Key Concepts

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

Discuss how monitoring and research are necessary to understanding the causes and consequences of environmental damage.
Explain how environmental reporting and literacy are crucial to dealing with the environmental crisis.
Outline the roles of governments, non-governmental organizations, scientists, and citizens in designing and implementing an ecologically sustainable economy.

Introduction

The previous parts of this book allowed us to learn the subject matter of environmental science by examining key ideas and by analyzing a body of supporting information. In this final chapter, we bring many of these topics together in an interdisciplinary fashion.

In the first sections of the chapter, we will examine topics related to environmental management and protection at the broader societal level. These topics include environmental monitoring and research, environmental literacy, and sustainability. All of these are necessary for maintaining an acceptable level of environmental quality and healthy ecosystems—two necessary objectives for a truly sustainable socio-economic system. We will also examine a range of actions that each of us can undertake to help resolve environmental problems.

In the concluding section of this chapter, we will briefly discuss the future prospects for advanced economies, such as that of the U.S., and for spaceship Earth.

Environmental Monitoring and Research

There are widespread and well-founded concerns about severe damage being caused to the quality of the environment. In response, many nations are implementing programs to monitor changes in environmental quality over time. Most of these programs are intended to document changes that are occurring over large regions or entire countries and to help predict future variations. These efforts are much larger in scale and scope than programs that monitor whether a particular industrial facility is complying with regulations and guidelines. Most large-scale monitoring is conducted by governmental agencies, or in some cases, by non-governmental organizations. The resulting data and knowledge are used to guide decision making in government, to enhance the work of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and to provide material for environmental research and education.

In the sense meant here, environmental monitoring involves repeated measurements of factors that are related to either the inorganic environment, the structure and functioning of ecosystems, and any intersections with human welfare. Because not everything can be monitored, successful monitoring programs depend on the careful choice of a limited number of representative indicators and on the collection of reliable data. If a monitoring program detects important changes, the possible causes and consequences of those changes are usually researched.

An environmental indicator is a relatively simple measurement that is used to represent a complex aspect of environmental quality. Indicators are usually sensitive to changes in the intensity of stressors. For example, the level of chemical residues in species high in the food web is often used as an indicator of contamination of its larger ecosystem. This is why residues of chlorinated hydrocarbons (such as DDT and PCBs) are routinely monitored in herring gulls and cormorants on the Great Lakes, and in marine mammals in coastal waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Arctic Oceans. Similarly, many lichens are known to be sensitive to gaseous pollutants and so are monitored as indicators of air quality over large regions, including cities.

Other indicators include species that are considered to represent the general health of the ecosystem of which they are a component. For instance, the population status of grizzly bears is considered a good indicator of the quality of their extensive ecosystem, as are populations of spotted owls for western old-growth rainforest, pileated woodpecker and pine marten in some other forests, salmon and trout in certain aquatic ecosystems, and orca and other cetaceans in the marine realm.

Sometimes, composite indicators are monitored to track changes in environmental quality. These are environmental analogues of the composite indexes that are used to monitor complex trends in finance and economics, such as the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Because they allow complex changes to be presented in a simple manner, composite indicators are especially useful for reporting to the general public.

Composite indicators of air and water quality have been developed using data for various kinds of important pollutants, such as major gases, vapors, and particulates in the atmosphere. However, composite indicators of environmental quality (or of ecosystem health or ecological integrity; see In Detail 30.1) are not yet well developed. This is mostly because scientists have not yet agreed on what the component variables should be.

When a change in indicators is measured in an environmental monitoring program, or when one is predicted, it is necessary to understand its causes and consequences. This is generally done by using the accumulated knowledge of effects of environmental stressors on ecosystems, along with research that is designed to address important questions that are not yet understood. We can examine the linkages between environmental monitoring and research by considering several examples.

Suppose that environmental monitoring has detected that precipitation has become acidified in some large region (Chapter 23). The cause(s) of the acidification might be understood by determining the concentrations of chemicals in the precipitation and by investigating local emissions of gases and particulates to the atmosphere. Researchers must also understand the consequences of an increased deposition of acidifying substances to freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, as well as the implications for buildings and other urban features. At first, the research would examine the existing knowledge of the causes and ecological effects of acidification in various kinds of habitats. However, that knowledge is always incomplete and therefore it must be augmented with new research examining risks of acidification that are not yet understood. The accumulated information helps society to understand whether the causes of acidification can be controlled, and if so, to assess the potential environmental and economic benefits.

In another example, monitoring might indicate that the ecological character of a region is changing because the natural forest is being extensively converted into plantations through industrial forestry. The ecological consequences would initially be interpreted in the light of existing knowledge of the effects of forestry, supplemented by additional research that investigates poorly understood issues. Specific research questions might address effects of the ecological conversions on biodiversity, forest productivity, watershed hydrology and chemistry, and global environmental change through effects on carbon storage (Chapters 21 and 27). This information is needed to help decision makers evaluate whether they should permit further conversions of natural forest into plantations.

Environmental monitoring and research in the U.S. is carried out by various agencies. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the most active agency at the federal level. Within the EPA, there is the Office of Research and Development, which establishes the Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP). EMAP was created to be a research program within the EPA to develop the necessary tools to monitor and assess the trends and status of national ecosystems and resources. The EPA also provides information about the influences of environmental quality on human health. Other U.S. agencies that conduct environmental montioring include the the Department of Fish and Wildlife Service, which deals with the fish, wildlife, and plants, and their habitats. The National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration provides data on both oceanic environments and the atmospheric environment. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides information regarding the agricultural systems and their impacts. Within the USDA, the U.S. Forest Service provides data relevant to forestry ecosystems, while the Natural Resource Conservation Service focuses on the status of both renewable and non-renewable resources throughout the country. The National Park Service focuses on and provides information on the national park system. Every state within the U.S. also has state-level comparable agencies that deal with environmental issues within their jurisdiction. For example the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) is New York State’s environmental protection and regulatory agency.

A few non-governmental organizations also undertake a considerable amount of environmental monitoring and research. For instance, the Nature Conservancy (Chapter 14) is associated with conservation planning and stewardship. The Environmental Defense Fund provides assessments and data on a variety of environmental issues, while also providing ways in which people can become active in aiding environmental causes. In addition, universities have considerable technical expertise in environmental issues. University professors, graduate students, and undergraduate students undertake research into the causes and consequences of environmental changes.

Environmental monitoring programs provide society with crucial information and knowledge. Both are necessary for the implementation of effective programs to prevent further degradation of environmental quality and the health of ecosystems, and to repair existing damage. These actions are necessary if society is to conduct its economy in a truly sustainable manner.

In Detail 30.1. Notions of Environmental Quality

Environmental quality, ecosystem health, and ecological integrity are important notions that help us understand the importance of changes in environmental conditions. However, like other notions, these ones cannot be precisely defined, although it is possible to develop a general understanding of what they mean.

Because they integrate changes in many components of ecosystems and environments, these concepts involve complex phenomena. Environmental quality, for example, is related to the concentrations of potentially toxic chemicals and other stressors in the environment, to the frequency and intensity of disturbances, and to the effects of these on humans, other species, ecosystems, and economies. Of particular concern are stressors associated with human activities, because these have become so important in the modern world.

Ecosystem health and ecological integrity are similar to each other and, in many respects, to environmental quality. However, these indicators focus on changes that may be occurring in natural populations and ecosystems, rather than on effects on people and their economy. All of these notions involve many variables that are related to stressors and socio-economic or ecological responses. As a result, they are sometimes measured using composite indicators, which integrate many possible changes that are thought to be important. Composite indicators are not exact measurements of environmental quality, ecosystem health, or ecological integrity, but they do allow society to determine whether conditions are getting worse or better.

These ideas can be explained by using ecological integrity as an example. Obviously, most stressors associated with human activities will enhance some species, ecosystems, and ecological processes, while at the same time damaging others. However, ecological theory suggests that systems with higher values for any or all of the following characteristics will have a greater degree of ecological integrity:

The ecosystem is resilient and resistant (see Chapter 9) to changes in the intensity of environmental stressors.
The system is rich in indigenous biodiversity values.
The ecosystem is complex in its structure and function.
Large species are present.
Top predators are present.
The ecosystem has controlled nutrient cycling, meaning it is not “leaking” its nutrient capital.
The ecosystem has a “natural” character and is self-maintaining, as opposed to being strongly affected by human influences and management.

These sorts of criteria for ecological integrity are of particular relevance to managing protected areas. If ecological integrity is being maintained or enhanced, then a protected area is doing its job of maintaining biodiversity and ecological functions.

Some Challenges and Successes

As noted earlier, programs of monitoring and research should be capable of detecting changes in environmental quality, while also helping to predict future effects. Well-designed programs should deal with the most important known stressors or potential threats to the environment. They should measure or predict the effects on people and on sensitive ecosystems and species, particularly those that are economically or ecologically important.

These are the simple requirements of a sensible program for monitoring and investigating environmental problems. Unfortunately, these criteria are not well met by many existing programs, and as a result some important environmental problems are not yet well understood. Consequently, they are not being addressed effectively, and they could become worse in the future. The following are some examples selected from preceding chapters.

What constitutes an acceptable exposure of humans to potentially toxic chemicals? Some toxins, such as metals and many biochemicals, occur naturally. How much can anthropogenic emissions be allowed to increase exposures beyond the natural background? Is any increase in exposure acceptable for non-natural toxins, such as dioxins, furans, PCBs, synthetic pesticides, and radionuclides? Or are there acceptable thresholds of exposure to those substances?
Is a widespread decline of migratory birds occurring? If so, what are the causes, and how can we manage the responsible stressors to repair the damage and prevent further losses of these native birds?
Anthropogenic emissions of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) may be causing a depletion of stratospheric ozone, resulting in increased ground-level exposures to ultraviolet radiation. What risks does this change have for human health and for wild species and ecosystems? How can the damage be prevented and repaired?
What are the dimensions of the global extinction crisis? How is biodiversity important to the health of the biosphere and to human welfare? Which species and ecosystems are most at risk, and why? Should the U.S. expend more effort to help conserve tropical biodiversity, or should we focus on problems within our own boundaries? How is the U.S. linked to biodiversity-depleting stressors in tropical countries?
Extensive declines and diebacks of forests have been reported in various parts of the world, including the U.S. Is that damage being caused by natural environmental changes or by stressors associated with human activities? If anthropogenic stressors are important, how can they be managed to prevent and repair the forest damage?
Is it possible to valuate the worth of species, communities, and ecological services (that is, to measure their worth in dollars) so that these can be integrated into economic cost-benefit models?
How intensively can renewable resources be harvested and managed without causing unacceptable risk to their long-term sustainability and without inflicting damage to other species and ecosystems?

To deal properly with these and many other important issues, we must improve our understanding through better monitoring and research. We can illustrate the achievable benefits by examining a few “success stories” in which monitoring, research, and effective actions helped to resolve important environmental problems.

Eutrophication of freshwater was identified as an important environmental problem during the 1960s and early 1970s. Research discovered that phosphate was the primary cause and that the damage could largely be avoided by constructing sewage-treatment facilities and by using low-phosphorus detergent.
Contamination with persistent chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as DDT, dieldrin, and PCBs, was found to be widespread in the 1960s and 1970s. Research showed that some species, such as predatory birds, were being seriously harmed and that there were possible effects on humans. The toxicological evidence convinced decision makers to ban these chemicals in most countries, to the great benefit of the environment.
Acidification was recognized during the late 1970s and the 1980s as an extensive phenomenon causing many ecological damages. Research showed that the problem was largely due to the atmospheric deposition of sulphur and nitrogen compounds. This convinced decision makers to require reductions of industrial emissions, and that action led to some improvements.

Environmental Literacy and Reporting

Environmental literacy refers to a well-informed understanding of environmental issues, and it is an important societal goal. Knowledge about the causes and consequences of environmental damage can influence the decisions and choices made by politicians, regulators, corporations, and individual citizens. If appropriate, those decisions and choices can influence environmental quality in a positive way (Figure 30.1). People acquire this knowledge in various ways, the most important of which are environmental reporting and other forms of education.

Figure 30.1. Influences on Environmental Quality. This is a conceptual model of the many influences on environmental quality, including the roles of monitoring, research, regulation, and literacy. Environmental monitoring and research provide an understanding of the causes and consequences of changes in conditions. Ideally, this understanding is based on objective information from monitoring and research programs, interpreted by environmental scientists and other qualified specialists (although their explanations may be conditioned by social and cultural influences). This knowledge is communicated to decision makers in government, who may implement regulations and undertake management activities that affect environmental quality. Source: Modified from Freedman (1995).

Knowledge about environmental and ecological changes is also communicated to the general public, through state-of-the-environment reporting, the educational system, activities of NGOs, and the mass media. Social attitudes regarding the environment are affected by environmental literacy, and they may result in more appropriate choices of lifestyle and a public influence on the policies and actions of governments and corporations.

Environmental literacy has a pervasive influence on the attitudes that people develop. Individuals who are knowledgeable about environmental issues are more likely to make appropriate lifestyle choices and to influence decision makers to ensure that sensible policies are implemented. In contrast, poorly informed public opinion encourages less-appropriate environmental choices, such as rampant consumerism and a wasteful use of natural resources. Environmental illiteracy also fosters the development of controversial “red herrings” or illogical beliefs that mislead or distract from important issues.

An example of an environmental red herring is the common misunderstanding that many people have of the differences between contamination and pollution. Related unhelpful syndromes are known as NIMBY (not in my backyard), LULU (locally unacceptable land use), BANANA (build absolutely nothing anywhere near anybody), and NIMTO (not in my term of office). NIMBY, LULU, and BANANA are common views that many people have about proposed developments that may affect their local environment (Image 30.1), while NIMTO is a frequent political response. These attitudes can result, in part, from a lack of credible information about the risks that may be associated with developments in the neighborhood. Alternatively, NIMBY, LULU, and BANANA may result when planners and developers are insensitive to the legitimate concerns of local people.

Image 30.1. Wind farm in Washington State. Controversy over the placement and installation of wind farms draws upon the NIMBY concept where residents might be in favor of renewable energy but would not want it installed right “in their backyard.” NIMBY in general refers to when people act in their own self-interest to oppose a specific technology or service that they would otherwise support. Source: “Washington State” by GPA Photo Archive, licensed by CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

In addition to affecting the siting of commercial and industrial facilities, NIMBY, LULU, BANANA, and NIMTO cause huge problems for planners who are attempting to build certain kinds of environmental management facilities that society wants and needs. For example, even though all voters recognize that their community needs facilities for the disposal of solid wastes and the treatment of sewage, not many people wish to have such works located in their own neighborhood.

Decision makers in government and industry need objective cost-benefit analyses when dealing with environmental problems. These people have the responsibility of making societal-level choices to avoid, mitigate, or accept environmental damage. Their choices are often based on their perceptions of the costs associated with environmental damage, offset by economic benefits promised by the activity that is causing the degradation. Unfortunately, the perspective of many decision makers is that of conventional, short-term economics rather than ecological economics (see Chapters 1 and 11). Because many social controversies have resulted from seemingly non-balanced choices, the role of decision makers is changing in many countries. In addition to, or even instead of, actually making choices, these people are increasingly being expected to create an appropriate climate for multilateral consultation and consensus-driven decision making.

Environmental reporting is one process that is used to communicate information about environmental changes to various interest groups. Such reporting should involve clear and objective presentations of information about changes in environmental quality, and should also offer unbiased interpretations of the causes and consequences of those changes.

Environmental reporting is delivered to the broader public by various agencies, including government departments, educational institutions, NGOs, and the mass media. A government instrument that has been prominent since 2008 is the EPA’s Report on the Environment. The Report on the Environment compiles reliable indicators to keep up to date with national environmental and health conditions and their trends (EPA 2021). These indicators fall into five broad categories: air, water, land, human exposure and health, and ecological condition. This is updated and revised in response to scientific developments and changes in ecological conditions. The Report on the Environment is very useful in providing current and accurate data to the public, which has been gathered from federal agencies, state agencies, and non-governmental organizations. For example, one of the indicators looked at hazardous waste generated and managed over the years. As of 2017, total hazardous waste generated was 16.4% higher than in 2001 and hazardous waste per capita increased by 2.1% (EPA, 2019).

Of course, most people become informed about environmental issues through the mass media, such as the internet, newspapers, and television. These can be effective means of environmental education, but there are drawbacks. Often, media presentations of issues are biased, and sometimes they are inaccurate. The focus is often on controversy, especially when there are unresolved issues that are characterized by scientific uncertainty. This can result in high-profile disputes dominating the environmental agenda, which can detract from efforts to deal with some other important problems whose causation and resolution are better known.

To some degree, this approach can be counterbalanced by providing the broader public with more objective information and by fostering a better understanding of the issues. One means of accomplishing this is to ensure that environmental issues are dealt with, adequately and objectively, in the education system. Ideally, this exposure would occur throughout the system – from primary and high schools, through colleges and universities, to continuing education for the working public.

Within all of these contexts (but particularly in schools, colleges, and universities), there are two broad ways of delivering environmental education:

The first involves discrete, interdisciplinary classes in environmental studies and environmental science. Arguably, environmental issues are important enough to social literacy to justify their treatment as a primary subject area, comparable to biology, languages, literature, mathematics, music, physics, and other disciplinary subjects (Image 30.2).
The second way of delivering environmental education is to integrate appropriate case material across the curriculum. Environment-related elements can be used to assist the teaching of all disciplinary subjects, ranging from the physical sciences, through the other natural sciences and medicine, to the social sciences.

Image 30.2. Measuring DBH of River Birch. Students measure the diameter at Dr. Sara Velardi’s ENVI 382B Ecology of the Northeastern, U.S. course at Binghamton University. In this course students help collect data with the City of Binghamton Parks and Recreation for their Urban Forestry Tree Management Database such as species ID, DBH (diameter at breast height), and overall health condition of trees throughout the city. Source: S. Velardi.

Measures to ensure that citizens are environmentally literate are a necessary part of any strategy that is designed to resolve environmental problems. If people understand these critical issues, they will be more willing to make personal choices in support of the protection of environmental quality, biodiversity, and natural ecosystems.

Sustainability

We previously defined sustainable development as progress made toward an economic system that is ultimately based on the wise use of renewable resources (Chapters 1 and 11). Therefore, a sustainable economy would not deplete its capital of natural resources, and so would not compromise the availability of those necessities for use by future generations of humans. We also noted that ecologically sustainable development would allow the human enterprise to continue, but without causing unacceptable damage to other species or natural ecosystems.

By these criteria, the so-called “advanced” economies of modern times (such as that of the U.S., Canada, countries of Western Europe, Japan, and Australia) are clearly unsustainable. There are two major reasons for this alarming conclusion:

The first is the obsession that politicians, economists, and other managers of national and international economies have for rapid economic growth, both to keep up with an expanding population and to increase the standard of living.
The second reason involves the likelihood that the present size of advanced economies is already too large to be sustained for long. The rationale for these two statements is briefly explained in the following paragraphs (and is further supported by more detailed examination in earlier chapters).

Economic growth is typically achieved by forcing both non-renewable and potentially renewable resources through an economy, thereby making the economy larger. Since about 1990, nations with advanced economies have been achieving economic growth rates of about 1-3% per year, which, if maintained, would double the size of their economies in only 26 to 70 years. Rapidly developing economies, such as those of Brazil, China, Chile, India, Mexico, and Thailand, have been growing even faster (but from a much smaller per-capita base), at up to 5-10% in some years, which is sufficient to double their economies in only 7 to 15 years.

As we learned earlier, this sort of rapid economic growth can be achieved only as long as resources continue to be readily available. In Chapters 12 and 18, we examined many examples of rapidly depleting stocks of both non-renewable and potentially renewable resources. Such examples suggest that modern economic growth rates cannot be sustained and, in fact, will reverse themselves when crucial resources become depleted. Moreover, many scientists and environmentalists believe that the present sizes of advanced economies are already too large to be sustained. The arguments in support of that assessment are similar to those just noted – the large, “developed” economies are maintained by the forced throughput of mined resources, the supplies of which are rapidly becoming depleted.

It is common today for politicians, corporate spokespeople, and resource managers to assert publicly that they support efforts to make progress toward sustainable development. However, almost all of these people are confusing genuine sustainable development, as it was defined at the beginning of this section, with “sustainable economic growth.” In a resource-constrained world, unlimited economic growth can never be sustained over the long term. This is why ecologists and environmentally astute economists believe that further growth is undesirable: “Economic growth as it now goes on is more a disease of civilization than a cure for its woes” (Ehrlich, 1989).

It is important to understand that, although they are pushing society in an ill-advised direction, advocates of economic growth are not a malevolent force. These people hope that growing economies will allow larger numbers of people to be productively employed and thereby enjoy the benefits of an advanced, material society. These are highly desirable goals.

However, is it prudent to seek to achieve a gigantic economy that would only temporarily support a large number of people? Or would it be better to limit the scale of the human enterprise to a level that can be supported by Earth’s biosphere and resources over the longer term? Fundamental considerations in a sustainable human economy are:

The numbers of people that must be supported
The total intensity of their resource use
The equitability of standards of living among the world’s peoples
The environmental damage that is caused

Ultimately, an ecologically sustainable economy is limited by the carrying capacity of planet Earth for our species and its enterprise. Vital elements of a sustainable economy must include control over:

The population sizes of people and our mutualistic species (such as cows and other domestic animals)
Per-capita and total-population resource consumption

In part, the resolution of resource dilemmas will require a more equitable sharing of wealth among people living in poorer and richer countries. This would moderate the importance of poverty as a key factor in causing environmental degradation.

Environment and Society

All levels of society have a responsibility to protect the quality of our common environment. These obligations are a central aspect of the social contract by which enlightened communities function.

The role of government is an overarching one, because it is empowered to regulate the activities of itself, the private sector, NGOs, and individuals. Of course, many activities of government and the private sector carry risks of causing environmental damage, and there is always an obligation to avoid or mitigate damage as much as possible.

The role of environmental non-governmental organizations (ENGOs) is to lobby government and industry about issues, to raise public awareness, and increasingly (because of shortages of governmental capability), to raise funds that can be used to prevent and repair environmental damage. Finally, all individual citizens have an obligation to live their lives in an environmentally responsible manner.

In the following sections, we will briefly examine the roles and activities of key environmental organizations.

International Organizations

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the principal international organization that deals with environmental matters. UNEP is responsible for coordinating global environmental efforts with other agencies of the United Nations, national governments, and non-governmental organizations. UNEP also coordinates the development of multinational treaties and other agreements and periodically hosts global conferences on environmental themes.

Other agencies of the United Nations also have mandates that involve environmental issues. These include the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Population Fund (UNPF), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the International Labour Organization (ILO).

A wide range of non-governmental environmental organizations are also active on the international stage:

ENGOs involved in the international conservation of biodiversity include Conservation International, the Cousteau Society, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, the Nature Conservancy, the Smithsonian Institution, and the World Wildlife Fund.
Those dealing with population issues include the Population Institute, the Population Reference Bureau, and Zero Population Growth.
Those with general mandates concerning resources and other environmental issues include the Earth Island Institute, the Environmental Policy Institute, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace International, Resources for the Future, the Sierra Club, the World Resources Institute, and the Worldwatch Institute.

United States Organizations

At the federal level, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency plays a central role in preserving and enhancing environmental quality. Its mandate includes the protection of water, air, and soil quality, renewable resources, and biodiversity. Its institutional objective is to foster a national capacity for sustainable development, in cooperation with international state, and local governments, as well as other departments of the federal government, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations.

Other agencies of the federal government also have important environmental mandates:

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service protects, conserves, and aims to enhance the wellbeing of fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats. They also are responsible for monitoring and preserving endangered and threatened species, enforcing wildlife laws, as well as aid national and international conservation efforts (United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 2021).
The National Park Services protects and conserves national parks (National Park Service, 2021).
The United States Department of Interior strives to conserve and manage and educate the public regarding the nation’s natural resources as well as provide protection to American Indians and their land (United States Department of Interior, 2021).
The Department of Energy addresses America’s energy, environmental, and nuclear challenges using advanced technology and science solutions in order to ensure security and prosperity to Americans (Department of Energy, 2021).
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration works to study and protect all aspects of the environment from the atmosphere to the depths of the ocean in relation to and as a result of climate change (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2021).

All of the state and local governments have agencies similar to those listed above for dealing with environmental responsibilities under their jurisdiction.

The U.S. also has a wealth of non-governmental organizations that deal with environmental issues. National organizations that focus on the conservation of biodiversity include the National Wildlife Federation, The Sierra Club (Image 30.3), The National Audubon Society, The Nature Conservancy, the Wildlife Conservation Network, The Defenders of Wildlife, and The Rainforest Action Network. Organizations with general mandates concerning resources and other environmental issues include the Environmental Defense Fund, the Natural Resources Defense Council, the U.S. Forest Service, Defenders of Wildlife, the Conservation Fund, Environment America, the Council on Environmental Quality, the Climate Reality Project, Ocean Conservancy, the Wilderness Society, and the Earth Policy Institute along with numerous others. In addition, each state throughout the US consists of many of their own organizations to deal with environmental issues more specific to each location.

Image 30.3. Organ Mountains-Desert Peaks National Monument, New Mexico. The Sierra Club is a national organization that is focused on conserving the biodiversity of the environment. In New Mexico, the Sierra Club focuses on protecting wilderness, opposing projects that are harmful to the environment, reviewing updates to federal management plans, and protecting the native ecosystems. The photo here depicts the Organ Mountains-Desert Peaks National Monument, which is one of the many federal lands that the Sierra Club is focused on protecting. Source: Bob Wick, Wilderness Specialist, Bureau of Land Management via Wikimedia Commons.

Environmental Citizenship

Although each of us individually has a relatively small effect on the environment, our collective influence is enormous. If all Americans were to pursue a lifestyle that has softer environmental effects, there would be great benefits for all of us, for future generations, and for other species.

Environmental citizenship involves actions that are taken by people and families to lessen their impact on the environment. Individual acts of environmentalism involve making lifestyle choices that include having a small family, using less energy and material resources, and causing fewer damages to the natural world. In addition to the many “green” actions that people can undertake, they can give moral and financial support to ENGOs that deal with environmental issues at international, national, and regional levels.

Libraries, bookstores, and web sites stock many so-called “green” handbooks and pamphlets. These list hundreds of specific actions that people and families can take to lessen their effect on the environment. The diverse possibilities include shutting off the lights when leaving a room, turning the thermostat down to 60°F or less during the winter (while wearing warm slippers and a sweater!), avoiding wasteful travel habits (such as commuting alone in a car; Image 30.4), avoiding the use of pesticides in lawn and garden care, planting native trees to store carbon on one’s property and to provide wildlife habitat, becoming a vegetarian, and giving money and volunteer time to environmental charities.

Image 30.4. Individual Impact. Each of us can choose to adopt a lifestyle that is less intensive in terms of its environmental impact. Being a “green” person involves many appropriate choices, such as commuting by bicycle instead of by automobile. Pictured here is Dr. Julian Shepherd, a biology professor at Binghamton University, who has been riding his bike to work everyday, year-round, since 1964! Source: J. Shepherd.

However, few individual Americans will make all of the green choices that are possible. To do so would be to voluntarily adopt an austere lifestyle, and most people are unwilling to choose this. Instead, most will undertake some positive actions, perhaps including recycling of many household wastes, riding a bicycle to school or work, not worrying about a weedy lawn, and favoring several environmental organizations. This would be selective environmentalism rather than a fully green lifestyle. However, if selective environmentalism is substantial enough, and is adopted by many people, there will be huge benefits. Each of us is responsible for demonstrating our environmental citizenship by making as many green choices as possible and by encouraging relatives, friends, and acquaintances to do the same.

If the citizens of the U.S. and other countries do not make these sensible, environmentally astute choices, the results will eventually be tragic.

In Detail 30.2. Environmental Choices

Each of us is confronted by many choices on how to live our lives, and how to influence our family, friends, and society at large. Many of our choices have significant environmental consequences, in terms of resource use, pollution, and the conservation of biodiversity. In this box, we examine a selection of “green” choices that can contribute to making our lifestyles and economy more sustainable by consuming and wasting less. Consider each of the suggested choices, and think about the environmental benefits that would result if large numbers of Americans were to adopt them.

Environmental Themes:

Reduce:

Do not purchase more than you really need.
Avoid disposable or over-packaged products.
Buy products that are durable and long-lasting.
Do not discard items until they are truly worn or cannot be fixed.

Reuse:

Be practical and creative in finding uses for disused goods to avoid discarding them.
Use empty glass and plastic containers to store bulk food and odds and ends.
Reuse shopping bags at the grocery store and for other purposes.
Save cardboard, paper, string, and rubber bands for reuse.
Pass along disused clothing, toys, furniture, books, and magazines to family or friends, donate them to social service organizations, or sell them.

Recycle:

Discover what materials can be recycled in the area where you live, and then do so as fully as possible.
Purchase products manufactured from recycled materials; this helps to develop a market for the goods.

Avoid:

Do not purchase any goods or services that are produced at an unacceptable cost in terms of the destruction of natural habitat or excessive pollution or resource consumption.

Support Environmental Initiatives:

If you think that a company, government bureaucracy, or politician is not supporting environmentally sound initiatives or policies, complain regularly by writing letters or e-mail, or in other ways –if you think they are doing a good job, let them know that also.
Support environmental organizations (ENGOs) with your money and/or time (as a volunteer).

Lifestyle Choices:

Become a naturalist by learning to identify wild plants and animals and to understand their habitat needs and ecological relationships (Images 30.5 and 30.6).
Become a vegetarian, which allows you to feed lower in the food web and be less involved in the economy of industrial livestock rearing and slaughter.
Live more simply by consuming fewer resources.

Image 30.5. Fungi and Sustainability. Students identify different types of fungi in Dr. George Meindl’s ENVI 425 Fungi and Sustainability course at Binghamton University. Students in this class learn to identify different types of fungi as well as the ecological relationships of fungi, including fungal impacts on biodiversity and nutrient cycling. Source: G. Meindl.

Image 30.6. Field Research. Students perform field research in Dr. Jessica Hua’s research lab at Binghamton University. Dr. Hua’s research focuses on how anthropogenic chemicals influence aquatic systems, specifically related to amphibians, zooplankton, amphipods, isopods, snails and insects. Source: J. Hua.

Some Specific Actions:

Water and Sewage:

Use a flow-reducing attachment on faucets and shower heads to decrease the use of water.
Turn off taps to reduce dripping, and ensure they are in good repair.
Do not run water continuously when hand-washing dishes, brushing your teeth, washing, or shaving.
Only wash full loads in a dishwasher or washing machine, and use the energy-saver or shortest possible cycle.
Keep a container of drinking water in the refrigerator, instead of running the tap until the water gets cold.
Put food scraps into the compost bin or discard them as garbage; using an in-sink disposal unit wastes water and adds excess organic matter to the sewage system.
Reduce water use by about 20% by placing two 2-liter plastic bottles filled with water into the toilet reservoir, or install a low-flush toilet.
Insulate your water heater and pipes to obtain hot water more quickly and reduce energy wastage.
Do not flush anything down the toilet that was not previously eaten (plus toilet paper) – cigarette butts, disposable diapers, dental floss, tampon holders, and condoms create problems at sewage treatment facilities and litter the environment.
Use cleaning products that cause little environmental damage and avoid the use of bleach and fabric softener.
If you are not hooked up to a central sewer system, use a composting toilet, which saves water and results in much less organic waste.

Energy Use:

Turn off lights, television, stereo, and other appliances when you leave a room
Use energy-efficient lights (Table 30.1).

Table 30.1. Energy Efficiency across Different Types of Lighting.

Where possible, use a pressure cooker or microwave instead of a regular oven; they cook food faster and use much less energy.
In winter, set your thermostat to the lowest comfortable temperature and wear a sweater.
Also in winter, turn down the heat at night and when you are away during the day.
If you use air conditioning in the summer, set your thermostat to the highest comfortable temperature.
Ensure that storm windows and doors fit their frames snugly, and that any crevices are caulked – these actions greatly reduce heat loss during winter and prevent cooling loss in summer.
Install solar panels to produce heat and/or electricity for your house or office.
If you are burning wood in a stove or furnace: only use well-seasoned fuel dried for at least six months, use a high-efficiency burner but do not excessively dampen the combustion because a smoldering burn pollutes the atmosphere, and do not burn painted wood, plastic, or garbage.

Use of Household Products:

Avoid using hazardous cleaning products; instead, use “old fashioned” alternatives such as baking soda, borax, and vinegar.
To clean windows, mix 10 mL of vinegar into 1 L of water, and wipe with newspaper, which can then be composted.
Clean sink drains with hot water containing 60 mL of baking soda and 60 mL of vinegar per L.
Clean your oven with a pasty mixture of water and baking soda or pour salt onto fresh grease spots and wipe clean minutes later.
Clean the toilet with baking soda and a mild detergent using a toilet brush.
Clean sinks and counters with a pasty mixture of baking soda and water.
Polish varnished furniture with a mixture of one part lemon juice and two parts olive or vegetable oil; for unvarnished furniture use 15 mL lemon oil in 1 L mineral oil.
If you must use hazardous household products, inquire about appropriate waste depots and hazardous-waste collection days in your community.
Always store hazardous products in their original containers, so that handling and disposal instructions on labels can be followed.
Store hazardous products in closed containers and in well-ventilated places, and do not store bleach close to acid or ammonia (if mixed, deadly chlorine gas is emitted).
Use curtains, carpets, furniture, and other household items that contain minimal or no hazardous chemicals and materials, such as formaldehyde.
Use low-toxic paints, stains, varnishes, solvents, waxes, glues, adhesives, and cleaners.

In the Garden:

Water your garden only when necessary, in the coolest part of the day (early morning or late evening), while avoiding over-watering and watering on windy days (to avoid excessive loss by evaporation).
Cut the lawn to a height of about 6-7 cm, because taller grass holds water better (or don’t cut your grass at all and allow vegetation and wildflowers to grow, which can support native pollinators).
Recycle your lawn clippings by leaving them in place for in situ composting.
Use a push mower, which saves fuel, avoids pollution, and provides exercise.
Use a mulch of tree leaves, grass clippings, or wood chips to reduce water evaporation around garden plants, shrubs, and trees.
Avoid using synthetic fertilizer and pesticides, instead fertilize using compost and use alternative pest-control products such as insecticidal soap and manual methods of control (such as digging weeds by hand and hand-picking pest insects).
Rotate species of vegetables and flowers in your garden from year to year and between locations, to discourage soil diseases and pest insects.
Plant basil, chives, chrysanthemums, garlic, horseradish, marigolds, mint, and thyme amongst garden plants, because their natural odors and root secretions repel many pest insects.
Maintain bird feeders, as birds contribute to natural insect control (Image 30.7).
Naturalize your garden by cultivating native plants instead of alien species and let commercial horticultural businesses know that this is what you want to buy.
Compost as much of your organic discards as possible, which greatly reduces the garbage put out for collection and provides an excellent organic fertilizer and soil conditioner.
To avoid pollution, use sand instead of salt to deal with ice on your sidewalk or driveway.
Home gardeners can be efficient and productive food producers, and even if you do not have a backyard you can obtain a plot in your community’s allotment site.
Plant as many trees as possible to offset some of your CO₂ emissions.
Plant well-positioned trees to cool your house instead of using air conditioning.
Collect and use rainwater for watering the garden.

Image 30.7. Goldfiches at Bird Feeder. Maintaining a bird feeder can provide many benefits for the environment, bird populations and yourself. Bird feeders can provide a reliable, supplemental food source for birds and can help you learn different bird species and a way to experience nature. “Bird feeder” by sniggie is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

When Shopping:

Patronize small local businesses and farmers’ markets instead of large chain stores, which helps to avoid products that have been transported long distances and keeps money in the local economy.
Buy products that are not over-packaged and are in returnable or recyclable containers.
Buy storable products in bulk rather than in over-packaged smaller sizes, and store them in containers that you have saved.
Avoid fruit or vegetables that are sold in blister or plastic packages.
Use a cloth-diaper cleaning service instead of buying disposable diapers.
Buy products in paper containers instead of plastic or polystyrene ones.
Buy unbleached, non-colored, recycled paper products.
Use fabric shopping bags that can be reused, or reuse plastic shopping bags.

Getting Around:

Use a bicycle whenever possible.
If you must drive a car or truck, own one that is as small as possible because fuel consumption and overall resource use are strongly related to vehicle weight.
Drive at moderate speeds – a car uses about 10% less fuel when driven at 90 km/h rather than 100 km/h.
Turn off the engine when waiting in your vehicle.
Avoid carrying unnecessary weight, as it causes your vehicle to burn more fuel.
Combine errands to reduce your total mileage.
Keep your vehicle well serviced so it works efficiently.
Use alternatives to the personal motor vehicle as often as possible, such as public transit, car or van pools, walking, or bicycling.

In the Office:

A tablet or laptop computer uses considerably less energy than a desktop computer.
Ink-jet printers use up to 95% less energy than laser printers.
Make two-sided copies when photocopying and printing, and use a machine that has an automatic “standby” or “sleep” mode.

Prospects for Spaceship Earth

It is crucial that people understand how human activities cause damage to our common environment, in both direct and indirect ways. We must also design ways to prevent or effectively mitigate that damage. Over the long term, our society can prosper only if it institutes a sensible limitation on its population and ensures that its use of natural resources is ecologically sustainable.

The coupling of population control with sensible strategies of environmental management will be decisive in attaining a sustainable prosperity for humans, while accommodating other species and their natural communities on the only planet in the universe that is known to sustain life and ecosystems.

Try not to see things as they are, but rather as how they should be. (A principle of Buddhist thought)

Questions for Review

Define the following terms: economic growth, sustainable development, and ecologically sustainable development.
Make a list of 10 important choices that a student might consider making in order to soften their environmental impact.

Questions for Discussion

Consider a landscape that is being managed for the harvesting of timber for a pulp mill. What economic and ecological values would have to be accommodated by an ecologically sustainable system of land-use in that wood-supply area?
Considering all you know about environmental science, do you believe that there is a crisis in the region where you live, or in the U.S., or on Earth? If you do believe that there is an environmental crisis, what are the core elements of a societal strategy that would alleviate the damage?

Exploring Issues

Make a list of actions that you and your family could easily take in order to become less damaging in your environmental impact. For each action, consider the environmental benefits that would result, as well as the implications for your lifestyle.
You have just been elected to the position of “Benevolent Dictator” of the U.S. You will have this position of power until you decide you no longer want it, and you have the responsibility to quickly make the national economy operate according to the principles of ecological sustainability. What would be the central elements of such an economy? How would you choose to implement any changes necessary to achieve such a sustainable economy?

References Cited and Further Reading

Abrams, R.H., W. Goldfarb, R.L. Graham, L. Heinzerling, D.A. Wirth, and Z.J.B. Plater (eds.). 2004. Environmental Law and Policy. Aspen Publishers, Aspen, CO.

Berthold-Bond, A. 1997. The Green Kitchen Handbook: Practical Advice, References, and Sources for Transforming the Center of Your Home into a Healthful, Livable Place. Harper Perennial, New York, NY.

Department of Energy. 2021. About Us. Department of Energy. https://www.energy.gov/about-us

Ehrlich, P.R. 1989. Facing the habitat crisis. BioScience, 39: 480-482.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2019. Quantity of RCRA Hazardous Waste Generated and Managed. https://cfpub.epa.gov/roe/indicator.cfm?i=54. Accessed June 28, 2021.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2021. EPA’s Report on the Environment. United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/report-environment. Accessed June 28, 2021.

Fosket, J. and L. Mamo. 2009. Living Green: Communities that Sustain. New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, BC.

Freedman, B. 1995. Environmental Ecology. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2021. About Our Agency. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://www.noaa.gov/about-our-agency. Accessed June 28, 2021.

National Park Service. 2021. About Us. National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/aboutus/index.htm

National Wildlife Foundation. 2021. About us. National Wildlife Federation. https://www.nwf.org/About-Us

Trainer, T. 1995. The Conserver Society: Alternatives for Sustainability. Zed Books, London, UK.

United States Department of Interior. 2021. About Interior. US Department of Interior. https://www.doi.gov/about

United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 2021. About the US Fish and Wildlife Service. US Fish and Wildlife Service. https://www.fws.gov/help/about_us.html

Yepsen, R. 1997. 1001 Old-Time Garden Tips: Timeless Bits of Wisdom on How to Grow Everything Organically, from the Good Old Days When Everyone Did. Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA.

Part II: Humans and the Physical Environment

Chapter 30 ~ Ecologically Sustainable Development