune. But the truth is that relative to the overall population, the number of people who rise from poverty to wealth is very small. Still, upward mobility is not only about becoming rich and famous. In the United States, people who earn a college degree, get a job promotion, or marry someone with a good income may move up socially. In contrast, downward mobility<\/span><\/strong> indicates a lowering of one\u2019s social class. Some people move downward because of business setbacks, unemployment, or illness. Dropping out of school, losing a job, or getting a divorce may result in a loss of income or status and, therefore, downward social mobility.<\/p>\n

      It is not uncommon for different generations of a family to belong to varying social classes. This is known as intergenerational mobility<\/span><\/strong>. For example, an upper-class executive may have parents who belonged to the middle class. In turn, those parents may have been raised in the lower class. Patterns of intergenerational mobility can reflect long-term societal changes.<\/p>\n

      Similarly, intragenerational mobility<\/span> describes a difference in social class that between different members of the same generation. For example, the wealth and prestige experienced by one person may be quite different from that of his or her siblings.<\/p>\n

      Structural mobility<\/span><\/strong> happens when societal changes enable a whole group of people to move up or down the social class ladder. Structural mobility is attributable to changes in society as a whole, not individual changes. In the first half of the twentieth century, industrialization expanded the U.S. economy, raising the standard of living and leading to upward structural mobility. In today\u2019s work economy, the recent recession and the outsourcing of jobs overseas have contributed to high unemployment rates. Many people have experienced economic setbacks, creating a wave of downward structural mobility.<\/p>\n

      When analyzing the trends and movements in social mobility, sociologists consider all modes of mobility. Scholars recognize that mobility is not as common or easy to achieve as many people think. In fact, some consider social mobility a myth.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n

      \n
      \n

      Turn-of-the-Century \u201cSocial Problem Novels\u201d: Sociological Gold Mines<\/h3>\n

      Class distinctions were sharper in the nineteenth century and earlier, in part because people easily accepted them. The ideology of social order made class structure seem natural, right, and just.<\/p>\n

      In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, U.S. and British novelists played a role in changing public perception. They published novels in which characters struggled to survive against a merciless class system. These dissenting authors used gender and morality to question the class system and expose its inequalities. They protested the suffering of urbanization and industrialization, drawing attention to these issues.<\/p>\n

      These \u201csocial problem novels,\u201d sometimes called Victorian realism, forced middle-class readers into an uncomfortable position: they had to question and challenge the natural order of social class.<\/p>\n

      For speaking out so strongly about the social issues of class, authors were both praised and criticized. Most authors did not want to dissolve the class system. They wanted to bring about an awareness that would improve conditions for the lower classes, while maintaining their own higher class positions (DeVine 2005).<\/p>\n

      Soon, middle-class readers were not their only audience. In 1870, Forster\u2019s Elementary Education Act required all children ages five through twelve in England and Wales to attend school. The act increased literacy levels among the urban poor, causing a rise in sales of cheap newspapers and magazines. The increasing number of people who rode public transit systems created a demand for \u201crailway literature,\u201d as it was called (Williams 1984). These reading materials are credited with the move toward democratization in England. By 1900 the British middle class had established a rigid definition for itself, and England\u2019s working class also began to self-identify and demand a better way of life.<\/p>\n

      Many of the novels of that era are seen as sociological goldmines. They are studied as existing sources because they detail the customs and mores of the upper, middle, and lower classes of that period in history.<\/p>\n

      Examples of \u201csocial problem\u201d novels include Charles Dickens\u2019s The Adventures of Oliver Twist<\/em> (1838), which shocked readers with its brutal portrayal of the realities of poverty, vice, and crime. Thomas Hardy\u2019s Tess of the d\u2019Urbervilles<\/em> (1891) was considered revolutionary by critics for its depiction of working-class women (DeVine 2005), and U.S. novelist Theodore Dreiser\u2019s Sister Carrie<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n

      \n
      \n

      Further Research<\/h3>\n

      PBS made a documentary about social class called \u201cPeople Like Us: Social Class in America\u201d in 2001. The filmmakers interviewed people who lived in Park Avenue penthouses and Appalachian trailer parks. The accompanying web site<\/a> is full of information, interactive games, and life stories from those who participated. You can watch the entire episode here<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

      \n

      Practice<\/h3>\n
      \n
      \n
      \n
      \n
      1. Structural mobility occurs when:<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n
      \n
      \n
      \n
        \n
      1. an individual moves up the class ladder<\/li>\n
      2. an individual moves down the class ladder<\/li>\n
      3. a large group moves up or down the class ladder due to societal changes<\/li>\n
      4. a member of a family belongs to a different class than his or her siblings<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n
        \n
        \n
        Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n
        c<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
        \n
        <\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n
        \n
        \n
        \n

        2. Which of the following scenarios is an example of intragenerational mobility?<\/p>\n

          \n
        1. A janitor belongs to the same social class as his grandmother did.<\/li>\n
        2. An executive belongs to a different class than her parents.<\/li>\n
        3. An editor shares the same social class as his cousin.<\/li>\n
        4. A lawyer belongs to a different class than her sister.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n
          \n
          \n
          Show Answer<\/span><\/p>\n
          b<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

          \n

          Show Glossary<\/span><\/p>\n
          \n
          \n
          downward mobility:<\/dt>\n
          a lowering of one\u2019s social class<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n
          \n
          intergenerational mobility:<\/dt>\n
          a difference in social class between different generations of a family<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n
          \n
          intragenerational mobility:<\/dt>\n
          a difference in social class between different members of the same generation<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n
          \n
          social mobility:<\/dt>\n
          the ability to change positions within a social stratification system<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n
          \n
          structural mobility:<\/dt>\n
          a societal change that enables a whole group of people to move up or down the class ladder<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n
          \n
          upward mobility:<\/dt>\n
          an increase\u2014or upward shift\u2014in social class<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n

          <\/div>\n<\/div>\n

          Self-Check: Social Stratification in the United States<\/h2>\n

          You\u2019ll have more success on the Self-Check, if you\u2019ve completed the three Readings in this section.<\/span><\/p>\n

          \t