{"id":1961,"date":"2015-04-22T20:16:23","date_gmt":"2015-04-22T20:16:23","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/oschemtemp\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1961"},"modified":"2016-08-09T01:52:16","modified_gmt":"2016-08-09T01:52:16","slug":"molecular-structure-and-polarity-1-formula-missing","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/chapter\/molecular-structure-and-polarity-1-formula-missing\/","title":{"raw":"Molecular Structure and Polarity","rendered":"Molecular Structure and Polarity"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>LEARNING OBJECTIVES<\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Predict the structures of small molecules using valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the concepts of polar covalent bonds and molecular polarity<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Assess the polarity of a molecule based on its bonding and structure<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp51102864\">Thus far, we have used two-dimensional Lewis structures to represent molecules. However, molecular structure is actually three-dimensional, and it is important to be able to describe molecular bonds in terms of their distances, angles, and relative arrangements in space (Figure 1). A<strong> <span data-type=\"term\">bond angle<\/span><\/strong> is the angle between any two bonds that include a common atom, usually measured in degrees. A <strong><span data-type=\"term\">bond distance<\/span><\/strong> (or bond length) is the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms along the straight line joining the nuclei. Bond distances are measured in \u00c5ngstroms (1 \u00c5 = 10<sup>\u201310<\/sup> m) or picometers (1 pm = 10<sup>\u201312<\/sup> m, 100 pm = 1 \u00c5).<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1915\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"975\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1915\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211655\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CH2O1.jpg\" alt=\"A pair of images are shown. The left image shows a carbon atom with three atoms bonded in a triangular arrangement around it. There are two hydrogen atoms bonded on the left side of the carbon and the angle between them is labeled, \u201c118 degrees\u201d and, \u201cBond angle.\u201d The carbon is also double bonded to an oxygen atom. The double bond is shaded and there is a bracket which labels the bond, \u201cBond length ( angstrom ), ( center to center ),\u201d and, \u201c1.21 angstrom.\u201d The right image shows a ball-and-stick model of the same elements. The hydrogen atoms are white, the carbon atom is black, and the oxygen atom is red.\" width=\"975\" height=\"335\" \/> Figure 1. Bond distances (lengths) and angles are shown for the formaldehyde molecule, H<sub>2<\/sub>CO.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp391168\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">VSEPR Theory<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp36050992\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory)<\/span> <\/strong>enables us to predict the molecular structure, including approximate bond angles around a central atom, of a molecule from an examination of the number of bonds and lone electron pairs in its Lewis structure. The VSEPR model assumes that electron pairs in the valence shell of a central atom will adopt an arrangement that minimizes repulsions between these electron pairs by maximizing the distance between them. The electrons in the valence shell of a central atom form either bonding pairs of electrons, located primarily between bonded atoms, or lone pairs. The electrostatic repulsion of these electrons is reduced when the various regions of high electron density assume positions as far from each other as possible.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp46353584\">VSEPR theory predicts the arrangement of electron pairs around each central atom and, usually, the correct arrangement of atoms in a molecule. We should understand, however, that the theory only considers electron-pair repulsions. Other interactions, such as nuclear-nuclear repulsions and nuclear-electron attractions, are also involved in the final arrangement that atoms adopt in a particular molecular structure.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1916\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"325\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1916\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211658\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BeF21.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure is shown. A fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons is single bonded to a beryllium atom which is single bonded to a fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The angle of the bonds between the two fluorine atoms and the beryllium atom is labeled, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d\" width=\"325\" height=\"89\" \/> Figure 2. The BeF<sub>2<\/sub> molecule adopts a linear structure in which the two bonds are as far apart as possible, on opposite sides of the Be atom.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAs a simple example of VSEPR theory, let us predict the structure of a gaseous BeF<sub>2<\/sub> molecule. The Lewis structure of BeF<sub>2<\/sub> (Figure 2) shows only two electron pairs around the central beryllium atom. With two bonds and no lone pairs of electrons on the central atom, the bonds are as far apart as possible, and the electrostatic repulsion between these regions of high electron density is reduced to a minimum when they are on opposite sides of the central atom. The bond angle is 180\u00b0 (Figure 2).\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp87297072\">Figure 3 illustrates this and other electron-pair geometries that minimize the repulsions among regions of high electron density (bonds and\/or lone pairs). Two regions of electron density around a central atom in a molecule form a <span data-type=\"term\">linear<\/span> geometry; three regions form a <span data-type=\"term\">trigonal planar<\/span> geometry; four regions form a <span data-type=\"term\">tetrahedral<\/span> geometry; five regions form a <span data-type=\"term\">trigonal bipyramidal<\/span> geometry; and six regions form an <span data-type=\"term\">octahedral<\/span> geometry.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1917\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"1024\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1917 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211700\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom1-1024x945.jpg\" alt=\"A table with four rows and six columns is shown. The header column contains the phrases, \u201cNumber of regions,\u201d \u201cSpatial arrangement,\u201d \u201cWedge\/dash Notation,\u201d and \u201cElectron pair Geometry.\u201d The first row reads: \u201cTwo regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs )\u201d, \u201cThree regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFour regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFive regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d and \u201cSix regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ).\u201d The second row shows diagrams of orbitals. The first image shows two oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 180 degrees. The second image shows three oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 120 degrees. The third image shows four oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 109.5 degrees. The fourth image shows five oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 and 120 degrees. The fifth image shows six oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 degrees. The third row contains Lewis structures. The first structure shows a beryllium atom single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The second structure shows a boron atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The third structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The fourth structure shows a phosphorus atom single bonded to five fluorine atoms. The fifth structure shows a sulfur atom single bonded to six fluorine atoms. The fourth row contains the phrases \u201cLinear; 180 degree angle,\u201d Trigonal Planar; all angles 120 degrees,\u201d \u201cTetrahedral; all angles 109.5 degrees,\u201d \u201cTrigonal bipyramidal; angles of 90 degrees and 120 degrees. An attached atom may be equatorial, ( in the plane of the triangle ), or axial, ( above the plane of the triangle ),\u201d and \u201cOctahedral; 90 degrees or 180 degrees.\u201d\" width=\"1024\" height=\"945\" \/> Figure 3. The basic electron-pair geometries predicted by VSEPR theory maximize the space around any region of electron density (bonds or lone pairs).[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm5284928\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left;\" data-type=\"title\">Electron-Pair Geometry versus Molecular Structure<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp238100128\">It is important to note that electron-pair geometry around a central atom is <em data-effect=\"italics\">not<\/em> the same thing as its molecular structure. The electron-pair geometries shown in Figure 3 describe all regions where electrons are located, bonds as well as lone pairs. Molecular structure describes the location of the <em data-effect=\"italics\">atoms<\/em>, not the electrons.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1918\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"136\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1918\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211702\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CH41.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. This structure uses wedges and dashes to give it a three dimensional appearance.\" width=\"136\" height=\"128\" \/> Figure 4. The molecular structure of the methane molecule, CH<sub>4<\/sub>, is shown with a tetrahedral arrangement of the hydrogen atoms.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3\">We differentiate between these two situations by naming the geometry that includes <em data-effect=\"italics\">all<\/em> electron pairs the <strong><span data-type=\"term\">electron-pair geometry<\/span><\/strong>. The structure that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule is called the<strong> <span data-type=\"term\">molecular structure<\/span><\/strong>. The electron-pair geometries will be the same as the molecular structures when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom, but they will be different when there are lone pairs present on the central atom.<\/p>\r\nVSEPR structures like the\u00a0one in Figure 4 are often drawn using the wedge and dash notation, in which solid lines represent bonds in the plane of the page, solid wedges represent bonds coming up out of the plane, and dashed lines represent bonds going down into the plane.\r\n\r\nFor example, the methane molecule, CH<sub>4<\/sub>, which is the major component of natural gas, has four bonding pairs of electrons around the central carbon atom; the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral, as is the molecular structure (Figure 4). On the other hand, the ammonia molecule, NH<sub>3<\/sub>, also has four electron pairs associated with the nitrogen atom, and thus has a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. One of these regions, however, is a lone pair, which is not included in the molecular structure, and this lone pair influences the shape of the molecule (Figure 5).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1919\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"975\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1919 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211703\/CNX_Chem_07_06_NH31.jpg\" alt=\"Three images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d and \u201cc.\u201d Image a shows a nitrogen atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. There are four oval-shaped orbs that surround each hydrogen and one facing away from the rest of the molecule. These orbs are located in a tetrahedral arrangement. Image b shows a ball-and-stick model of the nitrogen single bonded to the three hydrogen atoms. Image c is the same as image a, but there are four curved, double headed arrows that circle the molecule and are labeled, \u201c106.8 degrees.\u201d\" width=\"975\" height=\"293\" \/> Figure 5. (a) The electron-pair geometry for the ammonia molecule is tetrahedral with one lone pair and three single bonds. (b) The trigonal pyramidal molecular structure is determined from the electron-pair geometry. (c) The actual bond angles deviate slightly from the idealized angles, because the lone pair takes up a larger region of space than do the single bonds, causing the HNH angle to be slightly smaller than 109.5\u00b0.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp38238416\">As seen in Figure 5, small distortions from the ideal angles in Figure 6 can result from differences in repulsion between various regions of electron density. VSEPR theory predicts these distortions by establishing an order of repulsions and an order of the amount of space occupied by different kinds of electron pairs. The order of electron-pair repulsions from greatest to least repulsion is:<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">lone pair-lone pair &gt; lone pair-bonding pair &gt; bonding pair-bonding pair<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp7623536\">This order of repulsions determines the amount of space occupied by different regions of electrons. A lone pair of electrons occupies a larger region of space than the electrons in a triple bond; in turn, electrons in a triple bond occupy more space than those in a double bond, and so on. The order of sizes from largest to smallest is:<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">lone pair &gt; triple bond &gt; double bond&gt;single bond<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp215771104\">Consider formaldehyde, H<sub>2<\/sub>CO, which is used as a preservative for biological and anatomical specimens (Figure 1). This molecule has regions of high electron density that consist of two single bonds and one double bond. The basic geometry is trigonal planar with 120\u00b0 bond angles, but we see that the double bond causes slightly larger angles (121\u00b0), and the angle between the single bonds is slightly smaller (118\u00b0).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp125916256\">In the ammonia molecule, the three hydrogen atoms attached to the central nitrogen are not arranged in a flat, trigonal planar molecular structure, but rather in a three-dimensional trigonal pyramid (Figure 5) with the nitrogen atom at the apex and the three hydrogen atoms forming the base. The ideal bond angles in a trigonal pyramid are based on the tetrahedral electron pair geometry. Again, there are slight deviations from the ideal because lone pairs occupy larger regions of space than do bonding electrons. The H\u2013N\u2013H bond angles in NH<sub>3<\/sub> are slightly smaller than the 109.5\u00b0 angle in a regular tetrahedron (Figure 3) because the lone pair-bonding pair repulsion is greater than the bonding pair-bonding pair repulsion (Figure 5). Figure 6 illustrates the ideal molecular structures, which are predicted based on the electron-pair geometries for various combinations of lone pairs and bonding pairs.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1920\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1920 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211704\/CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom1-1024x854.jpg\" alt=\"A table is shown that is comprised of six rows and six columns. The header row reads: \u201cNumber of Electron Pairs,\u201d \u201cElectron pair geometries; 0 lone pair,\u201d \u201c1 lone pair,\u201d \u201c2 lone pairs,\u201d \u201c3 lone pairs,\u201d and \u201c4 lone pairs.\u201d The first column contains the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The first space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side. The angle of the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The second space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on three sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal planar.\u201d The third space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X four times. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTetrahedral.\u201d The fourth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values \u201c90 and 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal bipyramid.\u201d The fifth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on six sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cOctahedral.\u201d The first space in the third column is empty while the second contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has a lone pair of electrons. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The third space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to a lone pair of electrons. It is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal pyramid.\u201d The fourth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values, \u201cless than 90 and less than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSawhorse or seesaw.\u201d The fifth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare pyramidal.\u201d The first and second spaces in the fourth column are empty while the third contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than less than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The fourth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The fifth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare planar.\u201d The first, second and third spaces in the fifth column are empty while the fourth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The fifth space in the fifth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The first, second, third, and fourth spaces in the sixth column are empty while the fifth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has four lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d All the structures use wedges and dashes to give them three dimensional appearances.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"854\" \/> Figure 6. The molecular structures are identical to the electron-pair geometries when there are no lone pairs present (first column). For a particular number of electron pairs (row), the molecular structures for one or more lone pairs are determined based on modifications of the corresponding electron-pair geometry.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp3259504\">According to VSEPR theory, the terminal atom locations (Xs in Figure 6) are equivalent within the linear, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral electron-pair geometries (the first three rows of the table). It does not matter which X is replaced with a lone pair, because the molecules can be rotated to convert positions. For trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometries, however, there are two distinct X positions, as shown in Figure 7: an <span data-type=\"term\">axial position<\/span> (if we hold a model of a trigonal bipyramid by the two axial positions, we have an axis around which we can rotate the model) and an <span data-type=\"term\">equatorial position<\/span> (three positions form an equator around the middle of the molecule). As shown in Figure 6, the axial position is surrounded by bond angles of 90\u00b0, whereas the equatorial position has more space available because of the 120\u00b0 bond angles. In a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry, lone pairs always occupy equatorial positions because these more spacious positions can more easily accommodate the larger lone pairs.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm50931488\">Theoretically, we can come up with three possible arrangements for the three bonds and two lone pairs for the ClF<sub>3<\/sub> molecule (Figure 7). The stable structure is the one that puts the lone pairs in equatorial locations, giving a T-shaped molecular structure.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1921\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1921 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211706\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Axeq1-1024x255.jpg\" alt=\"Four sets of images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d \u201cc,\u201d and \u201cd.\u201d Each image is separated by a dashed vertical line. Image a shows a six-faced, bi-pyramidal structure where the central vertical axis is labeled, \u201cAxial,\u201d and the horizontal plane is labeled, \u201cEquatorial.\u201d Image b shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms on the upper and lower ends, and one fluorine in the left horizontal position. Image c shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center and three fluorine atoms in each horizontal position. Image d shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms in the horizontal positions, and one in the axial bottom position.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"255\" \/> Figure 7. (a) In a trigonal bipyramid, the two axial positions are located directly across from one another, whereas the three equatorial positions are located in a triangular arrangement. (b\u2013d) The two lone pairs (red lines) in ClF<sub>3<\/sub> have several possible arrangements, but the T-shaped molecular structure (b) is the one actually observed, consistent with the larger lone pairs both occupying equatorial positions.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp56476752\">When a central atom has two lone electron pairs and four bonding regions, we have an octahedral electron-pair geometry. The two lone pairs are on opposite sides of the octahedron (180\u00b0 apart), giving a square planar molecular structure that minimizes lone pair-lone pair repulsions (Figure 6).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm759712\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron Pair Geometry and Molecular Structure<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp147829184\">The following procedure uses VSEPR theory to determine the electron pair geometries and the molecular structures:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol id=\"fs-idp267826096\" data-number-style=\"arabic\">\r\n \t<li>Write the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Count the number of regions of electron density (lone pairs and bonds) around the central atom. A single, double, or triple bond counts as one region of electron density.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify the electron-pair geometry based on the number of regions of electron density: linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral (Figure 6, first column).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use the number of lone pairs to determine the molecular structure (Figure 6). If more than one arrangement of lone pairs and chemical bonds is possible, choose the one that will minimize repulsions, remembering that lone pairs occupy more space than multiple bonds, which occupy more space than single bonds. In trigonal bipyramidal arrangements, repulsion is minimized when every lone pair is in an equatorial position. In an octahedral arrangement with two lone pairs, repulsion is minimized when the lone pairs are on opposite sides of the central atom.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp53389712\">The following examples illustrate the use of VSEPR theory to predict the molecular structure of molecules or ions that have no lone pairs of electrons. In this case, the molecular structure is identical to the electron pair geometry.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm2891376\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Example 1<\/h3>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp238154208\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: CO<sub>2<\/sub> and BCl<sub>3<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nPredict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure for each of the following:\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp55144288\">(a) carbon dioxide, CO<sub>2<\/sub>, a molecule produced by the combustion of fossil fuels<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm8091088\">(b) boron trichloride, BCl<sub>3<\/sub>, an important industrial chemical<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp64872464\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\r\n(a) We write the Lewis structure of CO<sub>2<\/sub> as:\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp65356192\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom double bonded on both the left and right sides to oxygen atoms that each have two lone pairs of electrons.\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-1922 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211708\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2_img1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom double bonded on both the left and right sides to oxygen atoms that each have two lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"147\" height=\"64\" \/>\r\n<\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp56144384\">This shows us two regions of high electron density around the carbon atom\u2014each double bond counts as one region, and there are no lone pairs on the carbon atom. Using VSEPR theory, we predict that the two regions of electron density arrange themselves on opposite sides of the central atom with a bond angle of 180\u00b0. The electron-pair geometry and molecular structure are identical, and CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecules are linear.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp280648672\">(b) We write the Lewis structure of BCl<sub>3<\/sub> as:<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-441\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205147\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BCl3_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"177\" height=\"118\" \/>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp34925552\">Thus we see that BCl<sub>3<\/sub> contains three bonds, and there are no lone pairs of electrons on boron. The arrangement of three regions of high electron density gives a trigonal planar electron-pair geometry.The B\u2013Cl bonds lie in a plane with 120\u00b0 angles between them. BCl<sub>3<\/sub> also has a trigonal planar molecular structure (Figure 8).<span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which is oriented in the same flat plane. This figure uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which is oriented in the same flat plane. This figure uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\">\r\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_442\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"144\"]<img class=\"wp-image-442 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205148\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BCl3mol.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which is oriented in the same flat plane. This figure uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\" width=\"144\" height=\"94\" \/> Figure 8. The electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of BCl<sub>3<\/sub> are both trigonal planar. Note that the VSEPR geometry indicates the correct bond angles (120\u00b0), unlike the Lewis structure shown above.[\/caption]\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp67131872\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nCarbonate, [latex]{\\text{CO}}_{3}{}^{\\text{2-}},[\/latex] is a common polyatomic ion found in various materials from eggshells to antacids. What are the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of this polyatomic ion?\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp125452800\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0The electron-pair geometry is trigonal planar and the molecular structure is trigonal planar. Due to resonance, all three C\u2013O bonds are identical. Whether they are single, double, or an average of the two, each bond counts as one region of electron density.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Example 2<\/h3>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp83628624\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: Ammonium<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nTwo of the top 50 chemicals produced in the United States, ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate, both used as fertilizers, contain the ammonium ion. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of the [latex]{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}[\/latex] cation.\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp86467024\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\r\nWe write the Lewis structure of [latex]{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}[\/latex] as:\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp83671296\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom that is single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign.\"><img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-443\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205148\/CNX_Chem_07_06_NH4_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom that is single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign.\" width=\"199\" height=\"178\" \/>\r\n<\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm9973280\">We can see that [latex]{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}[\/latex] contains four bonds from the nitrogen atom to hydrogen atoms and no lone pairs. We expect the four regions of high electron density to arrange themselves so that they point to the corners of a tetrahedron with the central nitrogen atom in the middle (Figure 6). Therefore, the electron pair geometry of [latex]{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}[\/latex] is tetrahedral, and the molecular structure is also tetrahedral (Figure 9).<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1926\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"184\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1926 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211711\/CNX_Chem_07_06_NH4mol1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom that is single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign. This figure uses dashes and wedges to displays its three planes in a tetrahedral shape.\" width=\"184\" height=\"169\" \/> Figure 9. The ammonium ion displays a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry as well as a tetrahedral molecular structure.[\/caption]\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp94577296\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nIdentify a molecule with trigonal bipyramidal molecular structure.\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp57227744\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0Any molecule with five electron pairs around the central atoms including no lone pairs will be trigonal bipyramidal. PF<sub>5<\/sub> is a common example.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm16091952\">The next several examples illustrate the effect of lone pairs of electrons on molecular structure.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm16663792\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Example 3<\/h3>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idm10296544\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: Lone Pairs on the Central Atom<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nPredict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of a water molecule.\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp10258608\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\r\nThe Lewis structure of H<sub>2<\/sub>O indicates that there are four regions of high electron density around the oxygen atom: two lone pairs and two chemical bonds:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone wp-image-1927 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211711\/CNX_Chem_07_06_H2O_img1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms.\" width=\"102\" height=\"106\" \/>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp35029328\">We predict that these four regions are arranged in a tetrahedral fashion (Figure 10), as indicated in Figure 6. Thus, the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral and the molecular structure is bent with an angle slightly less than 109.5\u00b0. In fact, the bond angle is 104.5\u00b0.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5175\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"650\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-5175\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/08\/23214532\/CNX_Chem_07_06_H2Omol.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows an oxygen atom in the center of a four-sided pyramid shape. Diagram b shows the same image as diagram a, but this time there are hydrogen atoms located at two corners of the pyramid shape.\" width=\"650\" height=\"337\" \/> Figure 10. (a) H<sub>2<\/sub>O has four regions of electron density around the central atom, so it has a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. (b) Two of the electron regions are lone pairs, so the molecular structure is bent.[\/caption]\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp51567744\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nThe hydronium ion, H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup>, forms when acids are dissolved in water. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of this cation.\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp47211728\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0electron pair geometry: tetrahedral; molecular structure: trigonal pyramidal<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Example 4<\/h3>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp54014736\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: SF<sub>4<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nSulfur tetrafluoride, SF<sub>4<\/sub>, is extremely valuable for the preparation of fluorine-containing compounds used as herbicides (i.e., SF<sub>4<\/sub> is used as a fluorinating agent). Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of a SF<sub>4<\/sub> molecule.\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp95643040\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\r\nThe Lewis structure of SF<sub>4<\/sub> indicates five regions of electron density around the sulfur atom: one lone pair and four bonding pairs:\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp33968176\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis diagram depicts a sulfur atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-1929 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211712\/CNX_Chem_07_06_SF4_img1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis diagram depicts a sulfur atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"106\" height=\"173\" \/>\r\n<\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp72937360\">We expect these five regions to adopt a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry. To minimize lone pair repulsions, the lone pair occupies one of the equatorial positions. The molecular structure (Figure 11) is that of a seesaw (Figure 6).<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5176\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"650\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-5176\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/08\/23214533\/CNX_Chem_07_06_SF4mol.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows a sulfur atom in the center of a six-sided bi-pyramidal shape. Diagram b shows the same image as diagram a, but this time there are fluorine atoms located at four corners of the pyramid shape and they are connected to the sulfur atom by single lines.\" width=\"650\" height=\"386\" \/> Figure 11. (a) SF4 has a trigonal bipyramidal arrangement of the five regions of electron density. (b) One of the regions is a lone pair, which results in a seesaw-shaped molecular structure.[\/caption]\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp24574032\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nPredict the electron pair geometry and molecular structure for molecules of XeF<sub>2<\/sub>.\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp54082656\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0The electron-pair geometry is trigonal bipyramidal. The molecular structure is linear.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Example 5<\/h3>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp125690208\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: XeF<sub>4<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nOf all the noble gases, xenon is the most reactive, frequently reacting with elements such as oxygen and fluorine. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of the XeF<sub>4<\/sub> molecule.\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idm15898032\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\r\nThe Lewis structure of XeF<sub>4<\/sub> indicates six regions of high electron density around the xenon atom: two lone pairs and four bonds:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone wp-image-449 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205151\/CNX_Chem_07_06_XeF4_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a xenon atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"168\" height=\"162\" \/>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp60591280\">These six regions adopt an octahedral arrangement (Figure 6), which is the electron-pair geometry. To minimize repulsions, the lone pairs should be on opposite sides of the central atom (Figure 12). The five atoms are all in the same plane and have a square planar molecular structure.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5177\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"650\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-5177\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/08\/23214534\/CNX_Chem_07_06_XEF4mol.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows a xenon atom in the center of an eight-sided octahedral shape. Diagram b shows the same image as diagram a, but this time there are fluorine atoms located at the four corners of the shape in the horizontal plane. They are connected to the xenon by single lines.\" width=\"650\" height=\"300\" \/> Figure 12. (a) XeF<sub>4<\/sub> adopts an octahedral arrangement with two lone pairs (red lines) and four bonds in the electron-pair geometry. (b) The molecular structure is square planar with the lone pairs directly across from one another.[\/caption]\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp225615216\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nIn a certain molecule, the central atom has three lone pairs and two bonds. What will the electron pair geometry and molecular structure be?\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm25808\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0electron pair geometry: trigonal bipyramidal; molecular structure: linear<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp54051968\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Molecular Structure for Multicenter Molecules<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp78438784\">When a molecule or polyatomic ion has only one central atom, the molecular structure completely describes the shape of the molecule. Larger molecules do not have a single central atom, but are connected by a chain of interior atoms that each possess a \u201clocal\u201d geometry. The way these local structures are oriented with respect to each other also influences the molecular shape, but such considerations are largely beyond the scope of this introductory discussion. For our purposes, we will only focus on determining the local structures.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp116942080\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Example 6<\/h3>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp73376736\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Structure in Multicenter Molecules<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nThe Lewis structure for the simplest amino acid, glycine, H<sub>2<\/sub>NCH<sub>2<\/sub>CO<sub>2<\/sub>H, is shown below. Predict the local geometry for the nitrogen atom, the two carbon atoms, and the oxygen atom with a hydrogen atom attached:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-451\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205151\/CNX_Chem_07_06_gly_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" width=\"310\" height=\"146\" \/>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idm8994208\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><span id=\"fs-idp21522704\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom. The atoms described are drawn with bonds that indicate a three-dimensional, tetrahedral shape around the nitrogen atom. The carbon is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom, and again, a tetrahedral, three dimensional configuration is indicated by the types of bonds. This second carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\">\r\n<\/span><\/h4>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-452\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205152\/CNX_Chem_07_06_gly3D_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom. The atoms described are drawn with bonds that indicate a three-dimensional, tetrahedral shape around the nitrogen atom. The carbon is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom, and again, a tetrahedral, three dimensional configuration is indicated by the types of bonds. This second carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" width=\"246\" height=\"174\" \/>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp15590912\">Consider each central atom independently. The electron-pair geometries:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul id=\"fs-idp8766640\" data-bullet-style=\"bullet\">\r\n \t<li>nitrogen\u2013\u2013four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\r\n \t<li>carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2013\u2013four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\r\n \t<li>carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014three regions of electron density; trigonal planar<\/li>\r\n \t<li>oxygen (<span data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/span>H)\u2014four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp86037232\">The local structures:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul id=\"fs-idp18275136\" data-bullet-style=\"bullet\">\r\n \t<li>nitrogen\u2013\u2013three bonds, one lone pair; trigonal pyramidal<\/li>\r\n \t<li>carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014four bonds, no lone pairs; tetrahedral<\/li>\r\n \t<li>carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014three bonds (double bond counts as one bond), no lone pairs; trigonal planar<\/li>\r\n \t<li>oxygen (<span data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/span>H)\u2014two bonds, two lone pairs; bent (109\u00b0)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp7781728\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nAnother amino acid is alanine, which has the Lewis structure shown below. Predict the electron-pair geometry and local structure of the nitrogen atom, the three carbon atoms, and the oxygen atom with hydrogen attached:<span id=\"fs-idp248617216\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to a hydrogen atom, a methyl group and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is single bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-453\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205154\/CNX_Chem_07_06_ala_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to a hydrogen atom, a methyl group and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is single bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" width=\"339\" height=\"158\" \/>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm44767872\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\">\u00a0<strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0electron-pair geometries: nitrogen\u2013\u2013tetrahedral; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>3<\/sub>)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014trigonal planar; oxygen (<span data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/span>H)\u2014tetrahedral; local structures: nitrogen\u2014trigonal pyramidal; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>3<\/sub>)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014trigonal planar; oxygen (<span data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/span>H)\u2014bent (109\u00b0)<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp90797184\" class=\"chemistry link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">The <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-shapes\" target=\"_blank\">molecular shape simulator\u00a0from PhET <\/a>lets you build various molecules and practice naming their electron-pair geometries and molecular structures.<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Example 7<\/h3>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp52927344\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Molecular Simulation<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nUsing <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-shapes\" target=\"_blank\">molecular shape simulator<\/a> allows us to control whether bond angles and\/or lone pairs are displayed by checking or unchecking the boxes under \u201cOptions\u201d on the right. We can also use the \u201cName\u201d checkboxes at bottom-left to display or hide the electron pair geometry (called \u201celectron geometry\u201d in the simulator) and\/or molecular structure (called \u201cmolecular shape\u201d in the simulator).\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp224051488\">Build the molecule HCN in the simulator based on the following Lewis structure:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp102593872\" data-type=\"equation\">[latex]\\text{H-C}\\equiv \\text{N}[\/latex]<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp88631840\">Click on each bond type or lone pair at right to add that group to the central atom. Once you have the complete molecule, rotate it to examine the predicted molecular structure. What molecular structure is this?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp93177200\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\r\nThe molecular structure is linear.\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp50724128\"><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/h4>\r\nBuild a more complex molecule in the simulator. Identify the electron-group geometry, molecular structure, and bond angles. Then try to find a chemical formula that would match the structure you have drawn.\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp52028320\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0Answers will vary. For example, an atom with four single bonds, a double bond, and a lone pair has an octahedral electron-group geometry and a square pyramidal molecular structure. XeOF<sub>4<\/sub> is a molecule that adopts this structure.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idp149289584\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Molecular Polarity and Dipole Moment<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp30351200\">As discussed previously, polar covalent bonds connect two atoms with differing electronegativities, leaving one atom with a partial positive charge (\u0394+) and the other atom with a partial negative charge (\u0394\u2013), as the electrons are pulled toward the more electronegative atom. This separation of charge gives rise to a <span data-type=\"term\">bond dipole moment<\/span>. The magnitude of a <strong>bond dipole moment<\/strong> is represented by the Greek letter mu (<em data-effect=\"italics\">\u00b5<\/em>) and is given by the formula shown below, where Q is the magnitude of the partial charges (determined by the electronegativity difference) and r is the distance between the charges:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp16382464\" data-type=\"equation\">[latex]\\mu =\\text{Qr}[\/latex]<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp33849296\">This bond moment can be represented as a <strong><span data-type=\"term\">vector<\/span><\/strong>, a quantity having both direction and magnitude (Figure 13). Dipole vectors are shown as arrows pointing along the bond from the less electronegative atom toward the more electronegative atom. A small plus sign is drawn on the less electronegative end to indicate the partially positive end of the bond. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the electronegativity difference between the two atoms.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_455\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"650\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-455\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205156\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BondVector.jpg\" alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cC,\u201d a left-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cH.\u201d Image b shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cB,\u201d a right-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cF.\u201d\" width=\"650\" height=\"172\" \/> Figure 13. (a) There is a small difference in electronegativity between C and H, represented as a short vector. (b) The electronegativity difference between B and F is much larger, so the vector representing the bond moment is much longer.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp52773168\">A whole molecule may also have a separation of charge, depending on its molecular structure and the polarity of each of its bonds. If such a charge separation exists, the molecule is said to be a <strong><span data-type=\"term\">polar molecule<\/span><\/strong> (or dipole); otherwise the molecule is said to be nonpolar. The <strong><span data-type=\"term\">dipole moment<\/span> <\/strong>measures the extent of net charge separation in the molecule as a whole. We determine the dipole moment by adding the bond moments in three-dimensional space, taking into account the molecular structure.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm10056464\">For diatomic molecules, there is only one bond, so its bond dipole moment determines the molecular polarity. Homonuclear diatomic molecules such as Br<sub>2<\/sub> and N<sub>2<\/sub> have no difference in electronegativity, so their dipole moment is zero. For heteronuclear molecules such as CO, there is a small dipole moment. For HF, there is a larger dipole moment because there is a larger difference in electronegativity.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp218363312\">When a molecule contains more than one bond, the geometry must be taken into account. If the bonds in a molecule are arranged such that their bond moments cancel (vector sum equals zero), then the molecule is nonpolar. This is the situation in CO<sub>2<\/sub> (Figure 14). Each of the bonds is polar, but the molecule as a whole is nonpolar. From the Lewis structure, and using VSEPR theory, we determine that the CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecule is linear with polar C=O bonds on opposite sides of the carbon atom. The bond moments cancel because they are pointed in opposite directions. In the case of the water molecule (Figure 14), the Lewis structure again shows that there are two bonds to a central atom, and the electronegativity difference again shows that each of these bonds has a nonzero bond moment. In this case, however, the molecular structure is bent because of the lone pairs on O, and the two bond moments do not cancel. Therefore, water does have a net dipole moment and is a polar molecule (dipole).<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_456\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"650\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-456\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205157\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2H2Odip.jpg\" alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms in a ball-and-stick representation. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment equals 0.\u201d Image b shows an oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms in a downward-facing v-shaped arrangement. An upward-facing, vertical arrow is drawn below the molecule while two upward and inward facing arrows are drawn above the molecule. The upper arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d while the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\" width=\"650\" height=\"396\" \/> Figure 14. The overall dipole moment of a molecule depends on the individual bond dipole moments and how they are arranged. (a) Each CO bond has a bond dipole moment, but they point in opposite directions so that the net CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecule is nonpolar. (b) In contrast, water is polar because the OH bond moments do not cancel out.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp54246320\">The OCS molecule has a structure similar to CO<sub>2<\/sub>, but a sulfur atom has replaced one of the oxygen atoms. To determine if this molecule is polar, we draw the molecular structure. VSEPR theory predicts a linear molecule:<span id=\"fs-idp52090304\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom double bonded to a sulfur atom and an oxygen atom which are arranged in a horizontal plane. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. The left-facing arrow is larger than the right-facing arrow. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and a left-facing arrow below the molecule is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\">\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-457\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205159\/CNX_Chem_07_06_OSC_img.jpg\" alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom double bonded to a sulfur atom and an oxygen atom which are arranged in a horizontal plane. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. The left-facing arrow is larger than the right-facing arrow. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and a left-facing arrow below the molecule is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\" width=\"325\" height=\"223\" \/>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp225382864\">Although the C\u2013O bond is polar, C and S have the same electronegativity values as shown in Figure 15, so there is no C\u2013S dipole. Thus, the two bonds do not have of the same bond dipole moment, and the bond moments do not cancel. Because oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur, the oxygen end of the molecule is the negative end.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_263\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<img class=\"size-large wp-image-263\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23204815\/CNX_Chem_07_02_ENTable-1024x438.jpg\" alt=\"Part of the periodic table is shown. A downward-facing arrow is drawn to the left of the table and labeled, \u201cDecreasing electronegativity,\u201d while a right-facing arrow is drawn above the table and labeled \u201cIncreasing electronegativity.\u201d The electronegativity for almost all the elements is given.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"438\" \/> Figure 15. The electronegativity values derived by Pauling follow predictable periodic trends with the higher electronegativities toward the upper right of the periodic table.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp66532464\">Chloromethane, CH<sub>3<\/sub>Cl, is another example of a polar molecule. Although the polar C\u2013Cl and C\u2013H bonds are arranged in a tetrahedral geometry, the C\u2013Cl bonds have a larger bond moment than the C\u2013H bond, and the bond moments do not completely cancel each other. All of the dipoles have a downward component in the orientation shown, since carbon is more electronegative than hydrogen and less electronegative than chlorine:<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-458\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205200\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CHCl3_img.jpg\" alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms and a chlorine atom. There are arrows with crossed ends pointing from the hydrogen to the carbon near each bond, and one pointing from the carbon to the chlorine along that bond. The carbon and chlorine arrow is longer. This image uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\" width=\"325\" height=\"139\" \/>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp214036816\">When we examine the highly symmetrical molecules BF<sub>3<\/sub> (trigonal planar), CH<sub>4<\/sub> (tetrahedral), PF<sub>5<\/sub> (trigonal bipyramidal), and SF<sub>6<\/sub> (octahedral), in which all the polar bonds are identical, the molecules are nonpolar. The bonds in these molecules are arranged such that their dipoles cancel. However, just because a molecule contains identical bonds does not mean that the dipoles will always cancel. Many molecules that have identical bonds and lone pairs on the central atoms have bond dipoles that do not cancel. Examples include H<sub>2<\/sub>S and NH<sub>3<\/sub>. A hydrogen atom is at the positive end and a nitrogen or sulfur atom is at the negative end of the polar bonds in these molecules:<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-459\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205201\/CNX_Chem_07_06_SH2NH3_img.jpg\" alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown. The left structure shows a sulfur atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. Near the sulfur is a dipole symbol with a superscripted negative sign. Near each hydrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted positive sign. The right structure shows a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. Near the nitrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted negative sign. Near each hydrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted positive sign.\" width=\"650\" height=\"126\" \/>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp51111376\">To summarize, to be polar, a molecule must:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol id=\"fs-idp94928768\" data-number-style=\"arabic\">\r\n \t<li>Contain at least one polar covalent bond.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have a molecular structure such that the sum of the vectors of each bond dipole moment does not cancel.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp83627232\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Properties of Polar Molecules<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp272047168\">Polar molecules tend to align when placed in an electric field with the positive end of the molecule oriented toward the negative plate and the negative end toward the positive plate (Figure 16). We can use an electrically charged object to attract polar molecules, but nonpolar molecules are not attracted. Also, polar solvents are better at dissolving polar substances, and nonpolar solvents are better at dissolving nonpolar substances.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_460\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]<img class=\"size-large wp-image-460\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205202\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Dipolfield-1024x628.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows two vertical, black lines. The left line is labeled with a negative sign and the right with a positive sign. There are five molecules in between. The molecules are separate from one another and are composed of a hydrogen atom bonded to a fluorine atom. The fluorine atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted negative sign while the hydrogen atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted positive sign. The molecules are randomly oriented in the space. The right diagram is also bracketed by two vertical, lines, but this time the line labeled as negative is red and the line labeled as positive is blue. The same molecules are present, but this time they are all facing horizontally, with the hydrogen-end of each molecule facing toward the red line.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"628\" \/> Figure 16. (a) Molecules are always randomly distributed in the liquid state in the absence of an electric field. (b) When an electric field is applied, polar molecules like HF will align to the dipoles with the field direction.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp56552448\" class=\"chemistry link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">The <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-polarity\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0molecule polarity simulation<\/a> provides many ways to explore dipole moments of bonds and molecules.<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3>Example 8<\/h3>\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp55551344\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Polarity Simulations<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nOpen the <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-polarity\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0molecule polarity simulation <\/a>and select the \u201cThree Atoms\u201d tab at the top. This should display a molecule ABC with three electronegativity adjustors. You can display or hide the bond moments, molecular dipoles, and partial charges at the right. Turning on the Electric Field will show whether the molecule moves when exposed to a field, similar to Figure 15.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp55109824\">Use the electronegativity controls to determine how the molecular dipole will look for the starting bent molecule if:<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp21212352\">(a) A and C are very electronegative and B is in the middle of the range.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp83795840\">(b) A is very electronegative, and B and C are not.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp60999152\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\r\n(a) Molecular dipole moment points immediately between A and C.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp33577488\">(b) Molecular dipole moment points along the A\u2013B bond, toward A.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp55689408\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\r\nDetermine the partial charges that will give the largest possible bond dipoles.\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp670160\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0The largest bond moments will occur with the largest partial charges. The two solutions above represent how unevenly the electrons are shared in the bond. The bond moments will be maximized when the electronegativity difference is greatest. The controls for A and C should be set to one extreme, and B should be set to the opposite extreme. Although the magnitude of the bond moment will not change based on whether B is the most electronegative or the least, the direction of the bond moment will.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm40478192\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div id=\"post-355\" class=\"post-355 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry type-1\">\r\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\r\n<div class=\"im_section\">\r\n<div class=\"im_section\">\r\n<div id=\"mclean-ch03_s01_s02_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\">\r\n<h2>Key Concepts and Summary<\/h2>\r\n<section>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp236281408\">VSEPR theory predicts the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. It states that valence electrons will assume an electron-pair geometry that minimizes repulsions between areas of high electron density (bonds and\/or lone pairs). Molecular structure, which refers only to the placement of atoms in a molecule and not the electrons, is equivalent to electron-pair geometry only when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom. A dipole moment measures a separation of charge. For one bond, the bond dipole moment is determined by the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms. For a molecule, the overall dipole moment is determined by both the individual bond moments and how these dipoles are arranged in the molecular structure. Polar molecules (those with an appreciable dipole moment) interact with electric fields, whereas nonpolar molecules do not.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Chemistry End of Chapter Exercises<\/h3>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp125299408\" class=\"exercises\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp14744000\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp86124192\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li id=\"fs-idp159838848\">Explain why the HOH molecule is bent, whereas the HBeH molecule is linear.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What feature of a Lewis structure can be used to tell if a molecule\u2019s (or ion\u2019s) electron-pair geometry and molecular structure will be identical?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the difference between electron-pair geometry and molecular structure.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Why is the H\u2013N\u2013H angle in NH<sub>3<\/sub> smaller than the H\u2013C\u2013H bond angle in CH<sub>4<\/sub>? Why is the H\u2013N\u2013H angle in [latex]{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}[\/latex] identical to the H\u2013C\u2013H bond angle in CH<sub>4<\/sub>?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how a molecule that contains polar bonds can be nonpolar.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>As a general rule, MX<sub>n<\/sub> molecules (where M represents a central atom and X represents terminal atoms; n = 2 \u2013 5) are polar if there is one or more lone pairs of electrons on M. NH<sub>3<\/sub> (M = N, X = H, n = 3) is an example. There are two molecular structures with lone pairs that are exceptions to this rule. What are they?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Predict the electron pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following molecules or ions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>SF<sub>6\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>PCl<sub>5\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>BeH<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{CH}}_{3}{}^{+}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify the electron pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following molecules or ions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{IF}}_{6}{}^{+}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>BF<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{SiF}}_{5}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>BeCl<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are the electron-pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following molecules or ions?\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>ClF<sub>5\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{ClO}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{TeCl}}_{4}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>PCl<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>SeF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{PH}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Predict the electron pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following ions:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+\u00a0<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{PCl}}_{4}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{SnCl}}_{3}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{BrCl}}_{4}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>ICl<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>XeF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>SF<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify the electron pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following molecules:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>ClNO (N is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CS<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>CO (C is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>SO (S is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>SO<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2<\/sub> (S is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>XeO<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2<\/sub> (Xe is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{ClOF}}_{2}{}^{+}[\/latex] (Cl is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Predict the electron pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>IOF<sub>5<\/sub> (I is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>POCl<sub>3<\/sub> (P is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>SeO (Se is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>ClSO<sup>+<\/sup> (S is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>F<sub>2<\/sub>SO (S is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{NO}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{SiO}}_{4}{}^{\\text{4-}}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Which of the following molecules and ions contain polar bonds? Which of these molecules and ions have dipole moments?\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>ClF<sub>5\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{ClO}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{TeCl}}_{4}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>PCl<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>SeF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{PH}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>XeF<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Which of the molecules and ions in Exercise 9 contain polar bonds? Which of these molecules and ions have dipole moments?\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+\u00a0<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{PCl}}_{4}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{SnCl}}_{3}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{BrCl}}_{4}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>ICl<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>XeF<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>SF<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Which of the following molecules have dipole moments?\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>CS<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>SeS<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>CCl<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>PCl<sub>3<\/sub> (P is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>ClNO (N is the central atom)<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify the molecules with a dipole moment:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>SF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>CF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>CCBr<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>CH<sub>3<\/sub>Cl<\/li>\r\n \t<li>H<sub>2<\/sub>CO<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The molecule XF<sub>3<\/sub> has a dipole moment. Is X boron or phosphorus?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The molecule XCl<sub>2<\/sub> has a dipole moment. Is X beryllium or sulfur?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Is the Cl<sub>2<\/sub>BBCl<sub>2<\/sub> molecule polar or nonpolar?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>There are three possible structures for PCl<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>3<\/sub> with phosphorus as the central atom. Draw them and discuss how measurements of dipole moments could help distinguish among them.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the molecular structure around the indicated atom or atoms:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>the sulfur atom in sulfuric acid, H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub> [(HO)<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>2<\/sub>]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>the chlorine atom in chloric acid, HClO<sub>3<\/sub> [HOClO<sub>2<\/sub>]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>the oxygen atom in hydrogen peroxide, HOOH<\/li>\r\n \t<li>the nitrogen atom in nitric acid, HNO<sub>3<\/sub> [HONO<sub>2<\/sub>]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>the oxygen atom in the OH group in nitric acid, HNO<sub>3<\/sub> [HONO<sub>2<\/sub>]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>the central oxygen atom in the ozone molecule, O<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>each of the carbon atoms in propyne, CH<sub>3<\/sub>CCH<\/li>\r\n \t<li>the carbon atom in Freon, CCl<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>each of the carbon atoms in allene, H<sub>2<\/sub>CCCH<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Draw the Lewis structures and predict the shape of each compound or ion:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>CO<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{NO}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>SO<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{SO}}_{3}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A molecule with the formula AB<sub>2<\/sub>, in which A and B represent different atoms, could have one of three different shapes. Sketch and name the three different shapes that this molecule might have. Give an example of a molecule or ion for each shape.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A molecule with the formula AB<sub>3<\/sub>, in which A and B represent different atoms, could have one of three different shapes. Sketch and name the three different shapes that this molecule might have. Give an example of a molecule or ion that has each shape.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Draw the Lewis electron dot structures for these molecules, including resonance structures where appropriate:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>[latex]{\\text{CS}}_{3}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex]<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CS<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li>CS<\/li>\r\n \t<li>predict the molecular shapes for [latex]{\\text{CS}}_{3}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex] and CS<sub>2<\/sub> and explain how you arrived at your predictions<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the molecular structure of the stable form of FNO<sub>2<\/sub>? (N is the central atom.)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A compound with a molar mass of about 42 g\/mol contains 85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen. What is its molecular structure?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use the <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-polarity\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0simulation<\/a> to perform the following exercises for a two-atom molecule:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Adjust the electronegativity value so the bond dipole is pointing toward B. Then determine what the electronegativity values must be to switch the dipole so that it points toward A.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>With a partial positive charge on A, turn on the electric field and describe what happens.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>With a small partial negative charge on A, turn on the electric field and describe what happens.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Reset all, and then with a large partial negative charge on A, turn on the electric field and describe what happens.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-polarity\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0simulation<\/a>\u00a0to perform the following exercises for a real molecule. You may need to rotate the molecules in three dimensions to see certain dipoles.\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Sketch the bond dipoles and molecular dipole (if any) for O<sub>3.<\/sub> Explain your observations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Look at the bond dipoles for NH<sub>3<\/sub>. Use these dipoles to predict whether N or H is more electronegative.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Predict whether there should be a molecular dipole for NH<sub>3<\/sub> and, if so, in which direction it will point. Check the molecular dipole box to test your hypothesis.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use the <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-shapes\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0Molecule Shape simulator<\/a> to build a molecule. Starting with the central atom, click on the double bond to add one double bond. Then add one single bond and one lone pair. Rotate the molecule to observe the complete geometry. Name the electron group geometry and molecular structure and predict the bond angle. Then click the check boxes at the bottom and right of the simulator to check your answers.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-shapes\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0Molecule Shape simulator<\/a>\u00a0to explore real molecules. On the Real Molecules tab, select H<sub>2<\/sub>O. Switch between the \u201creal\u201d and \u201cmodel\u201d modes. Explain the difference observed.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-shapes\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0Molecule Shape simulator<\/a>\u00a0to explore real molecules. On the Real Molecules tab, select \u201cmodel\u201d mode and S<sub>2<\/sub>O. What is the model bond angle? Explain whether the \u201creal\u201d bond angle should be larger or smaller than the ideal model angle.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"post-355\" class=\"post-355 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry type-1\">\r\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\r\n<div class=\"im_section\">\r\n<div class=\"im_section\">\r\n<div id=\"mclean-ch03_s01_s02_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Selected Answers<\/h3>\r\n1.\u00a0The placement of the two sets of unpaired electrons in water forces the bonds to assume a tetrahedral arrangement, and the resulting HOH molecule is bent. The HBeH molecule (in which Be has only two electrons to bond with the two electrons from the hydrogens) must have the electron pairs as far from one another as possible and is therefore linear.\r\n\r\n3.\u00a0Space must be provided for each pair of electrons whether they are in a bond or are present as lone pairs. Electron-pair geometry considers the placement of all electrons. Molecular structure considers only the bonding-pair geometry.\r\n\r\n5.\u00a0As long as the polar bonds are compensated (for example. two identical atoms are found directly across the central atom from one another), the molecule can be nonpolar.\r\n\r\n7. (a) Number of valence electrons: S = 6, F = 7 each, total 48. A single line bond represents two electrons:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-461\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205204\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Exercise7a_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a sulfur atom single bonded to six fluorine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"325\" height=\"166\" \/>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">The total number of electrons used is 48; six bonds are formed and no nonbonded pairs exist. Therefore the molecule includes six regions of electron density and, from the table, the electron geometry is octahedral. Since no lone pairs exist, the electron geometry and molecular structure are the same.<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(b) Number of valence electrons: P = 5, Cl = 7 each, total 40:<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-462\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205205\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Exercise7b_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a phosphorus atom single bonded to five chlorine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"325\" height=\"166\" \/><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"mclean-ch03_s01_s02_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">The total number of electrons is 40; there are five regions of electron density and, from the table, the geometry is trigonal bipyramid. Since no lone pairs exist on P, the electron geometry and molecular structure are the same.<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(c) Number of valence electrons: Be = 2, H = 1 each, total 4:<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-463\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205208\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Exercise7c_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a beryllium atom with a hydrogen atom to its left and right. A pair of dots lie in between each atom.\" width=\"325\" height=\"30\" \/><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"mclean-ch03_s01_s02_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">There are only two regions of electron density and they must have a linear arrangement. These regions also correspond to the location of the bonds. Both the electron and molecular structures are linear.<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(d) Number of valence electrons: C = 4, H = 1 each, less one electron because of the positive charge, for a total of six electrons:<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-464\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205210\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Exercise7d_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The whole structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign.\" width=\"325\" height=\"166\" \/><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">There are three regions of electron density coincident with the three bonds. Therefore the shape is trigonal planar for both the electron geometry and molecular structure.<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">\r\n\r\n9.\r\n<table id=\"fs-idm5476144\" class=\"medium-unnumbered\" summary=\"This table has 8 rows and 6 columns. The first two rows are header rows. The first header row only has four columns; the first two columns are not labeled. The third column is, \u201cRegions of High Electron Density,\u201d and the fourth column is, \u201cStructure.\u201d The second header row has six columns. The first column is, \u201cFormula,\u201d the second column is, \u201cElectrons,\u201d the third column is, \u201cTotal,\u201d and the fourth column is, \u201cLone Pairs.\u201d The columns, \u201cTotal,\u201d and, \u201cLone Pairs\u201d are both underneath the column \u201cRegions of High Electron Density\u201d from the first header row. The fifth column in the second header row is, \u201cElectron,\u201d and the sixth column in the second header row is, \u201cMolecular.\u201d Both columns \u201cElectron\u201d and \u201cMolecular\u201d are under the column \u201cStructure\u201d from the first header row. Under the column \u201cFormula\u201d are the following: ( a ) C l F subscript 5; ( b ) C l O subscript two superscript negative sign; ( c ) T e C l subscript 4 superscript two negative sign; ( d ) P C l subscript 3; ( e ) S e F subscript four; and ( f ) P H subscript two superscript negative sign in the last row. Under the column \u201cElectrons\u201d are the values: 42; 20; 36; 26; 34; and 8. Under the column \u201cTotal\u201d are the values: 6; 4; 6; 4; 5; and 4. Under the column \u201cLone pairs\u201d are the values: 1; 2; 2; 1; 1; and 2. Under the column \u201cElectron\u201d are the following: octahedral; tetrahedral; octahedral; tetrahedral; trigonal bipyramidal; and tetrahedral. Under the column \u201cMolecular\u201d are the following: square pyramidal; bent; square planar; trigonal pyramidal; seesaw; and bent ( 109 degree symbol ).\" data-label=\"\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr valign=\"bottom\">\r\n<th colspan=\"2\">Regions of High Electron Density<\/th>\r\n<th colspan=\"2\">Structure<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<th>Formula<\/th>\r\n<th>Electrons<\/th>\r\n<th>Total<\/th>\r\n<th>Lone pairs<\/th>\r\n<th>Electron<\/th>\r\n<th>Molecular<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(a) ClF<sub>5<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>42<\/td>\r\n<td>6<\/td>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>octahedral<\/td>\r\n<td>square pyramidal<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(b) [latex]{\\text{ClO}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>20<\/td>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\r\n<td>bent<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(c) [latex]{\\text{TeCl}}_{4}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>36<\/td>\r\n<td>6<\/td>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>octahedral<\/td>\r\n<td>square planar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(d) PCl<sub>3<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>26<\/td>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\r\n<td>trigonal pyramidal<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(e) SeF<sub>4<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>34<\/td>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>trigonal bipyramidal<\/td>\r\n<td>seesaw<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(f) [latex]{\\text{PH}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>8<\/td>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\r\n<td>bent (109\u00b0)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n11.\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm9353168\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n<table id=\"fs-idp117051360\" class=\"medium-unnumbered\" summary=\"This table has 9 rows and 6 columns. The first two rows are header rows. The first header row only has four columns; the first two columns are not labeled. The third column is, \u201cRegions of High Electron Density,\u201d and the fourth column is, \u201cStructure.\u201d The second header row has six columns. The first column is, \u201cFormula,\u201d the second column is, \u201cElectrons,\u201d the third column is, \u201cTotal,\u201d and the fourth column is, \u201cLone Pairs.\u201d The columns \u201cTotal\u201d and \u201cLone Pairs\u201d are both underneath the column \u201cRegions of High Electron Density\u201d from the first header row. The fifth column in the second header row is, \u201cElectron,\u201d and the sixth column in the second header row is, \u201cMolecular.\u201d Both columns \u201cElectron\u201d and \u201cMolecular\u201d are under the column \u201cStructure\u201d from the first header row. Under the \u201cFormula\u201d column are the following: ( a ) C l N O; ( b ) C S subscript 2; ( c ) C l subscript 2 C O; ( d ) C l subscript 2 S O; ( e ) S O subscript 2 F subscript 2; ( f ) X e O subscript two F subscript 2; and ( g ) C l O F subscript two superscript positive sign. Under the \u201cElectrons\u201d column are the values: 18; 16; 24; 26; 32; 34; and 26. Under the \u201cTotal\u201d column are the values: 3; 2; 3; 4; 4; 5; and 4. Under the column \u201cLone Pairs\u201d are the values: 1; 0; 0; 1; 0; 1; and 1. Under the column \u201cElectron\u201d are the following: trigonal planar; linear; trigonal planar; tetrahedral; tetrahedral; trigonal bipyramidal; and tetrahedral. Under the column \u201cMolecular\u201d are the following: bent ( 120 degree symbol ); linear; trigonal pyramidal; tetrahedral; seesaw; and trigonal pyramidal.\" data-label=\"\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr valign=\"bottom\">\r\n<th colspan=\"2\">Regions of High Electron Density<\/th>\r\n<th colspan=\"2\">Structure<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr valign=\"middle\">\r\n<td>Formula<\/td>\r\n<td>Electrons<\/td>\r\n<td>Total<\/td>\r\n<td>Lone pairs<\/td>\r\n<td>Electron<\/td>\r\n<td>Molecular<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(a) ClNO<\/td>\r\n<td>18<\/td>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>trigonal planar<\/td>\r\n<td>bent (120\u00b0)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(b) CS<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>16<\/td>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>0<\/td>\r\n<td>linear<\/td>\r\n<td>linear<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(c) Cl<sub>2<\/sub>CO<\/td>\r\n<td>24<\/td>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>0<\/td>\r\n<td>trigonal planar<\/td>\r\n<td>trigonal planar<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(d) Cl<sub>2<\/sub>SO<\/td>\r\n<td>26<\/td>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\r\n<td>trigonal pyramidal<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(e) SO<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>32<\/td>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>0<\/td>\r\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\r\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(f) XeO<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\r\n<td>34<\/td>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>trigonal bipyramidal<\/td>\r\n<td>seesaw<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td>(g) [latex]{\\text{ClOF}}_{2}{}^{+}[\/latex]<\/td>\r\n<td>26<\/td>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\r\n<td>trigonal pyramidal<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n13.\u00a0All of these molecules and ions contain polar bonds. Only ClF<sub>5<\/sub>, [latex]{\\text{ClO}}_{2}{}^{-},[\/latex] PCl<sub>3<\/sub>, SeF<sub>4<\/sub>, and [latex]{\\text{PH}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex] have dipole moments.\r\n\r\n15.\u00a0(a) CS<sub>2<\/sub> is linear and has no dipole moment.\r\n\r\n(b) SeS<sub>2<\/sub> is bent. This leads to an overall dipole moment.\r\n\r\n(c) The C\u2013Cl and C\u2013F bonds are not balanced\u2014that is, the dipoles do not completely cancel. Therefore, it has a dipole moment.\r\n\r\n(d) PCl<sub>3<\/sub> is trigonal pyramidal. Due to this shape, the dipoles of the bonds do not cancel and there is an overall dipole moment.\r\n\r\n(e) The ClNO molecule is bent, leading to a dipole moment.\r\n\r\n17.\u00a0P\r\n\r\n19.\u00a0nonpolar\r\n\r\n21. (a) tetrahedral; (b) trigonal pyramidal; (c) bent (109\u00b0); (d) trigonal planar; (e) bent (109\u00b0); (f) bent (109\u00b0); (g) <span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>3<\/sub>CCH tetrahedral, CH<sub>3<\/sub><span data-effect=\"underline\">CC<\/span>H linear; (h) tetrahedral, (i) H<sub>2<\/sub>C<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>CH<sub>2<\/sub> linear; H<sub>2<\/sub><span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>C<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>2<\/sub> trigonal planar\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp95408832\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp5455680\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">\r\n\r\n23.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-472\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205216\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Ques23ans_img.jpg\" alt=\"Three Lewis diagrams are shown. The first diagram shows the letter A single bonded to the left and right to the letter B. An example, \u201cC O subscript 2,\u201d and the term, \u201clinear,\u201d are written beside this diagram. The second diagram shows the letter A with two lone pairs of electrons, single bonded to the left and lower right to the letter B. An example, \u201cH subscript 2 O,\u201d and the term, \u201cbent with an approximately 109 degree angle,\u201d are written beside this diagram. The third diagram shows the letter A with one lone electron pair, single bonded to the left and lower right to the letter B. An example, \u201cS O subscript 2,\u201d and the term, \u201cbent with an approximately 120 degree angle,\u201d are written beside this diagram.\" width=\"650\" height=\"265\" \/>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">\r\n\r\n25. (a)\r\n\r\n<img class=\"size-full wp-image-474 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205218\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CS3a_img.jpg\" alt=\"The figure shows three Lewis structures that are each surrounded by brackets and have a superscripted 2 negative sign. They are written with a double-headed arrow in between each diagram. The first of this trio has a carbon atom single bonded to two sulfur atoms, each of which has thee lone pairs of electrons, and double bonded to a third sulfur atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The second and third diagrams have the same atoms present, but each time the double bond moves between a different carbon and sulfur pair. The lone electron pairs also shift to correspond with the bond changes.\" width=\"975\" height=\"154\" \/>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(b)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-475\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205220\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CS3b_img.jpg\" alt=\"The Lewis structure shows a carbon atom double bonded to two sulfur atoms, each of which has two lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"325\" height=\"55\" \/><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(c)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-476\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205221\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CS3c_img.jpg\" alt=\"This diagram shows a carbon with one lone electron pair triple bonded to a sulfur with one lone electron pair.\" width=\"325\" height=\"28\" \/><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(d) [latex]{\\text{CS}}_{3}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex] includes three regions of electron density (all are bonds with no lone pairs); the shape is trigonal planar; CS<sub>2<\/sub> has only two regions of electron density (all bonds with no lone pairs); the shape is linear<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">\r\n\r\n27. \u00a0The empirical formula is CH<sub>2<\/sub> with a unit mass of l4. [latex]\\frac{42}{14}=3.[\/latex] Therefore, the Lewis structure is made from three units, but the atoms must be rearranged:\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-478\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205222\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Ques28ans_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure is shown in which a carbon atom is single bonded to three hydrogen atoms and a second carbon atom. The second carbon is single bonded to a hydrogen atom and double bonded to a third carbon atom which is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms.\" width=\"255\" height=\"146\" \/>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">29. \u00a0The molecular dipole points away from the hydrogen atoms.<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\">31.\u00a0The structures are very similar. In the model mode, each electron group occupies the same amount of space, so the bond angle is shown as 109.5\u00b0. In the \u201creal\u201d mode, the lone pairs are larger, causing the hydrogens to be compressed. This leads to the smaller angle of 104.5\u00b0.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\"><section id=\"glossary\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm8143856\" data-type=\"definition\">\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">axial position\r\n<\/span><\/strong>location in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry in which there is another atom at a 180\u00b0 angle and the equatorial positions are at a 90\u00b0 angle<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">bond angle\r\n<\/span><\/strong>angle between any two covalent bonds that share a common atom<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">bond distance\r\n<\/span><\/strong>(also, bond length) distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">bond dipole moment\r\n<\/span><\/strong>separation of charge in a bond that depends on the difference in electronegativity and the bond distance represented by partial charges or a vector<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">dipole moment\r\n<\/span><\/strong>property of a molecule that describes the separation of charge determined by the sum of the individual bond moments based on the molecular structure<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">electron-pair geometry\r\n<\/span><\/strong>arrangement around a central atom of all regions of electron density (bonds, lone pairs, or unpaired electrons)<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">equatorial position\r\n<\/span><\/strong>one of the three positions in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry with 120\u00b0 angles between them; the axial positions are located at a 90\u00b0 angle<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">linear\r\n<\/span><\/strong>shape in which two outside groups are placed on opposite sides of a central atom<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">molecular structure\r\n<\/span><\/strong>structure that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">octahedral\r\n<\/span><\/strong>shape in which six outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four groups forming a square and the other two forming the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the square plane<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">polar molecule\r\n<\/span><\/strong>(also, dipole) molecule with an overall dipole moment<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">tetrahedral\r\n<\/span><\/strong>shape in which four outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four corners and 109.5\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">trigonal bipyramidal\r\n<\/span><\/strong>shape in which five outside groups are placed around a central atom such that three form a flat triangle with 120\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom, and the other two form the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the triangular plane<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">trigonal planar\r\n<\/span><\/strong>shape in which three outside groups are placed in a flat triangle around a central atom with 120\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom<\/p>\r\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR)\r\n<\/span><\/strong>theory used to predict the bond angles in a molecule based on positioning regions of high electron density as far apart as possible to minimize electrostatic repulsion<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp103056288\" data-type=\"definition\">\r\n\r\n<strong><span data-type=\"term\">vector\r\n<\/span><\/strong>quantity having magnitude and direction\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm708128\" data-type=\"example\"><\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>LEARNING OBJECTIVES<\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Predict the structures of small molecules using valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory<\/li>\n<li>Explain the concepts of polar covalent bonds and molecular polarity<\/li>\n<li>Assess the polarity of a molecule based on its bonding and structure<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp51102864\">Thus far, we have used two-dimensional Lewis structures to represent molecules. However, molecular structure is actually three-dimensional, and it is important to be able to describe molecular bonds in terms of their distances, angles, and relative arrangements in space (Figure 1). A<strong> <span data-type=\"term\">bond angle<\/span><\/strong> is the angle between any two bonds that include a common atom, usually measured in degrees. A <strong><span data-type=\"term\">bond distance<\/span><\/strong> (or bond length) is the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms along the straight line joining the nuclei. Bond distances are measured in \u00c5ngstroms (1 \u00c5 = 10<sup>\u201310<\/sup> m) or picometers (1 pm = 10<sup>\u201312<\/sup> m, 100 pm = 1 \u00c5).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1915\" style=\"width: 985px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1915\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1915\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211655\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CH2O1.jpg\" alt=\"A pair of images are shown. The left image shows a carbon atom with three atoms bonded in a triangular arrangement around it. There are two hydrogen atoms bonded on the left side of the carbon and the angle between them is labeled, \u201c118 degrees\u201d and, \u201cBond angle.\u201d The carbon is also double bonded to an oxygen atom. The double bond is shaded and there is a bracket which labels the bond, \u201cBond length ( angstrom ), ( center to center ),\u201d and, \u201c1.21 angstrom.\u201d The right image shows a ball-and-stick model of the same elements. The hydrogen atoms are white, the carbon atom is black, and the oxygen atom is red.\" width=\"975\" height=\"335\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1915\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Bond distances (lengths) and angles are shown for the formaldehyde molecule, H<sub>2<\/sub>CO.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idp391168\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">VSEPR Theory<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp36050992\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory)<\/span> <\/strong>enables us to predict the molecular structure, including approximate bond angles around a central atom, of a molecule from an examination of the number of bonds and lone electron pairs in its Lewis structure. The VSEPR model assumes that electron pairs in the valence shell of a central atom will adopt an arrangement that minimizes repulsions between these electron pairs by maximizing the distance between them. The electrons in the valence shell of a central atom form either bonding pairs of electrons, located primarily between bonded atoms, or lone pairs. The electrostatic repulsion of these electrons is reduced when the various regions of high electron density assume positions as far from each other as possible.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp46353584\">VSEPR theory predicts the arrangement of electron pairs around each central atom and, usually, the correct arrangement of atoms in a molecule. We should understand, however, that the theory only considers electron-pair repulsions. Other interactions, such as nuclear-nuclear repulsions and nuclear-electron attractions, are also involved in the final arrangement that atoms adopt in a particular molecular structure.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1916\" style=\"width: 335px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1916\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1916\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211658\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BeF21.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure is shown. A fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons is single bonded to a beryllium atom which is single bonded to a fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The angle of the bonds between the two fluorine atoms and the beryllium atom is labeled, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d\" width=\"325\" height=\"89\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1916\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. The BeF<sub>2<\/sub> molecule adopts a linear structure in which the two bonds are as far apart as possible, on opposite sides of the Be atom.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>As a simple example of VSEPR theory, let us predict the structure of a gaseous BeF<sub>2<\/sub> molecule. The Lewis structure of BeF<sub>2<\/sub> (Figure 2) shows only two electron pairs around the central beryllium atom. With two bonds and no lone pairs of electrons on the central atom, the bonds are as far apart as possible, and the electrostatic repulsion between these regions of high electron density is reduced to a minimum when they are on opposite sides of the central atom. The bond angle is 180\u00b0 (Figure 2).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp87297072\">Figure 3 illustrates this and other electron-pair geometries that minimize the repulsions among regions of high electron density (bonds and\/or lone pairs). Two regions of electron density around a central atom in a molecule form a <span data-type=\"term\">linear<\/span> geometry; three regions form a <span data-type=\"term\">trigonal planar<\/span> geometry; four regions form a <span data-type=\"term\">tetrahedral<\/span> geometry; five regions form a <span data-type=\"term\">trigonal bipyramidal<\/span> geometry; and six regions form an <span data-type=\"term\">octahedral<\/span> geometry.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1917\" style=\"width: 1034px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1917\" class=\"wp-image-1917 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211700\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom1-1024x945.jpg\" alt=\"A table with four rows and six columns is shown. The header column contains the phrases, \u201cNumber of regions,\u201d \u201cSpatial arrangement,\u201d \u201cWedge\/dash Notation,\u201d and \u201cElectron pair Geometry.\u201d The first row reads: \u201cTwo regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs )\u201d, \u201cThree regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFour regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFive regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d and \u201cSix regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ).\u201d The second row shows diagrams of orbitals. The first image shows two oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 180 degrees. The second image shows three oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 120 degrees. The third image shows four oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 109.5 degrees. The fourth image shows five oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 and 120 degrees. The fifth image shows six oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 degrees. The third row contains Lewis structures. The first structure shows a beryllium atom single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The second structure shows a boron atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The third structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The fourth structure shows a phosphorus atom single bonded to five fluorine atoms. The fifth structure shows a sulfur atom single bonded to six fluorine atoms. The fourth row contains the phrases \u201cLinear; 180 degree angle,\u201d Trigonal Planar; all angles 120 degrees,\u201d \u201cTetrahedral; all angles 109.5 degrees,\u201d \u201cTrigonal bipyramidal; angles of 90 degrees and 120 degrees. An attached atom may be equatorial, ( in the plane of the triangle ), or axial, ( above the plane of the triangle ),\u201d and \u201cOctahedral; 90 degrees or 180 degrees.\u201d\" width=\"1024\" height=\"945\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1917\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3. The basic electron-pair geometries predicted by VSEPR theory maximize the space around any region of electron density (bonds or lone pairs).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idm5284928\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left;\" data-type=\"title\">Electron-Pair Geometry versus Molecular Structure<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp238100128\">It is important to note that electron-pair geometry around a central atom is <em data-effect=\"italics\">not<\/em> the same thing as its molecular structure. The electron-pair geometries shown in Figure 3 describe all regions where electrons are located, bonds as well as lone pairs. Molecular structure describes the location of the <em data-effect=\"italics\">atoms<\/em>, not the electrons.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1918\" style=\"width: 146px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1918\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1918\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211702\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CH41.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. This structure uses wedges and dashes to give it a three dimensional appearance.\" width=\"136\" height=\"128\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1918\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4. The molecular structure of the methane molecule, CH<sub>4<\/sub>, is shown with a tetrahedral arrangement of the hydrogen atoms.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3\">We differentiate between these two situations by naming the geometry that includes <em data-effect=\"italics\">all<\/em> electron pairs the <strong><span data-type=\"term\">electron-pair geometry<\/span><\/strong>. The structure that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule is called the<strong> <span data-type=\"term\">molecular structure<\/span><\/strong>. The electron-pair geometries will be the same as the molecular structures when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom, but they will be different when there are lone pairs present on the central atom.<\/p>\n<p>VSEPR structures like the\u00a0one in Figure 4 are often drawn using the wedge and dash notation, in which solid lines represent bonds in the plane of the page, solid wedges represent bonds coming up out of the plane, and dashed lines represent bonds going down into the plane.<\/p>\n<p>For example, the methane molecule, CH<sub>4<\/sub>, which is the major component of natural gas, has four bonding pairs of electrons around the central carbon atom; the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral, as is the molecular structure (Figure 4). On the other hand, the ammonia molecule, NH<sub>3<\/sub>, also has four electron pairs associated with the nitrogen atom, and thus has a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. One of these regions, however, is a lone pair, which is not included in the molecular structure, and this lone pair influences the shape of the molecule (Figure 5).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1919\" style=\"width: 985px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1919\" class=\"wp-image-1919 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211703\/CNX_Chem_07_06_NH31.jpg\" alt=\"Three images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d and \u201cc.\u201d Image a shows a nitrogen atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. There are four oval-shaped orbs that surround each hydrogen and one facing away from the rest of the molecule. These orbs are located in a tetrahedral arrangement. Image b shows a ball-and-stick model of the nitrogen single bonded to the three hydrogen atoms. Image c is the same as image a, but there are four curved, double headed arrows that circle the molecule and are labeled, \u201c106.8 degrees.\u201d\" width=\"975\" height=\"293\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1919\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5. (a) The electron-pair geometry for the ammonia molecule is tetrahedral with one lone pair and three single bonds. (b) The trigonal pyramidal molecular structure is determined from the electron-pair geometry. (c) The actual bond angles deviate slightly from the idealized angles, because the lone pair takes up a larger region of space than do the single bonds, causing the HNH angle to be slightly smaller than 109.5\u00b0.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp38238416\">As seen in Figure 5, small distortions from the ideal angles in Figure 6 can result from differences in repulsion between various regions of electron density. VSEPR theory predicts these distortions by establishing an order of repulsions and an order of the amount of space occupied by different kinds of electron pairs. The order of electron-pair repulsions from greatest to least repulsion is:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">lone pair-lone pair &gt; lone pair-bonding pair &gt; bonding pair-bonding pair<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp7623536\">This order of repulsions determines the amount of space occupied by different regions of electrons. A lone pair of electrons occupies a larger region of space than the electrons in a triple bond; in turn, electrons in a triple bond occupy more space than those in a double bond, and so on. The order of sizes from largest to smallest is:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center;\">lone pair &gt; triple bond &gt; double bond&gt;single bond<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp215771104\">Consider formaldehyde, H<sub>2<\/sub>CO, which is used as a preservative for biological and anatomical specimens (Figure 1). This molecule has regions of high electron density that consist of two single bonds and one double bond. The basic geometry is trigonal planar with 120\u00b0 bond angles, but we see that the double bond causes slightly larger angles (121\u00b0), and the angle between the single bonds is slightly smaller (118\u00b0).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp125916256\">In the ammonia molecule, the three hydrogen atoms attached to the central nitrogen are not arranged in a flat, trigonal planar molecular structure, but rather in a three-dimensional trigonal pyramid (Figure 5) with the nitrogen atom at the apex and the three hydrogen atoms forming the base. The ideal bond angles in a trigonal pyramid are based on the tetrahedral electron pair geometry. Again, there are slight deviations from the ideal because lone pairs occupy larger regions of space than do bonding electrons. The H\u2013N\u2013H bond angles in NH<sub>3<\/sub> are slightly smaller than the 109.5\u00b0 angle in a regular tetrahedron (Figure 3) because the lone pair-bonding pair repulsion is greater than the bonding pair-bonding pair repulsion (Figure 5). Figure 6 illustrates the ideal molecular structures, which are predicted based on the electron-pair geometries for various combinations of lone pairs and bonding pairs.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1920\" style=\"width: 1034px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1920\" class=\"wp-image-1920 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211704\/CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom1-1024x854.jpg\" alt=\"A table is shown that is comprised of six rows and six columns. The header row reads: \u201cNumber of Electron Pairs,\u201d \u201cElectron pair geometries; 0 lone pair,\u201d \u201c1 lone pair,\u201d \u201c2 lone pairs,\u201d \u201c3 lone pairs,\u201d and \u201c4 lone pairs.\u201d The first column contains the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The first space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side. The angle of the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The second space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on three sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal planar.\u201d The third space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X four times. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTetrahedral.\u201d The fourth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values \u201c90 and 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal bipyramid.\u201d The fifth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on six sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cOctahedral.\u201d The first space in the third column is empty while the second contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has a lone pair of electrons. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The third space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to a lone pair of electrons. It is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal pyramid.\u201d The fourth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values, \u201cless than 90 and less than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSawhorse or seesaw.\u201d The fifth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare pyramidal.\u201d The first and second spaces in the fourth column are empty while the third contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than less than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The fourth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The fifth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare planar.\u201d The first, second and third spaces in the fifth column are empty while the fourth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The fifth space in the fifth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The first, second, third, and fourth spaces in the sixth column are empty while the fifth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has four lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d All the structures use wedges and dashes to give them three dimensional appearances.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"854\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1920\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 6. The molecular structures are identical to the electron-pair geometries when there are no lone pairs present (first column). For a particular number of electron pairs (row), the molecular structures for one or more lone pairs are determined based on modifications of the corresponding electron-pair geometry.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp3259504\">According to VSEPR theory, the terminal atom locations (Xs in Figure 6) are equivalent within the linear, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral electron-pair geometries (the first three rows of the table). It does not matter which X is replaced with a lone pair, because the molecules can be rotated to convert positions. For trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometries, however, there are two distinct X positions, as shown in Figure 7: an <span data-type=\"term\">axial position<\/span> (if we hold a model of a trigonal bipyramid by the two axial positions, we have an axis around which we can rotate the model) and an <span data-type=\"term\">equatorial position<\/span> (three positions form an equator around the middle of the molecule). As shown in Figure 6, the axial position is surrounded by bond angles of 90\u00b0, whereas the equatorial position has more space available because of the 120\u00b0 bond angles. In a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry, lone pairs always occupy equatorial positions because these more spacious positions can more easily accommodate the larger lone pairs.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm50931488\">Theoretically, we can come up with three possible arrangements for the three bonds and two lone pairs for the ClF<sub>3<\/sub> molecule (Figure 7). The stable structure is the one that puts the lone pairs in equatorial locations, giving a T-shaped molecular structure.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1921\" style=\"width: 1034px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1921\" class=\"wp-image-1921 size-large\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211706\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Axeq1-1024x255.jpg\" alt=\"Four sets of images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d \u201cc,\u201d and \u201cd.\u201d Each image is separated by a dashed vertical line. Image a shows a six-faced, bi-pyramidal structure where the central vertical axis is labeled, \u201cAxial,\u201d and the horizontal plane is labeled, \u201cEquatorial.\u201d Image b shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms on the upper and lower ends, and one fluorine in the left horizontal position. Image c shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center and three fluorine atoms in each horizontal position. Image d shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms in the horizontal positions, and one in the axial bottom position.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"255\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1921\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 7. (a) In a trigonal bipyramid, the two axial positions are located directly across from one another, whereas the three equatorial positions are located in a triangular arrangement. (b\u2013d) The two lone pairs (red lines) in ClF<sub>3<\/sub> have several possible arrangements, but the T-shaped molecular structure (b) is the one actually observed, consistent with the larger lone pairs both occupying equatorial positions.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp56476752\">When a central atom has two lone electron pairs and four bonding regions, we have an octahedral electron-pair geometry. The two lone pairs are on opposite sides of the octahedron (180\u00b0 apart), giving a square planar molecular structure that minimizes lone pair-lone pair repulsions (Figure 6).<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm759712\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron Pair Geometry and Molecular Structure<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp147829184\">The following procedure uses VSEPR theory to determine the electron pair geometries and the molecular structures:<\/p>\n<ol id=\"fs-idp267826096\" data-number-style=\"arabic\">\n<li>Write the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion.<\/li>\n<li>Count the number of regions of electron density (lone pairs and bonds) around the central atom. A single, double, or triple bond counts as one region of electron density.<\/li>\n<li>Identify the electron-pair geometry based on the number of regions of electron density: linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral (Figure 6, first column).<\/li>\n<li>Use the number of lone pairs to determine the molecular structure (Figure 6). If more than one arrangement of lone pairs and chemical bonds is possible, choose the one that will minimize repulsions, remembering that lone pairs occupy more space than multiple bonds, which occupy more space than single bonds. In trigonal bipyramidal arrangements, repulsion is minimized when every lone pair is in an equatorial position. In an octahedral arrangement with two lone pairs, repulsion is minimized when the lone pairs are on opposite sides of the central atom.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p id=\"fs-idp53389712\">The following examples illustrate the use of VSEPR theory to predict the molecular structure of molecules or ions that have no lone pairs of electrons. In this case, the molecular structure is identical to the electron pair geometry.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm2891376\" data-type=\"example\">\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Example 1<\/h3>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp238154208\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: CO<sub>2<\/sub> and BCl<sub>3<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure for each of the following:<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp55144288\">(a) carbon dioxide, CO<sub>2<\/sub>, a molecule produced by the combustion of fossil fuels<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm8091088\">(b) boron trichloride, BCl<sub>3<\/sub>, an important industrial chemical<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp64872464\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>(a) We write the Lewis structure of CO<sub>2<\/sub> as:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp65356192\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom double bonded on both the left and right sides to oxygen atoms that each have two lone pairs of electrons.\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-1922 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211708\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2_img1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom double bonded on both the left and right sides to oxygen atoms that each have two lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"147\" height=\"64\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp56144384\">This shows us two regions of high electron density around the carbon atom\u2014each double bond counts as one region, and there are no lone pairs on the carbon atom. Using VSEPR theory, we predict that the two regions of electron density arrange themselves on opposite sides of the central atom with a bond angle of 180\u00b0. The electron-pair geometry and molecular structure are identical, and CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecules are linear.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp280648672\">(b) We write the Lewis structure of BCl<sub>3<\/sub> as:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-441\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205147\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BCl3_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"177\" height=\"118\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp34925552\">Thus we see that BCl<sub>3<\/sub> contains three bonds, and there are no lone pairs of electrons on boron. The arrangement of three regions of high electron density gives a trigonal planar electron-pair geometry.The B\u2013Cl bonds lie in a plane with 120\u00b0 angles between them. BCl<sub>3<\/sub> also has a trigonal planar molecular structure (Figure 8).<span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which is oriented in the same flat plane. This figure uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\"><span data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which is oriented in the same flat plane. This figure uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_442\" style=\"width: 154px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-442\" class=\"wp-image-442 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205148\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BCl3mol.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which is oriented in the same flat plane. This figure uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\" width=\"144\" height=\"94\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-442\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 8. The electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of BCl<sub>3<\/sub> are both trigonal planar. Note that the VSEPR geometry indicates the correct bond angles (120\u00b0), unlike the Lewis structure shown above.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp67131872\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Carbonate, [latex]{\\text{CO}}_{3}{}^{\\text{2-}},[\/latex] is a common polyatomic ion found in various materials from eggshells to antacids. What are the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of this polyatomic ion?<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp125452800\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0The electron-pair geometry is trigonal planar and the molecular structure is trigonal planar. Due to resonance, all three C\u2013O bonds are identical. Whether they are single, double, or an average of the two, each bond counts as one region of electron density.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Example 2<\/h3>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp83628624\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: Ammonium<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Two of the top 50 chemicals produced in the United States, ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate, both used as fertilizers, contain the ammonium ion. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of the [latex]{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}[\/latex] cation.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp86467024\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>We write the Lewis structure of [latex]{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}[\/latex] as:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp83671296\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom that is single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign.\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-443\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205148\/CNX_Chem_07_06_NH4_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom that is single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign.\" width=\"199\" height=\"178\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm9973280\">We can see that [latex]{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}[\/latex] contains four bonds from the nitrogen atom to hydrogen atoms and no lone pairs. We expect the four regions of high electron density to arrange themselves so that they point to the corners of a tetrahedron with the central nitrogen atom in the middle (Figure 6). Therefore, the electron pair geometry of [latex]{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}[\/latex] is tetrahedral, and the molecular structure is also tetrahedral (Figure 9).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_1926\" style=\"width: 194px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1926\" class=\"wp-image-1926 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211711\/CNX_Chem_07_06_NH4mol1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom that is single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign. This figure uses dashes and wedges to displays its three planes in a tetrahedral shape.\" width=\"184\" height=\"169\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-1926\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 9. The ammonium ion displays a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry as well as a tetrahedral molecular structure.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp94577296\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Identify a molecule with trigonal bipyramidal molecular structure.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp57227744\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0Any molecule with five electron pairs around the central atoms including no lone pairs will be trigonal bipyramidal. PF<sub>5<\/sub> is a common example.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm16091952\">The next several examples illustrate the effect of lone pairs of electrons on molecular structure.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm16663792\" data-type=\"example\">\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Example 3<\/h3>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idm10296544\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: Lone Pairs on the Central Atom<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of a water molecule.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp10258608\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The Lewis structure of H<sub>2<\/sub>O indicates that there are four regions of high electron density around the oxygen atom: two lone pairs and two chemical bonds:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-1927 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211711\/CNX_Chem_07_06_H2O_img1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms.\" width=\"102\" height=\"106\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp35029328\">We predict that these four regions are arranged in a tetrahedral fashion (Figure 10), as indicated in Figure 6. Thus, the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral and the molecular structure is bent with an angle slightly less than 109.5\u00b0. In fact, the bond angle is 104.5\u00b0.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_5175\" style=\"width: 660px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5175\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5175\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/08\/23214532\/CNX_Chem_07_06_H2Omol.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows an oxygen atom in the center of a four-sided pyramid shape. Diagram b shows the same image as diagram a, but this time there are hydrogen atoms located at two corners of the pyramid shape.\" width=\"650\" height=\"337\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5175\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 10. (a) H<sub>2<\/sub>O has four regions of electron density around the central atom, so it has a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. (b) Two of the electron regions are lone pairs, so the molecular structure is bent.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp51567744\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>The hydronium ion, H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup>, forms when acids are dissolved in water. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of this cation.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp47211728\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0electron pair geometry: tetrahedral; molecular structure: trigonal pyramidal<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Example 4<\/h3>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp54014736\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: SF<sub>4<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Sulfur tetrafluoride, SF<sub>4<\/sub>, is extremely valuable for the preparation of fluorine-containing compounds used as herbicides (i.e., SF<sub>4<\/sub> is used as a fluorinating agent). Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of a SF<sub>4<\/sub> molecule.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp95643040\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The Lewis structure of SF<sub>4<\/sub> indicates five regions of electron density around the sulfur atom: one lone pair and four bonding pairs:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp33968176\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis diagram depicts a sulfur atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-1929 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23211712\/CNX_Chem_07_06_SF4_img1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis diagram depicts a sulfur atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"106\" height=\"173\" \/><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp72937360\">We expect these five regions to adopt a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry. To minimize lone pair repulsions, the lone pair occupies one of the equatorial positions. The molecular structure (Figure 11) is that of a seesaw (Figure 6).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_5176\" style=\"width: 660px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5176\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5176\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/08\/23214533\/CNX_Chem_07_06_SF4mol.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows a sulfur atom in the center of a six-sided bi-pyramidal shape. Diagram b shows the same image as diagram a, but this time there are fluorine atoms located at four corners of the pyramid shape and they are connected to the sulfur atom by single lines.\" width=\"650\" height=\"386\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5176\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 11. (a) SF4 has a trigonal bipyramidal arrangement of the five regions of electron density. (b) One of the regions is a lone pair, which results in a seesaw-shaped molecular structure.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp24574032\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Predict the electron pair geometry and molecular structure for molecules of XeF<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp54082656\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0The electron-pair geometry is trigonal bipyramidal. The molecular structure is linear.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Example 5<\/h3>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp125690208\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: XeF<sub>4<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Of all the noble gases, xenon is the most reactive, frequently reacting with elements such as oxygen and fluorine. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of the XeF<sub>4<\/sub> molecule.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idm15898032\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The Lewis structure of XeF<sub>4<\/sub> indicates six regions of high electron density around the xenon atom: two lone pairs and four bonds:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-449 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205151\/CNX_Chem_07_06_XeF4_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a xenon atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"168\" height=\"162\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp60591280\">These six regions adopt an octahedral arrangement (Figure 6), which is the electron-pair geometry. To minimize repulsions, the lone pairs should be on opposite sides of the central atom (Figure 12). The five atoms are all in the same plane and have a square planar molecular structure.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_5177\" style=\"width: 660px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5177\" class=\"size-full wp-image-5177\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/08\/23214534\/CNX_Chem_07_06_XEF4mol.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows a xenon atom in the center of an eight-sided octahedral shape. Diagram b shows the same image as diagram a, but this time there are fluorine atoms located at the four corners of the shape in the horizontal plane. They are connected to the xenon by single lines.\" width=\"650\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5177\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 12. (a) XeF<sub>4<\/sub> adopts an octahedral arrangement with two lone pairs (red lines) and four bonds in the electron-pair geometry. (b) The molecular structure is square planar with the lone pairs directly across from one another.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp225615216\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>In a certain molecule, the central atom has three lone pairs and two bonds. What will the electron pair geometry and molecular structure be?<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm25808\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0electron pair geometry: trigonal bipyramidal; molecular structure: linear<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp54051968\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Molecular Structure for Multicenter Molecules<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp78438784\">When a molecule or polyatomic ion has only one central atom, the molecular structure completely describes the shape of the molecule. Larger molecules do not have a single central atom, but are connected by a chain of interior atoms that each possess a \u201clocal\u201d geometry. The way these local structures are oriented with respect to each other also influences the molecular shape, but such considerations are largely beyond the scope of this introductory discussion. For our purposes, we will only focus on determining the local structures.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp116942080\" data-type=\"example\">\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Example 6<\/h3>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp73376736\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Predicting Structure in Multicenter Molecules<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>The Lewis structure for the simplest amino acid, glycine, H<sub>2<\/sub>NCH<sub>2<\/sub>CO<sub>2<\/sub>H, is shown below. Predict the local geometry for the nitrogen atom, the two carbon atoms, and the oxygen atom with a hydrogen atom attached:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-451\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205151\/CNX_Chem_07_06_gly_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" width=\"310\" height=\"146\" \/><\/p>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idm8994208\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><span id=\"fs-idp21522704\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom. The atoms described are drawn with bonds that indicate a three-dimensional, tetrahedral shape around the nitrogen atom. The carbon is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom, and again, a tetrahedral, three dimensional configuration is indicated by the types of bonds. This second carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/h4>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-452\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205152\/CNX_Chem_07_06_gly3D_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom. The atoms described are drawn with bonds that indicate a three-dimensional, tetrahedral shape around the nitrogen atom. The carbon is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom, and again, a tetrahedral, three dimensional configuration is indicated by the types of bonds. This second carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" width=\"246\" height=\"174\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp15590912\">Consider each central atom independently. The electron-pair geometries:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"fs-idp8766640\" data-bullet-style=\"bullet\">\n<li>nitrogen\u2013\u2013four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\n<li>carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2013\u2013four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\n<li>carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014three regions of electron density; trigonal planar<\/li>\n<li>oxygen (<span data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/span>H)\u2014four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p id=\"fs-idp86037232\">The local structures:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"fs-idp18275136\" data-bullet-style=\"bullet\">\n<li>nitrogen\u2013\u2013three bonds, one lone pair; trigonal pyramidal<\/li>\n<li>carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014four bonds, no lone pairs; tetrahedral<\/li>\n<li>carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014three bonds (double bond counts as one bond), no lone pairs; trigonal planar<\/li>\n<li>oxygen (<span data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/span>H)\u2014two bonds, two lone pairs; bent (109\u00b0)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp7781728\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Another amino acid is alanine, which has the Lewis structure shown below. Predict the electron-pair geometry and local structure of the nitrogen atom, the three carbon atoms, and the oxygen atom with hydrogen attached:<span id=\"fs-idp248617216\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to a hydrogen atom, a methyl group and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is single bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-453\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205154\/CNX_Chem_07_06_ala_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to a hydrogen atom, a methyl group and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is single bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" width=\"339\" height=\"158\" \/><\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm44767872\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\">\u00a0<strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0electron-pair geometries: nitrogen\u2013\u2013tetrahedral; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>3<\/sub>)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014trigonal planar; oxygen (<span data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/span>H)\u2014tetrahedral; local structures: nitrogen\u2014trigonal pyramidal; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>3<\/sub>)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014trigonal planar; oxygen (<span data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/span>H)\u2014bent (109\u00b0)<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp90797184\" class=\"chemistry link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div class=\"textbox\">The <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-shapes\" target=\"_blank\">molecular shape simulator\u00a0from PhET <\/a>lets you build various molecules and practice naming their electron-pair geometries and molecular structures.<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Example 7<\/h3>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp52927344\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Molecular Simulation<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Using <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-shapes\" target=\"_blank\">molecular shape simulator<\/a> allows us to control whether bond angles and\/or lone pairs are displayed by checking or unchecking the boxes under \u201cOptions\u201d on the right. We can also use the \u201cName\u201d checkboxes at bottom-left to display or hide the electron pair geometry (called \u201celectron geometry\u201d in the simulator) and\/or molecular structure (called \u201cmolecular shape\u201d in the simulator).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp224051488\">Build the molecule HCN in the simulator based on the following Lewis structure:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp102593872\" data-type=\"equation\">[latex]\\text{H-C}\\equiv \\text{N}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp88631840\">Click on each bond type or lone pair at right to add that group to the central atom. Once you have the complete molecule, rotate it to examine the predicted molecular structure. What molecular structure is this?<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp93177200\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>The molecular structure is linear.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp50724128\"><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Build a more complex molecule in the simulator. Identify the electron-group geometry, molecular structure, and bond angles. Then try to find a chemical formula that would match the structure you have drawn.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp52028320\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0Answers will vary. For example, an atom with four single bonds, a double bond, and a lone pair has an octahedral electron-group geometry and a square pyramidal molecular structure. XeOF<sub>4<\/sub> is a molecule that adopts this structure.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp149289584\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Molecular Polarity and Dipole Moment<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp30351200\">As discussed previously, polar covalent bonds connect two atoms with differing electronegativities, leaving one atom with a partial positive charge (\u0394+) and the other atom with a partial negative charge (\u0394\u2013), as the electrons are pulled toward the more electronegative atom. This separation of charge gives rise to a <span data-type=\"term\">bond dipole moment<\/span>. The magnitude of a <strong>bond dipole moment<\/strong> is represented by the Greek letter mu (<em data-effect=\"italics\">\u00b5<\/em>) and is given by the formula shown below, where Q is the magnitude of the partial charges (determined by the electronegativity difference) and r is the distance between the charges:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp16382464\" data-type=\"equation\">[latex]\\mu =\\text{Qr}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp33849296\">This bond moment can be represented as a <strong><span data-type=\"term\">vector<\/span><\/strong>, a quantity having both direction and magnitude (Figure 13). Dipole vectors are shown as arrows pointing along the bond from the less electronegative atom toward the more electronegative atom. A small plus sign is drawn on the less electronegative end to indicate the partially positive end of the bond. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the electronegativity difference between the two atoms.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_455\" style=\"width: 660px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-455\" class=\"size-full wp-image-455\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205156\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BondVector.jpg\" alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cC,\u201d a left-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cH.\u201d Image b shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cB,\u201d a right-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cF.\u201d\" width=\"650\" height=\"172\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-455\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 13. (a) There is a small difference in electronegativity between C and H, represented as a short vector. (b) The electronegativity difference between B and F is much larger, so the vector representing the bond moment is much longer.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp52773168\">A whole molecule may also have a separation of charge, depending on its molecular structure and the polarity of each of its bonds. If such a charge separation exists, the molecule is said to be a <strong><span data-type=\"term\">polar molecule<\/span><\/strong> (or dipole); otherwise the molecule is said to be nonpolar. The <strong><span data-type=\"term\">dipole moment<\/span> <\/strong>measures the extent of net charge separation in the molecule as a whole. We determine the dipole moment by adding the bond moments in three-dimensional space, taking into account the molecular structure.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm10056464\">For diatomic molecules, there is only one bond, so its bond dipole moment determines the molecular polarity. Homonuclear diatomic molecules such as Br<sub>2<\/sub> and N<sub>2<\/sub> have no difference in electronegativity, so their dipole moment is zero. For heteronuclear molecules such as CO, there is a small dipole moment. For HF, there is a larger dipole moment because there is a larger difference in electronegativity.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp218363312\">When a molecule contains more than one bond, the geometry must be taken into account. If the bonds in a molecule are arranged such that their bond moments cancel (vector sum equals zero), then the molecule is nonpolar. This is the situation in CO<sub>2<\/sub> (Figure 14). Each of the bonds is polar, but the molecule as a whole is nonpolar. From the Lewis structure, and using VSEPR theory, we determine that the CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecule is linear with polar C=O bonds on opposite sides of the carbon atom. The bond moments cancel because they are pointed in opposite directions. In the case of the water molecule (Figure 14), the Lewis structure again shows that there are two bonds to a central atom, and the electronegativity difference again shows that each of these bonds has a nonzero bond moment. In this case, however, the molecular structure is bent because of the lone pairs on O, and the two bond moments do not cancel. Therefore, water does have a net dipole moment and is a polar molecule (dipole).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_456\" style=\"width: 660px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-456\" class=\"size-full wp-image-456\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205157\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2H2Odip.jpg\" alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms in a ball-and-stick representation. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment equals 0.\u201d Image b shows an oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms in a downward-facing v-shaped arrangement. An upward-facing, vertical arrow is drawn below the molecule while two upward and inward facing arrows are drawn above the molecule. The upper arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d while the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\" width=\"650\" height=\"396\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-456\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 14. The overall dipole moment of a molecule depends on the individual bond dipole moments and how they are arranged. (a) Each CO bond has a bond dipole moment, but they point in opposite directions so that the net CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecule is nonpolar. (b) In contrast, water is polar because the OH bond moments do not cancel out.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp54246320\">The OCS molecule has a structure similar to CO<sub>2<\/sub>, but a sulfur atom has replaced one of the oxygen atoms. To determine if this molecule is polar, we draw the molecular structure. VSEPR theory predicts a linear molecule:<span id=\"fs-idp52090304\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom double bonded to a sulfur atom and an oxygen atom which are arranged in a horizontal plane. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. The left-facing arrow is larger than the right-facing arrow. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and a left-facing arrow below the molecule is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-457\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205159\/CNX_Chem_07_06_OSC_img.jpg\" alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom double bonded to a sulfur atom and an oxygen atom which are arranged in a horizontal plane. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. The left-facing arrow is larger than the right-facing arrow. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and a left-facing arrow below the molecule is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\" width=\"325\" height=\"223\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp225382864\">Although the C\u2013O bond is polar, C and S have the same electronegativity values as shown in Figure 15, so there is no C\u2013S dipole. Thus, the two bonds do not have of the same bond dipole moment, and the bond moments do not cancel. Because oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur, the oxygen end of the molecule is the negative end.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_263\" style=\"width: 1034px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-263\" class=\"size-large wp-image-263\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23204815\/CNX_Chem_07_02_ENTable-1024x438.jpg\" alt=\"Part of the periodic table is shown. A downward-facing arrow is drawn to the left of the table and labeled, \u201cDecreasing electronegativity,\u201d while a right-facing arrow is drawn above the table and labeled \u201cIncreasing electronegativity.\u201d The electronegativity for almost all the elements is given.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"438\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-263\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 15. The electronegativity values derived by Pauling follow predictable periodic trends with the higher electronegativities toward the upper right of the periodic table.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp66532464\">Chloromethane, CH<sub>3<\/sub>Cl, is another example of a polar molecule. Although the polar C\u2013Cl and C\u2013H bonds are arranged in a tetrahedral geometry, the C\u2013Cl bonds have a larger bond moment than the C\u2013H bond, and the bond moments do not completely cancel each other. All of the dipoles have a downward component in the orientation shown, since carbon is more electronegative than hydrogen and less electronegative than chlorine:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-458\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205200\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CHCl3_img.jpg\" alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms and a chlorine atom. There are arrows with crossed ends pointing from the hydrogen to the carbon near each bond, and one pointing from the carbon to the chlorine along that bond. The carbon and chlorine arrow is longer. This image uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\" width=\"325\" height=\"139\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp214036816\">When we examine the highly symmetrical molecules BF<sub>3<\/sub> (trigonal planar), CH<sub>4<\/sub> (tetrahedral), PF<sub>5<\/sub> (trigonal bipyramidal), and SF<sub>6<\/sub> (octahedral), in which all the polar bonds are identical, the molecules are nonpolar. The bonds in these molecules are arranged such that their dipoles cancel. However, just because a molecule contains identical bonds does not mean that the dipoles will always cancel. Many molecules that have identical bonds and lone pairs on the central atoms have bond dipoles that do not cancel. Examples include H<sub>2<\/sub>S and NH<sub>3<\/sub>. A hydrogen atom is at the positive end and a nitrogen or sulfur atom is at the negative end of the polar bonds in these molecules:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-459\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205201\/CNX_Chem_07_06_SH2NH3_img.jpg\" alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown. The left structure shows a sulfur atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. Near the sulfur is a dipole symbol with a superscripted negative sign. Near each hydrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted positive sign. The right structure shows a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. Near the nitrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted negative sign. Near each hydrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted positive sign.\" width=\"650\" height=\"126\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp51111376\">To summarize, to be polar, a molecule must:<\/p>\n<ol id=\"fs-idp94928768\" data-number-style=\"arabic\">\n<li>Contain at least one polar covalent bond.<\/li>\n<li>Have a molecular structure such that the sum of the vectors of each bond dipole moment does not cancel.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<section id=\"fs-idp83627232\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Properties of Polar Molecules<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp272047168\">Polar molecules tend to align when placed in an electric field with the positive end of the molecule oriented toward the negative plate and the negative end toward the positive plate (Figure 16). We can use an electrically charged object to attract polar molecules, but nonpolar molecules are not attracted. Also, polar solvents are better at dissolving polar substances, and nonpolar solvents are better at dissolving nonpolar substances.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_460\" style=\"width: 1034px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-460\" class=\"size-large wp-image-460\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205202\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Dipolfield-1024x628.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows two vertical, black lines. The left line is labeled with a negative sign and the right with a positive sign. There are five molecules in between. The molecules are separate from one another and are composed of a hydrogen atom bonded to a fluorine atom. The fluorine atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted negative sign while the hydrogen atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted positive sign. The molecules are randomly oriented in the space. The right diagram is also bracketed by two vertical, lines, but this time the line labeled as negative is red and the line labeled as positive is blue. The same molecules are present, but this time they are all facing horizontally, with the hydrogen-end of each molecule facing toward the red line.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"628\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-460\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 16. (a) Molecules are always randomly distributed in the liquid state in the absence of an electric field. (b) When an electric field is applied, polar molecules like HF will align to the dipoles with the field direction.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp56552448\" class=\"chemistry link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div class=\"textbox\">The <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-polarity\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0molecule polarity simulation<\/a> provides many ways to explore dipole moments of bonds and molecules.<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3>Example 8<\/h3>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp55551344\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Polarity Simulations<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Open the <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-polarity\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0molecule polarity simulation <\/a>and select the \u201cThree Atoms\u201d tab at the top. This should display a molecule ABC with three electronegativity adjustors. You can display or hide the bond moments, molecular dipoles, and partial charges at the right. Turning on the Electric Field will show whether the molecule moves when exposed to a field, similar to Figure 15.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp55109824\">Use the electronegativity controls to determine how the molecular dipole will look for the starting bent molecule if:<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp21212352\">(a) A and C are very electronegative and B is in the middle of the range.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp83795840\">(b) A is very electronegative, and B and C are not.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp60999152\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution<\/span><\/h4>\n<p>(a) Molecular dipole moment points immediately between A and C.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp33577488\">(b) Molecular dipole moment points along the A\u2013B bond, toward A.<\/p>\n<h4 id=\"fs-idp55689408\"><strong><span data-type=\"title\">Check Your Learning<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n<p>Determine the partial charges that will give the largest possible bond dipoles.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp670160\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: right;\" data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer<\/strong>:\u00a0The largest bond moments will occur with the largest partial charges. The two solutions above represent how unevenly the electrons are shared in the bond. The bond moments will be maximized when the electronegativity difference is greatest. The controls for A and C should be set to one extreme, and B should be set to the opposite extreme. Although the magnitude of the bond moment will not change based on whether B is the most electronegative or the least, the direction of the bond moment will.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idm40478192\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div id=\"post-355\" class=\"post-355 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry type-1\">\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\n<div class=\"im_section\">\n<div class=\"im_section\">\n<div id=\"mclean-ch03_s01_s02_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\">\n<h2>Key Concepts and Summary<\/h2>\n<section>\n<div data-type=\"note\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp236281408\">VSEPR theory predicts the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. It states that valence electrons will assume an electron-pair geometry that minimizes repulsions between areas of high electron density (bonds and\/or lone pairs). Molecular structure, which refers only to the placement of atoms in a molecule and not the electrons, is equivalent to electron-pair geometry only when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom. A dipole moment measures a separation of charge. For one bond, the bond dipole moment is determined by the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms. For a molecule, the overall dipole moment is determined by both the individual bond moments and how these dipoles are arranged in the molecular structure. Polar molecules (those with an appreciable dipole moment) interact with electric fields, whereas nonpolar molecules do not.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Chemistry End of Chapter Exercises<\/h3>\n<section id=\"fs-idp125299408\" class=\"exercises\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp14744000\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp86124192\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<ol>\n<li id=\"fs-idp159838848\">Explain why the HOH molecule is bent, whereas the HBeH molecule is linear.<\/li>\n<li>What feature of a Lewis structure can be used to tell if a molecule\u2019s (or ion\u2019s) electron-pair geometry and molecular structure will be identical?<\/li>\n<li>Explain the difference between electron-pair geometry and molecular structure.<\/li>\n<li>Why is the H\u2013N\u2013H angle in NH<sub>3<\/sub> smaller than the H\u2013C\u2013H bond angle in CH<sub>4<\/sub>? Why is the H\u2013N\u2013H angle in [latex]{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}[\/latex] identical to the H\u2013C\u2013H bond angle in CH<sub>4<\/sub>?<\/li>\n<li>Explain how a molecule that contains polar bonds can be nonpolar.<\/li>\n<li>As a general rule, MX<sub>n<\/sub> molecules (where M represents a central atom and X represents terminal atoms; n = 2 \u2013 5) are polar if there is one or more lone pairs of electrons on M. NH<sub>3<\/sub> (M = N, X = H, n = 3) is an example. There are two molecular structures with lone pairs that are exceptions to this rule. What are they?<\/li>\n<li>Predict the electron pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following molecules or ions:\n<ol>\n<li>SF<sub>6\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>PCl<sub>5\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>BeH<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{CH}}_{3}{}^{+}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Identify the electron pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following molecules or ions:\n<ol>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{IF}}_{6}{}^{+}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>CF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>BF<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{SiF}}_{5}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>BeCl<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>What are the electron-pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following molecules or ions?\n<ol>\n<li>ClF<sub>5\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{ClO}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{TeCl}}_{4}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>PCl<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>SeF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{PH}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Predict the electron pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following ions:\n<ol>\n<li>H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+\u00a0<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{PCl}}_{4}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{SnCl}}_{3}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{BrCl}}_{4}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>ICl<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>XeF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>SF<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Identify the electron pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following molecules:\n<ol>\n<li>ClNO (N is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>CS<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>CO (C is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>SO (S is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>SO<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2<\/sub> (S is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>XeO<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2<\/sub> (Xe is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{ClOF}}_{2}{}^{+}[\/latex] (Cl is the central atom)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Predict the electron pair geometry and the molecular structure of each of the following:\n<ol>\n<li>IOF<sub>5<\/sub> (I is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>POCl<sub>3<\/sub> (P is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>SeO (Se is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>ClSO<sup>+<\/sup> (S is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>F<sub>2<\/sub>SO (S is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{NO}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{SiO}}_{4}{}^{\\text{4-}}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Which of the following molecules and ions contain polar bonds? Which of these molecules and ions have dipole moments?\n<ol>\n<li>ClF<sub>5\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{ClO}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{TeCl}}_{4}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>PCl<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>SeF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{PH}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>XeF<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Which of the molecules and ions in Exercise 9 contain polar bonds? Which of these molecules and ions have dipole moments?\n<ol>\n<li>H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+\u00a0<\/sup><\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{PCl}}_{4}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{SnCl}}_{3}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{BrCl}}_{4}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>ICl<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>XeF<sub>4<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>SF<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Which of the following molecules have dipole moments?\n<ol>\n<li>CS<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>SeS<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>CCl<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>PCl<sub>3<\/sub> (P is the central atom)<\/li>\n<li>ClNO (N is the central atom)<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Identify the molecules with a dipole moment:\n<ol>\n<li>SF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>CF<sub>4\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>Cl<sub>2<\/sub>CCBr<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>CH<sub>3<\/sub>Cl<\/li>\n<li>H<sub>2<\/sub>CO<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>The molecule XF<sub>3<\/sub> has a dipole moment. Is X boron or phosphorus?<\/li>\n<li>The molecule XCl<sub>2<\/sub> has a dipole moment. Is X beryllium or sulfur?<\/li>\n<li>Is the Cl<sub>2<\/sub>BBCl<sub>2<\/sub> molecule polar or nonpolar?<\/li>\n<li>There are three possible structures for PCl<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>3<\/sub> with phosphorus as the central atom. Draw them and discuss how measurements of dipole moments could help distinguish among them.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the molecular structure around the indicated atom or atoms:\n<ol>\n<li>the sulfur atom in sulfuric acid, H<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>4<\/sub> [(HO)<sub>2<\/sub>SO<sub>2<\/sub>]<\/li>\n<li>the chlorine atom in chloric acid, HClO<sub>3<\/sub> [HOClO<sub>2<\/sub>]<\/li>\n<li>the oxygen atom in hydrogen peroxide, HOOH<\/li>\n<li>the nitrogen atom in nitric acid, HNO<sub>3<\/sub> [HONO<sub>2<\/sub>]<\/li>\n<li>the oxygen atom in the OH group in nitric acid, HNO<sub>3<\/sub> [HONO<sub>2<\/sub>]<\/li>\n<li>the central oxygen atom in the ozone molecule, O<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>each of the carbon atoms in propyne, CH<sub>3<\/sub>CCH<\/li>\n<li>the carbon atom in Freon, CCl<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>each of the carbon atoms in allene, H<sub>2<\/sub>CCCH<sub>2<\/sub><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Draw the Lewis structures and predict the shape of each compound or ion:\n<ol>\n<li>CO<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{NO}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>SO<sub>3\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{SO}}_{3}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>A molecule with the formula AB<sub>2<\/sub>, in which A and B represent different atoms, could have one of three different shapes. Sketch and name the three different shapes that this molecule might have. Give an example of a molecule or ion for each shape.<\/li>\n<li>A molecule with the formula AB<sub>3<\/sub>, in which A and B represent different atoms, could have one of three different shapes. Sketch and name the three different shapes that this molecule might have. Give an example of a molecule or ion that has each shape.<\/li>\n<li>Draw the Lewis electron dot structures for these molecules, including resonance structures where appropriate:\n<ol>\n<li>[latex]{\\text{CS}}_{3}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex]<\/li>\n<li>CS<sub>2\u00a0<\/sub><\/li>\n<li>CS<\/li>\n<li>predict the molecular shapes for [latex]{\\text{CS}}_{3}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex] and CS<sub>2<\/sub> and explain how you arrived at your predictions<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>What is the molecular structure of the stable form of FNO<sub>2<\/sub>? (N is the central atom.)<\/li>\n<li>A compound with a molar mass of about 42 g\/mol contains 85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen. What is its molecular structure?<\/li>\n<li>Use the <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-polarity\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0simulation<\/a> to perform the following exercises for a two-atom molecule:\n<ol>\n<li>Adjust the electronegativity value so the bond dipole is pointing toward B. Then determine what the electronegativity values must be to switch the dipole so that it points toward A.<\/li>\n<li>With a partial positive charge on A, turn on the electric field and describe what happens.<\/li>\n<li>With a small partial negative charge on A, turn on the electric field and describe what happens.<\/li>\n<li>Reset all, and then with a large partial negative charge on A, turn on the electric field and describe what happens.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Use the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-polarity\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0simulation<\/a>\u00a0to perform the following exercises for a real molecule. You may need to rotate the molecules in three dimensions to see certain dipoles.\n<ol>\n<li>Sketch the bond dipoles and molecular dipole (if any) for O<sub>3.<\/sub> Explain your observations.<\/li>\n<li>Look at the bond dipoles for NH<sub>3<\/sub>. Use these dipoles to predict whether N or H is more electronegative.<\/li>\n<li>Predict whether there should be a molecular dipole for NH<sub>3<\/sub> and, if so, in which direction it will point. Check the molecular dipole box to test your hypothesis.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Use the <a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-shapes\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0Molecule Shape simulator<\/a> to build a molecule. Starting with the central atom, click on the double bond to add one double bond. Then add one single bond and one lone pair. Rotate the molecule to observe the complete geometry. Name the electron group geometry and molecular structure and predict the bond angle. Then click the check boxes at the bottom and right of the simulator to check your answers.<\/li>\n<li>Use the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-shapes\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0Molecule Shape simulator<\/a>\u00a0to explore real molecules. On the Real Molecules tab, select H<sub>2<\/sub>O. Switch between the \u201creal\u201d and \u201cmodel\u201d modes. Explain the difference observed.<\/li>\n<li>Use the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/phet.colorado.edu\/en\/simulation\/molecule-shapes\" target=\"_blank\">PhET\u00a0Molecule Shape simulator<\/a>\u00a0to explore real molecules. On the Real Molecules tab, select \u201cmodel\u201d mode and S<sub>2<\/sub>O. What is the model bond angle? Explain whether the \u201creal\u201d bond angle should be larger or smaller than the ideal model angle.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"post-355\" class=\"post-355 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry type-1\">\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\n<div class=\"im_section\">\n<div class=\"im_section\">\n<div id=\"mclean-ch03_s01_s02_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Selected Answers<\/h3>\n<p>1.\u00a0The placement of the two sets of unpaired electrons in water forces the bonds to assume a tetrahedral arrangement, and the resulting HOH molecule is bent. The HBeH molecule (in which Be has only two electrons to bond with the two electrons from the hydrogens) must have the electron pairs as far from one another as possible and is therefore linear.<\/p>\n<p>3.\u00a0Space must be provided for each pair of electrons whether they are in a bond or are present as lone pairs. Electron-pair geometry considers the placement of all electrons. Molecular structure considers only the bonding-pair geometry.<\/p>\n<p>5.\u00a0As long as the polar bonds are compensated (for example. two identical atoms are found directly across the central atom from one another), the molecule can be nonpolar.<\/p>\n<p>7. (a) Number of valence electrons: S = 6, F = 7 each, total 48. A single line bond represents two electrons:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-461\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205204\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Exercise7a_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a sulfur atom single bonded to six fluorine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"325\" height=\"166\" \/><\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">The total number of electrons used is 48; six bonds are formed and no nonbonded pairs exist. Therefore the molecule includes six regions of electron density and, from the table, the electron geometry is octahedral. Since no lone pairs exist, the electron geometry and molecular structure are the same.<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(b) Number of valence electrons: P = 5, Cl = 7 each, total 40:<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-462\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205205\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Exercise7b_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a phosphorus atom single bonded to five chlorine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"325\" height=\"166\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<div id=\"mclean-ch03_s01_s02_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<div data-type=\"newline\">The total number of electrons is 40; there are five regions of electron density and, from the table, the geometry is trigonal bipyramid. Since no lone pairs exist on P, the electron geometry and molecular structure are the same.<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(c) Number of valence electrons: Be = 2, H = 1 each, total 4:<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-463\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205208\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Exercise7c_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a beryllium atom with a hydrogen atom to its left and right. A pair of dots lie in between each atom.\" width=\"325\" height=\"30\" \/><\/div>\n<div id=\"mclean-ch03_s01_s02_n01\" class=\"im_key_takeaways im_editable im_block\">\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<div data-type=\"newline\">There are only two regions of electron density and they must have a linear arrangement. These regions also correspond to the location of the bonds. Both the electron and molecular structures are linear.<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(d) Number of valence electrons: C = 4, H = 1 each, less one electron because of the positive charge, for a total of six electrons:<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-464\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205210\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Exercise7d_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The whole structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign.\" width=\"325\" height=\"166\" \/><\/div>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<div data-type=\"newline\">There are three regions of electron density coincident with the three bonds. Therefore the shape is trigonal planar for both the electron geometry and molecular structure.<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">\n<p>9.<\/p>\n<table id=\"fs-idm5476144\" class=\"medium-unnumbered\" summary=\"This table has 8 rows and 6 columns. The first two rows are header rows. The first header row only has four columns; the first two columns are not labeled. The third column is, \u201cRegions of High Electron Density,\u201d and the fourth column is, \u201cStructure.\u201d The second header row has six columns. The first column is, \u201cFormula,\u201d the second column is, \u201cElectrons,\u201d the third column is, \u201cTotal,\u201d and the fourth column is, \u201cLone Pairs.\u201d The columns, \u201cTotal,\u201d and, \u201cLone Pairs\u201d are both underneath the column \u201cRegions of High Electron Density\u201d from the first header row. The fifth column in the second header row is, \u201cElectron,\u201d and the sixth column in the second header row is, \u201cMolecular.\u201d Both columns \u201cElectron\u201d and \u201cMolecular\u201d are under the column \u201cStructure\u201d from the first header row. Under the column \u201cFormula\u201d are the following: ( a ) C l F subscript 5; ( b ) C l O subscript two superscript negative sign; ( c ) T e C l subscript 4 superscript two negative sign; ( d ) P C l subscript 3; ( e ) S e F subscript four; and ( f ) P H subscript two superscript negative sign in the last row. Under the column \u201cElectrons\u201d are the values: 42; 20; 36; 26; 34; and 8. Under the column \u201cTotal\u201d are the values: 6; 4; 6; 4; 5; and 4. Under the column \u201cLone pairs\u201d are the values: 1; 2; 2; 1; 1; and 2. Under the column \u201cElectron\u201d are the following: octahedral; tetrahedral; octahedral; tetrahedral; trigonal bipyramidal; and tetrahedral. Under the column \u201cMolecular\u201d are the following: square pyramidal; bent; square planar; trigonal pyramidal; seesaw; and bent ( 109 degree symbol ).\" data-label=\"\">\n<thead>\n<tr valign=\"bottom\">\n<th colspan=\"2\">Regions of High Electron Density<\/th>\n<th colspan=\"2\">Structure<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<th>Formula<\/th>\n<th>Electrons<\/th>\n<th>Total<\/th>\n<th>Lone pairs<\/th>\n<th>Electron<\/th>\n<th>Molecular<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(a) ClF<sub>5<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>42<\/td>\n<td>6<\/td>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>octahedral<\/td>\n<td>square pyramidal<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(b) [latex]{\\text{ClO}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>20<\/td>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\n<td>bent<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(c) [latex]{\\text{TeCl}}_{4}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>36<\/td>\n<td>6<\/td>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>octahedral<\/td>\n<td>square planar<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(d) PCl<sub>3<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>26<\/td>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\n<td>trigonal pyramidal<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(e) SeF<sub>4<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>34<\/td>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>trigonal bipyramidal<\/td>\n<td>seesaw<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(f) [latex]{\\text{PH}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>8<\/td>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\n<td>bent (109\u00b0)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>11.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm9353168\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<table id=\"fs-idp117051360\" class=\"medium-unnumbered\" summary=\"This table has 9 rows and 6 columns. The first two rows are header rows. The first header row only has four columns; the first two columns are not labeled. The third column is, \u201cRegions of High Electron Density,\u201d and the fourth column is, \u201cStructure.\u201d The second header row has six columns. The first column is, \u201cFormula,\u201d the second column is, \u201cElectrons,\u201d the third column is, \u201cTotal,\u201d and the fourth column is, \u201cLone Pairs.\u201d The columns \u201cTotal\u201d and \u201cLone Pairs\u201d are both underneath the column \u201cRegions of High Electron Density\u201d from the first header row. The fifth column in the second header row is, \u201cElectron,\u201d and the sixth column in the second header row is, \u201cMolecular.\u201d Both columns \u201cElectron\u201d and \u201cMolecular\u201d are under the column \u201cStructure\u201d from the first header row. Under the \u201cFormula\u201d column are the following: ( a ) C l N O; ( b ) C S subscript 2; ( c ) C l subscript 2 C O; ( d ) C l subscript 2 S O; ( e ) S O subscript 2 F subscript 2; ( f ) X e O subscript two F subscript 2; and ( g ) C l O F subscript two superscript positive sign. Under the \u201cElectrons\u201d column are the values: 18; 16; 24; 26; 32; 34; and 26. Under the \u201cTotal\u201d column are the values: 3; 2; 3; 4; 4; 5; and 4. Under the column \u201cLone Pairs\u201d are the values: 1; 0; 0; 1; 0; 1; and 1. Under the column \u201cElectron\u201d are the following: trigonal planar; linear; trigonal planar; tetrahedral; tetrahedral; trigonal bipyramidal; and tetrahedral. Under the column \u201cMolecular\u201d are the following: bent ( 120 degree symbol ); linear; trigonal pyramidal; tetrahedral; seesaw; and trigonal pyramidal.\" data-label=\"\">\n<thead>\n<tr valign=\"bottom\">\n<th colspan=\"2\">Regions of High Electron Density<\/th>\n<th colspan=\"2\">Structure<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr valign=\"middle\">\n<td>Formula<\/td>\n<td>Electrons<\/td>\n<td>Total<\/td>\n<td>Lone pairs<\/td>\n<td>Electron<\/td>\n<td>Molecular<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(a) ClNO<\/td>\n<td>18<\/td>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>trigonal planar<\/td>\n<td>bent (120\u00b0)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(b) CS<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>16<\/td>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>0<\/td>\n<td>linear<\/td>\n<td>linear<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(c) Cl<sub>2<\/sub>CO<\/td>\n<td>24<\/td>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>0<\/td>\n<td>trigonal planar<\/td>\n<td>trigonal planar<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(d) Cl<sub>2<\/sub>SO<\/td>\n<td>26<\/td>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\n<td>trigonal pyramidal<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(e) SO<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>32<\/td>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>0<\/td>\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(f) XeO<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>2<\/sub><\/td>\n<td>34<\/td>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>trigonal bipyramidal<\/td>\n<td>seesaw<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td>(g) [latex]{\\text{ClOF}}_{2}{}^{+}[\/latex]<\/td>\n<td>26<\/td>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>tetrahedral<\/td>\n<td>trigonal pyramidal<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>13.\u00a0All of these molecules and ions contain polar bonds. Only ClF<sub>5<\/sub>, [latex]{\\text{ClO}}_{2}{}^{-},[\/latex] PCl<sub>3<\/sub>, SeF<sub>4<\/sub>, and [latex]{\\text{PH}}_{2}{}^{-}[\/latex] have dipole moments.<\/p>\n<p>15.\u00a0(a) CS<sub>2<\/sub> is linear and has no dipole moment.<\/p>\n<p>(b) SeS<sub>2<\/sub> is bent. This leads to an overall dipole moment.<\/p>\n<p>(c) The C\u2013Cl and C\u2013F bonds are not balanced\u2014that is, the dipoles do not completely cancel. Therefore, it has a dipole moment.<\/p>\n<p>(d) PCl<sub>3<\/sub> is trigonal pyramidal. Due to this shape, the dipoles of the bonds do not cancel and there is an overall dipole moment.<\/p>\n<p>(e) The ClNO molecule is bent, leading to a dipole moment.<\/p>\n<p>17.\u00a0P<\/p>\n<p>19.\u00a0nonpolar<\/p>\n<p>21. (a) tetrahedral; (b) trigonal pyramidal; (c) bent (109\u00b0); (d) trigonal planar; (e) bent (109\u00b0); (f) bent (109\u00b0); (g) <span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>3<\/sub>CCH tetrahedral, CH<sub>3<\/sub><span data-effect=\"underline\">CC<\/span>H linear; (h) tetrahedral, (i) H<sub>2<\/sub>C<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>CH<sub>2<\/sub> linear; H<sub>2<\/sub><span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>C<span data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/span>H<sub>2<\/sub> trigonal planar<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp95408832\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp5455680\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<div data-type=\"newline\">\n<p>23.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-472\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205216\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Ques23ans_img.jpg\" alt=\"Three Lewis diagrams are shown. The first diagram shows the letter A single bonded to the left and right to the letter B. An example, \u201cC O subscript 2,\u201d and the term, \u201clinear,\u201d are written beside this diagram. The second diagram shows the letter A with two lone pairs of electrons, single bonded to the left and lower right to the letter B. An example, \u201cH subscript 2 O,\u201d and the term, \u201cbent with an approximately 109 degree angle,\u201d are written beside this diagram. The third diagram shows the letter A with one lone electron pair, single bonded to the left and lower right to the letter B. An example, \u201cS O subscript 2,\u201d and the term, \u201cbent with an approximately 120 degree angle,\u201d are written beside this diagram.\" width=\"650\" height=\"265\" \/><\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">\n<p>25. (a)<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-474 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205218\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CS3a_img.jpg\" alt=\"The figure shows three Lewis structures that are each surrounded by brackets and have a superscripted 2 negative sign. They are written with a double-headed arrow in between each diagram. The first of this trio has a carbon atom single bonded to two sulfur atoms, each of which has thee lone pairs of electrons, and double bonded to a third sulfur atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The second and third diagrams have the same atoms present, but each time the double bond moves between a different carbon and sulfur pair. The lone electron pairs also shift to correspond with the bond changes.\" width=\"975\" height=\"154\" \/><\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(b)<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-475\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205220\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CS3b_img.jpg\" alt=\"The Lewis structure shows a carbon atom double bonded to two sulfur atoms, each of which has two lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"325\" height=\"55\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(c)<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-476\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205221\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CS3c_img.jpg\" alt=\"This diagram shows a carbon with one lone electron pair triple bonded to a sulfur with one lone electron pair.\" width=\"325\" height=\"28\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">(d) [latex]{\\text{CS}}_{3}{}^{\\text{2-}}[\/latex] includes three regions of electron density (all are bonds with no lone pairs); the shape is trigonal planar; CS<sub>2<\/sub> has only two regions of electron density (all bonds with no lone pairs); the shape is linear<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">\n<p>27. \u00a0The empirical formula is CH<sub>2<\/sub> with a unit mass of l4. [latex]\\frac{42}{14}=3.[\/latex] Therefore, the Lewis structure is made from three units, but the atoms must be rearranged:<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-478\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/887\/2015\/04\/23205222\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Ques28ans_img.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure is shown in which a carbon atom is single bonded to three hydrogen atoms and a second carbon atom. The second carbon is single bonded to a hydrogen atom and double bonded to a third carbon atom which is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms.\" width=\"255\" height=\"146\" \/><\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">29. \u00a0The molecular dipole points away from the hydrogen atoms.<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"newline\">31.\u00a0The structures are very similar. In the model mode, each electron group occupies the same amount of space, so the bond angle is shown as 109.5\u00b0. In the \u201creal\u201d mode, the lone pairs are larger, causing the hydrogens to be compressed. This leads to the smaller angle of 104.5\u00b0.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\">\n<section id=\"glossary\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"definition\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm8143856\" data-type=\"definition\">\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">axial position<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>location in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry in which there is another atom at a 180\u00b0 angle and the equatorial positions are at a 90\u00b0 angle<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">bond angle<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>angle between any two covalent bonds that share a common atom<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">bond distance<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>(also, bond length) distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">bond dipole moment<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>separation of charge in a bond that depends on the difference in electronegativity and the bond distance represented by partial charges or a vector<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">dipole moment<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>property of a molecule that describes the separation of charge determined by the sum of the individual bond moments based on the molecular structure<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">electron-pair geometry<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>arrangement around a central atom of all regions of electron density (bonds, lone pairs, or unpaired electrons)<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">equatorial position<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>one of the three positions in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry with 120\u00b0 angles between them; the axial positions are located at a 90\u00b0 angle<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">linear<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>shape in which two outside groups are placed on opposite sides of a central atom<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">molecular structure<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>structure that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">octahedral<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>shape in which six outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four groups forming a square and the other two forming the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the square plane<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">polar molecule<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>(also, dipole) molecule with an overall dipole moment<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">tetrahedral<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>shape in which four outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four corners and 109.5\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">trigonal bipyramidal<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>shape in which five outside groups are placed around a central atom such that three form a flat triangle with 120\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom, and the other two form the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the triangular plane<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">trigonal planar<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>shape in which three outside groups are placed in a flat triangle around a central atom with 120\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom<\/p>\n<p data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR)<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>theory used to predict the bond angles in a molecule based on positioning regions of high electron density as far apart as possible to minimize electrostatic repulsion<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp103056288\" data-type=\"definition\">\n<p><strong><span data-type=\"term\">vector<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong>quantity having magnitude and direction<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm708128\" data-type=\"example\"><\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1961\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Chemistry. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at https:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/chemistry\/get<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":17,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Chemistry\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax College\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/chemistry\/get\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1961","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3009,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1961","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/17"}],"version-history":[{"count":14,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1961\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":5361,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1961\/revisions\/5361"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3009"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1961\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1961"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1961"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1961"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-buffstate-chemistryformajorsxmaster\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1961"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}