{"id":307,"date":"2017-12-06T16:40:01","date_gmt":"2017-12-06T16:40:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-culturalanthropology\/chapter\/gender_and_sexuality\/"},"modified":"2018-04-09T20:52:37","modified_gmt":"2018-04-09T20:52:37","slug":"gender_and_sexuality","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/chapter\/gender_and_sexuality\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 6 - Gender and Sexuality","rendered":"Chapter 6 &#8211; Gender and Sexuality"},"content":{"raw":"<div id=\"_idContainer351\" class=\"Basic-Text-Frame\">\r\n<h3 class=\"Author\"><em>Carol C. Mukhopadhyay, San Jose State University<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<h3 class=\"Author\"><em>Tami Blumenfield, Furman University<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<h3 class=\"Author\">with<em> Susan Harper, Texas Woman\u2019s University<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<h3 class=\"Normal ParaOverride-1\">and\u00a0<em>Abby Gondek<\/em><\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer352\" class=\"Basic-Text-Frame\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer352\" class=\"Basic-Text-Frame\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"Learning-Objectives\">Explain the impact of biological determinism on gender and sexual ideologies.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"Learning-Objectives\">Describe ways in which gender and sexuality organize and structure the societies in which we live.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"Learning-Objectives\">Discuss how some societies move beyond a gender binary.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer469\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyleOverride-1\">\r\n<h2 class=\"H1\">INTRODUCTION: SEX AND GENDER ACCORDING TO ANTHROPOLOGISTS<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-2\">[footnote]<\/span>\u00a0The Introduction and much of the material in the Foundations segment draws upon and synthesizes Mukhopadhyay\u2019s decades of research, writing, and teaching courses on culture, gender, and human sexuality. Some of it has been published. Other material comes from lecture notes. See\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-2\">[\/footnote]<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists are fond of pointing out that much of what we take for granted as \u201cnatural\u201d in our lives is actually cultural\u2014it is not grounded in the natural world or in biology but invented by humans.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]We use quotation marks here and elsewhere in the chapter to alert readers to a culturally specific, culturally invented concept in the United States. We need to approach U.S. cultural inventions the same way we would a concept we encountered in a foreign, so-called \u201cexotic\u201d culture.[\/footnote]<\/span> Because culture is invented, it takes different forms in different places and changes over time in those places. Living in the twenty-first century, we have witnessed how rapidly and dramatically culture can change, from ways of communicating to the emergence of same-sex marriage. Similarly, many of us live in culturally diverse settings and experience how varied human cultural inventions can be.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">We readily accept that clothing, language, and music are cultural\u2014invented, created, and alterable\u2014but often find it difficult to accept that gender and sexuality are not natural but deeply embedded in and shaped by culture. We struggle with the idea that the division of humans into two and only two categories, \u201cmale\u201d and \u201cfemale,\u201d is not universal, that \u201cmale\u201d and \u201cfemale\u201d are cultural concepts that take different forms and have different meanings cross-culturally. Similarly, human sexuality, rather than being simply natural is one of the most culturally significant, shaped, regulated, and symbolic of all human capacities. The concept of humans as either \u201cheterosexual\u201d or \u201chomosexual\u201d is a culturally and historically specific invention that is increasingly being challenged in the United States and elsewhere.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Part of the problem is that gender has a biological component, unlike other types of cultural inventions such as a sewing machine, cell phone, or poem. We do have bodies and there are some male-female differences, including in reproductive capacities and roles, albeit far fewer than we have been taught. Similarly, sexuality, sexual desires and responses, are partially rooted in human natural capacities. However, in many ways, sexuality and gender are like food. We have a biologically rooted need to eat to survive and we have the capacity to enjoy eating. What constitutes \u201cfood,\u201d what is \u201cdelicious\u201d or \u201crepulsive,\u201d the contexts and meanings that surround food and human eating\u2014those are cultural. Many potentially edible items are not \u201cfood\u201d (rats, bumblebees, and cats in the United States, for example), and the concept of \u201cfood\u201d itself is embedded in elaborate conventions about eating: how, when, with whom, where, \u201cutensils,\u201d for what purposes? A\u00a0\u201cromantic dinner\u201d at a \u201cgourmet restaurant\u201d is a complex cultural invention.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In short, gender and sexuality, like eating, have biological components. But cultures, over time, have erected complex and elaborate edifices around them, creating systems of meaning that often barely resemble what is natural and innate. We experience gender and sexuality largely through the prism of the culture or cultures to which we have been exposed and in which we have been raised.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In this chapter, we are asking you to reflect deeply on the ways in which what we have been taught to think of as natural, that is, our sex, gender, and our sexuality, is, in fact, deeply embedded in and shaped by our culture. We challenge you to explore exactly which, if any, aspects of our gender and our sexuality are totally natural.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">One powerful aspect of culture, and a reason cultural norms feel so natural, is that we learn culture the way we learn our native language: without formal instruction, in social contexts, picking it up from others around us, without thinking. Soon, it becomes deeply embedded in our brains. We no longer think consciously about what the sounds we hear when someone says \u201chello\u201d mean unless we do not speak English. Nor is it difficult to \u201ctell the time\u201d on a \u201cclock\u201d even though \u201ctime\u201d and \u201cclocks\u201d are complex cultural inventions.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">The same principles apply to gender and sexuality. We learn very early (by at least age three) about the categories of gender in our culture\u2014that individuals are either \u201cmale\u201d or \u201cfemale\u201d and that elaborate beliefs, behaviors, and meanings are associated with each gender. We can think of this complex set of ideas as a <strong><b>gender ideology<\/b><\/strong> or a <b><strong>cultural model of gender<\/strong>. <\/b>All societies have gender ideologies, just as they have belief systems about other significant areas of life, such as health and disease, the natural world, and social relationships, including family. For an activity related to this section, see Activity 1.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"H1\">Foundations\u00a0of the Anthropology of Gender<\/h2>\r\n<h3 class=\"H2-below-H1\">Gender Ideologies, Biology, and Culture<\/h3>\r\n<h4 class=\"H3-below-H2\"><em>Gender vs. Sex<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Words can reveal cultural beliefs. A good example is the term \u201csex.\u201d In the past, sex referred both to sexuality and to someone\u2019s biologic sex: male or female. Today, although sex still refers to sexuality, \u201cgender\u201d now means the categories male, female, or increasingly, other gender possibilities. Why has this occurred?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">The change in terminology reflects profound alterations in gender ideology in the United States (and elsewhere). In the past, influenced by Judeo-Christian religion and nineteenth and twentieth century scientific beliefs, biology (and reproductive capacity) was literally considered to be destiny. Males and females, at least \u201cnormal\u201d males and females, were thought to be born with different intellectual, physical, and moral capacities, preferences, tastes, personalities, and predispositions for violence and suffering.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>See Carolyn B. Brettell and Carolyn F. Sargent,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective<\/span>\u00a0<\/em>(New York: Routledge, 2005). Also, Anne Fausto-Sterling,<em>\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Myths of Gender. Biological Theories About Women and Men<\/span>\u00a0<\/em>(New York: Basic Books, 1991). For some web-based examples of these nineteenth century views, see article at\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.bl.uk\/romantics-and-victorians\/articles\/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.bl.uk\/romantics-and-victorians\/articles\/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century<\/span><\/a>. For a list of descriptive terms, see\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www2.ivcc.edu\/gen2002\/Women_in_the_Nineteenth_Century.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www2.ivcc.edu\/gen2002\/Women_in_the_Nineteenth_Century.htm<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Ironically, many cultures, including European Christianity in the Middle Ages, viewed women as having a strong, often \u201cinsatiable\u201d sexual \u201cdrive\u201d and capacity. But by the nineteenth century, women and their sexuality were largely defined in reproductive terms, as in their capacity to \u201ccarry a man\u2019s child.\u201d Even late-twentieth-century human sexuality texts often referred only to \u201creproductive systems,\u201d to genitals as \u201creproductive\u201d organs, and excluded the \u201cclitoris\u201d and other female organs of sexual pleasure that had no reproductive function. For women, the primary, if not sole, legitimate purpose of sexuality was reproduction.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]For an example of a textbook, see Herant A.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Katchadurian,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Fundamentals of Human Sexuality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1989). See also Linda Stone,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Kinship and Gender: An Introduction<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2013).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Nineteenth and mid-twentieth century European and U.S. gender ideologies linked sexuality and gender in other ways.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Material in the following paragraphs comes from Mukhopadhyay, unpublished Human Sexuality lecture notes.[\/footnote]<\/span> Sexual preference\u2014the sex to whom one was attracted\u2014was \u201cnaturally\u201d heterosexual, at least among \u201cnormal\u201d humans, and \u201cnormal,\u201d according to mid-twentieth century Freudian-influenced psychology, was defined largely by whether one adhered to conventional gender roles for males and females. So, appropriately, \u201cmasculine\u201d men were \u201cnaturally\u201d attracted to \u201cfeminine\u201d women and vice versa. Homosexuality, too, was depicted not just as a sexual preference but as gender-inappropriate role behavior, down to gestures and color of clothing.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Herant A. Katchadurian,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Fundamentals of Human Sexuality<\/em>,\u00a0<\/span>365.[\/footnote]<\/span> This is apparent in old stereotypes of gay men as \u201ceffeminate\u201d (acting like a female, wearing \u201cfemale\u201d fabrics such as silk or colors such as pink, and participating in \u201cfeminine\u201d professions like ballet) and of lesbian women as \u201cbutch\u201d (cropped hair, riding motorcycles, wearing leather\u2014prototypical masculinity). Once again, separate phenomena\u2014sexual preference and gender role performance\u2014were conflated because of beliefs that rooted both in biology. \u201cAbnormality\u201d in one sphere (sexual preference) was linked to \u201cabnormality\u201d in the other sphere (gendered capacities and preferences).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In short, the gender and sexual ideologies were based on <b><strong>biological determinism<\/strong>.<\/b> According to this theory, males and females were supposedly born fundamentally different reproductively and in other major capacities and preferences and were \u201cnaturally\u201d (biologically) sexually attracted to each other, although women\u2019s sexual \u201cdrive\u201d was not very well developed relative to men\u2019s and was reproductively oriented.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Rejecting Biological Determinism<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer364\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer363\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_227\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-227 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163756\/gender_figure_1-e1512755900567.png\" alt=\" \" width=\"300\" height=\"385\" \/> Figure 1: Hindu deities: Vishnu and<br \/> his many \u201cavatars\u201d or forms (all male).[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">Decades of research on gender and sexuality, including by feminist anthropologists, has challenged these old theories, particularly biological determinism. We now understand that cultures, not nature, create the gender ideologies that go along with being born male or female and the ideologies vary widely, cross-culturally. What is considered \u201cman\u2019s work\u201d in some societies, such as carrying heavy loads, or farming, can be \u201cwoman\u2019s work\u201d in others. What is \u201cmasculine\u201d and \u201cfeminine\u201d varies: pink and blue, for example, are culturally invented gender-color linkages, and skirts and \u201cmake-up\u201d can be worn by men, indeed by \u201cwarriors.\u201d Hindu deities, male and female, are highly decorated and difficult to distinguish, at least by conventional masculinist U.S. stereotypes (see <a href=\"http:\/\/www.sanatansociety.org\/hindu_gods_and_goddesses.htm#.WNr9ZjZ8LIU\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">examples<\/span><\/a> and Figures 1 and 2).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Women can be thought of as stronger (\u201ctougher,\u201d more \u201crational\u201d) than men. Phyllis Kaberry, an anthropologist who studied the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.era.anthropology.ac.uk\/Kaberry\/Kaberry_text\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Nsaw of Cameroon<\/span><\/a> in the 1940s, said males in that culture argued that land preparation for the rizga crop was \u201ca woman\u2019s job, which is too strenuous for the men\u201d and that \u201cwomen could carry heavy loads because they had stronger foreheads.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Phyllis\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Kaberry,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Women of the Grassfields. A Study of the Economic Position of Women in Bamenda, British Cameroons<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Colonial Research publication 14. London: Her Majesty\u2019s Stationery Office.1952) The image comes from the cover of her book, which is also available online:\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.era.anthropology.ac.uk\/Kaberry\/Kaberry_text\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.era.anthropology.ac.uk\/Kaberry\/Kaberry_text\/<\/span><\/a>. [\/footnote]\u00a0<\/span>Among the Aka who live in the present-day Central African Republic, fathers have close, intimate, relationships with infants, play major roles in all aspects of infant-care, and can sometimes produce breast milk.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">See Barry S. Hewlett,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Intimate Fathers: The Nature and Context of Aka Pygmy Paternal Infant Care<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991); and personal communication with\u00a0<\/span>Mukhopadhyay<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> As for sexual desires, research on the human sexual response by William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson established that men and women have equal biological capacities for sexual pleasure and orgasm and that, because males generally ejaculate simultaneously with orgasm, it is easier for women than men to have multiple orgasms.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]W.H. Masters and V.E. Johnson,<em>\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Human Sexual Response<\/span><\/em>\u00a0<span class=\"HTML-Cite _idGenCharOverride-2\">(New York: Bantam Books, 1966).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_231\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-231 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163803\/gender_figure_2-e1512755928828-300x215.png\" alt=\" \" width=\"300\" height=\"215\" \/> Figure 2: Hindu Deities: Vishnu and Goddess Shiva plus avatars.[\/caption]\r\n<h4><em>Gender: A Cultural Invention and a Social Role<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer364\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer363\"><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">One\u2019s <strong><b>biologic sex<\/b><\/strong> is a different phenomenon than one\u2019s <strong><b>gender<\/b><\/strong>, which is socially and historically constructed.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Some feminist scholars have also questioned the \u201cnaturalness\u201d of the biological categories male and female. See for example, Judith Butler,<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">\u00a0<em>Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity<\/em><\/span>\u00a0(New York: Routledge, 1999 [1990]).[\/footnote]<\/span> Gender is a set of culturally invented expectations and therefore constitutes a role one assumes, learns, and performs, more or less consciously. It is an \u201cidentity\u201d one can in theory choose, at least in some societies, although there is tremendous pressure, as in the United States, to conform to the gender role and identity linked to your biologic sex.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">This is a profound transformation in how we think about both gender and sexuality. The reality of human biology is that males and females are shockingly similar.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]For genital similarities, see\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Janet S. Hyde and John D. DeLamater,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Understanding Human Sexuality\u00a0<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(McGraw Hill, 2014),\u00a0<\/span>94\u2013101. For more parallels, see Mukhopadhyay\u2019s online Human Sexuality course materials, at\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span> There is arguably more variability <strong><b>within<\/b><\/strong> than <strong><b>between<\/b><\/strong> each gender, especially taking into account the enormous variability in human physical traits among human populations globally.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>For some idea of the enormous variability in human physical characteristics, see Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 in C. Mukhopadhyay, R. Henze, and Y. Moses,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">How Real is Race: Race, Culture and Biology\u00a0<\/span><\/em>(Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> Notice, for example, the variability in height in the two photos of U.S. college students shown in Figures\u00a03 and\u00a04. Which gender is \u201ctaller\u201d? Much of what has been defined as \u201cbiological\u201d is actually cultural, so the possibilities for transformation and change are nearly endless! That can be liberating, especially when we are young and want to create identities that fit our particular configuration of abilities and preferences. It can also be upsetting to people who have deeply internalized and who want to maintain the old gender ideology.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"H2\">The Gender Binary and Beyond<\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer371\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer365\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_234\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-234 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163808\/gender_figure_3-e1512756053580-300x157.png\" alt=\" \" width=\"300\" height=\"157\" \/> Figure 3: Gender variability: students in a Human Sexuality Class at San Jose State University with Dr. Carol Mukhopadhyay, 2010.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">We anthropologists, as noted earlier, love to shake up notions of what is \u201cnatural\u201d and \u201cnormal.\u201d One common assumption is that all cultures divide human beings into two and only two genders, a <strong><b>binary<\/b><\/strong> or dualistic model of gender. However, in some cultures gender is more fluid and flexible, allowing individuals born as one biologic sex to assume another gender or creating more than two genders from which individuals can select. Examples of non-binary cultures come from pre-contact Native America. Anthropologists such as Ruth Benedict long ago identified a fairly widespread phenomenon of so-called \u201ctwo-spirit\u201d people, individuals who did not comfortably conform to the gender roles and gender ideology normally associated with their biologic sex. Among the pre-contact Zuni Pueblo in New Mexico, which was a relatively gender-egalitarian horticultural society, for example, individuals could choose an alternative role of \u201cnot-men\u201d or \u201cnot-women.\u201d A two-spirited Zuni man would do the work and wear clothing normally associated with females, having shown a preference for female-identified activities and symbols at an early age. In some, but not all cases, he would eventually marry a man. Early European ethnocentric reports often described it as a form of homosexuality. Anthropologists suggested more-complex motivations, including dreams of selection by spirits, individual psychologies, biological characteristics, and negative aspects of male roles (e.g., warfare). Most significantly, these alternative gender roles were acceptable, publicly recognized, and sometimes venerated.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-4\">[footnote]Information about alternative gender roles in pre-contact Native American communities can be found in\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">A World Full of Women\u00a0<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Boston: Pearson, 2013). Also, see the 2011 PBS Independent Lens film\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Two Spirits<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0for an account of the role of two-spirit ideology in Navajo communities, including the story of a Navajo teenager who was the victim of a hate crime because of his two-spirit identity.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Less is known about additional gender roles available to biological women, although stories of \u201cmanly hearted women\u201d suggest a parallel among some Native American groups. For example, a Kutenai woman known to have lived in 1811 was originally married to a French-Canadian man but then returned to the Kutenai and assumed a male gender role, changing her name to Kauxuma nupika (Gone-to-the-Spirits), becoming a spiritual prophet, and eventually marrying a woman.[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>A World Full of Women<\/em>.<\/span>\u00a0[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_239\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-239\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163816\/gender_figure_4-e1512756082130-300x146.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"146\" \/> Figure 4: Gender variability: students in Kalamazoo<br \/>at Michigan State University, with Dr. Carol<br \/>Mukhopadhyay, 2010.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">A well-known example of a non-binary gender system is found among the Hijra in India. Often called a <strong><b>third gender<\/b><\/strong>, these individuals are usually biologically male but adopt female clothing, gestures, and names; eschew sexual desire and sexual activity; and go through religious rituals that give them certain divine powers, including blessing or cursing couples\u2019 fertility and performing at weddings and births. Hijra may undergo voluntary surgical removal of genitals through a <em>\u201cnirvan\u201d<\/em> or rebirth operation. Some hijra are males born with ambiguous external genitals, such as a particularly small penis or testicles that did not fully descend.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-4\">[footnote]Serena\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Nanda,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Neither Man nor Woman: the Hijras of India<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Boston, MA: Cengage, 1999); Serena Nanda,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Gender Diversity: Cross-cultural Variations\u00a0<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland 2000); and Gayatri Reddy and Serena Nanda, \u201cHijras: An \u201cAlternative\u201d Sex\/Gender in India,\u201d in<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective<\/span><\/em>, ed.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">C. Brettell and C. Sargent, 278\u2013285 (<\/span>Upper Saddle River New Jersey: Pearson,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">2005)<\/span>.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Research has shown that individuals with ambiguous genitals, sometimes called \u201cintersex,\u201d are surprisingly common. Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein estimate that such intersex individuals constitute five percent of human births.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-4\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Janet S. Hyde and John D. DeLamater,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Understanding Human Sexuality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">, 99; Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>A World Full of Women<\/em>.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> So what are cultures to do when faced with an infant or child who cannot easily be \u201csexed?\u201d Some cultures, including the United States, used to force children into one of the two binary categories, even if it required surgery or hormone therapy. But in other places, such as India and among the Isthmus Zapotec in southern Oaxaca, Mexico, they have instead created a third gender category that has an institutional identity and role to perform in society.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-4\">[footnote]Beverly Chinas, personal communication with Mukhopadhyay. See also her writings on Isthmus Zapotec women such as:<em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0Beverly Chinas,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Isthmus Zapotecs: A Matrifocal Culture of Mexico<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York:\u00a0<\/span>Harcourt Brace College Publishers 1997). For a film on this culture, see Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Blossoms of Fire<\/em>, Film\u00a0<\/span>(San Francisco: Film Arts Foundation, 2001)<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">These cross-cultural examples demonstrate that the traditional rigid binary gender model in the United States is neither universal nor necessary. While all cultures recognize at least two biological sexes, usually based on genitals visible at birth, and have created at least two gender roles, many cultures go beyond the binary model, offering a third or fourth gender category. Other cultures allow individuals to adopt, without sanctions, a gender role that is not congruent with their biological sex. In short, biology need not be destiny when it comes to gender roles, as we are increasingly discovering in the United States.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em><strong>Variability among Binary Cultures<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Even societies with a binary gender system exhibit enormous variability in the meanings and practices associated with being male or female. Sometimes male-female distinctions pervade virtually all aspects of life, structuring space, work, social life, communication, body decoration, and expressive forms such as music. For instance, both genders may farm, but may have separate fields for \u201cmale\u201d and \u201cfemale\u201d crops and gender-specific crop rituals. Or, the village public space may be spatially segregated with a \u201cmen\u2019s house\u201d (a special dwelling only for men, like a \u201cmen\u2019s club\u201d) and a \u201cwomen\u2019s house.\u201d In some societies, such as the Sambia of New Guinea, even when married couples occupy the same house, the space within the house is divided into male and female areas.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Gilbert\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Herdt,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Sambia<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 2006). For an excellent film see Gilbert Herdt,<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Guardians of the Flutes<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(London UK: BBC, 1994).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Women and men can also have gender-specific religious rituals and deities and use gender-identified tools. There are cases of \u201cmale\u201d and \u201cfemale\u201d foods, rains, and even \u201clanguages\u201d (including words, verb forms, pronouns, inflections, and writing systems; one example is the Nu Shu writing system used by some women in parts of China in the twentieth century).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]More information about the Nu shu writing system can be found in the film by Yue-Qing Yang,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Nu Shu: A Hidden Language of Women in China<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York: Women Make Movies, 1999).[\/footnote]<\/span> Gender ideologies can emphasize differences in character, capacities, and morality, sometimes portraying males and females as \u201copposites\u201d on a continuum.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In societies that are highly segregated by gender, gender relationships sometimes are seen as hostile or oppositional with one of the genders (usually female) viewed as potentially threatening. Female bodily fluids, such as menstrual blood and vaginal secretions, can be dangerous, damaging to men, \u201cimpure,\u201d and \u201cpolluting,\u201d especially in ritual contexts. In other cases, however, menstrual blood is associated with positive power. A girl\u2019s first menstruation may be celebrated publicly with elaborate community rituals, as among the Bemba in southern Africa, and subsequent monthly flows bring special privileges.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ernestine Friedl,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women and Men: An Anthropologist\u2019s View<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975). See Audrey Richards,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Chisungu: A Girl\u2019s Initiation Ceremony among the Bemba of Zambia<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(London: Faber, 1956) and A. Richards,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Land, <em>Labour and Diet in Northern Rhodesia, An Economic Study of the Bemba Tribe<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(London: Oxford, 1939).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> Men in some small-scale societies go through ritualized nose-bleeding, sometimes called \u201cmale menstruation,\u201d though the meanings are quite complex.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">See for example, Ian Hogbin,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"a-size-extra-large CharOverride-16\">The Island of Menstruating Men: Religion in Wogeo, New Guinea<\/span><\/em><span class=\"a-size-extra-large\">\u00a0(Scranton, PA: Chandler Publishing Company, 1970).<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Gender Relations: Separate and Unequal<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Of course, gender-differentiation is not unique to small-scale societies like the Sambia. Virtually all major world religions have traditionally segregated males and females spatially and \u201cmarked\u201d them in other ways. Look at eighteenth- and nineteenth- century churches, which had gender-specific seating; at contemporary Saudi Arabia, Iranian, and conservative Malaysian mosques; and at Orthodox Jewish temples today in Israel and the United States.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Ambivalence and even fear of female sexuality, or negative associations with female bodily fluids, such as menstrual blood, are widespread in the world\u2019s major religions. Orthodox Jewish women are not supposed to sleep in the same bed as their husbands when menstruating. In Kypseli, Greece, people believe that menstruating women can cause wine to go bad.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Susannah M Hoffman, Richard A Cowan and Paul Aratow,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Kypseli:<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">\u00a0Men and Women Apart A Divided Reality<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Berkeley CA: Berkeley Media, 1976).[\/footnote]<\/span> In some Catholic Portuguese villages, menstruating women are restricted from preparing fresh pork sausages and from being in the room where the sausages are made as their presence is believed to cause the pork to spoil. Contact with these women also supposedly wilts plants and causes inexplicable movements of objects.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Denise\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Lawrence, Menstrual Politics: Women and Pigs in Rural Portugal, in\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Blood Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation<\/em>,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">ed. Thomas<\/span>\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Buckley and Alma Gottlieb, 117\u2013136 (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1988.), 122\u2013123.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> Orthodox forms of Hinduism prohibit menstruating women from activities such as cooking and attending temple.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">These traditions are being challenged. A 2016 British Broadcasting Company (BBC) television program, for example, described \u201cHappy to Bleed,\u201d a movement in India to change negative attitudes about menstruation and eliminate the ban on menstruating-age women entering the famous Sabriamala Temple in Kerala.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]See\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/programmes\/p03k6k0h\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/programmes\/p03k6k0h<\/span><\/a>. Some women are posing with photos of menstrual pads and hashtags #happytobleed:\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/world\/asia\/indian-women-launch-happy-to-bleed-campaign-to-protest-against-sexist-religious-rule-a6748396.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/world\/asia\/indian-women-launch-happy-to-bleed-campaign-to-protest-against-sexist-religious-rule-a6748396.html<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><span style=\"background-color: #ffffff\"><em>Emergence of Public (Male) vs. Domestic (Female) Spheres<\/em><\/span><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In large stratified and centralized societies\u2014that is, the powerful empires (so-called \u201ccivilizations\u201d) that have dominated much of the world for the past several thousand years\u2014a \u201cpublic\u201d vs. \u201cprivate\u201d or \u201cdomestic\u201d distinction appears. The public, extra-family sphere of life is a relatively recent development in human history even though most of us have grown up in or around cities and towns with their obvious public spaces, physical manifestations of the political, economic, and other extra-family institutions that characterize large-scale societies. In such settings, it is easy to identify the domestic or private spaces families occupy, but a similar public-domestic distinction exists in villages. The public sphere is associated with, and often dominated by, males. The domestic sphere, in contrast, is primarily associated with women\u2014though it, too, can be divided into male and female spheres. In India, for example, where households frequently consist of multi-generational groups of male siblings and their families, there often are \u201clounging\u201d spaces where men congregate, smoke pipes, chat, and meet visitors. Women\u2019s spaces typically focus around the kitchen or cooking hearth (if outside) or at other sites of women\u2019s activities.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]See the film by Michael Camerini and Rina Gill,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Dadi\u2019s Family<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Watertown, MA: DER, 1981). [\/footnote]<\/span>In some cases, an inner court is the women\u2019s area while the outer porch and roads that connect the houses are male spaces. In some Middle Eastern villages, women create over-the-roof paths for visiting each other without going \u201coutside\u201d into male spaces.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Cynthia Nelson, \u201cPublic and Private Politics: Women in the Middle Eastern World\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">American Ethnologist<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a01 no. 3 (1974): 551\u201356.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">The gender division between public and private\/domestic, however, is as symbolic as it is spatial, often emphasizing a gender ideology of social separation between males and females (except young children), social regulation of sexuality and marriage, and male rights and control over females (wives, daughters, sisters, and mothers)<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">.<\/span> It manifests as separate spaces in mosques, sex-segregated schools, and separate \u201cladies compartments\u201d on trains, as in India (Figure 5).<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_243\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-243 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163822\/gender_figure_5-e1512756111345-300x223.png\" alt=\"Sign stating &quot;mean not allowed&quot;\" width=\"300\" height=\"223\" \/> Figure 5: A women only train car in India. Photograph by Ajay Tallam, 2007.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Of course, it is impossible to separate the genders completely. Rural women pass through the more-public spaces of a village to fetch water and firewood and to work in agricultural fields. Women shop in public markets, though that can be a \u201cman\u2019s job.\u201d As girls more often attend school, as in India, they take public transportation and thus travel through public \u201cmale\u201d spaces even if they travel to all-girl schools (Figure 6). At college, they can be immersed in and even live on campuses where men predominate, especially if they are studying engineering, computer science, or other technical subjects (Figure 7).<\/p>\r\nThis can severely limit Indian girls\u2019 educational and occupational choices, particularly for girls who come from relatively conservative families or regions.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Carol C. Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0<\/span>\u201cFamily Structure and Indian Women\u2019s Participation in Science and Engineering,\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Women, Education and Family Structure in India<\/span><\/em>, ed. Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and Susan Seymour, 103\u2013133 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994).[\/footnote]<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer388\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer383\"><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer387\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer384\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_246\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-246 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163826\/gender_figure_6-e1512756135281-300x222.png\" alt=\" \" width=\"300\" height=\"222\" \/> Figure 6: All-girls\u2019 school in Bangalore, India.<br \/> Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, 1989.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer385\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\"><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer386\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\">\r\n<div class=\"mceTemp\">One way in which women navigate \u201cmale\u201d spaces is by adopting routes, behavior (avoiding eye contact), and\/or clothing that create separation.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Elizabeth Fernea,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Guests of the Sheik.an Ethnography of an Iraqi Village<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>\u00a0<\/em>(New York: Anchor Books, 1965).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> The term \u201c<em>purdah<\/em>,\u201d the separation or segregation of women from men, literally means \u201cveiling,\u201d although other devices can be used. In nineteenth century Jaipur, Rajasthan, royal Rajput women inhabited the inner courtyard spaces of the palace. But an elaborate false building front, the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.jaipur.org.uk\/forts-monuments\/hawa-mahal.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">hawa mahal<\/span><\/a>, allowed them to view the comings and goings on the street without being exposed to the public male gaze.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_250\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-250 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163832\/gender_figure_7-e1512756159895-300x178.png\" alt=\" \" width=\"300\" height=\"178\" \/> Figure 7: Management studies graduate students at CUSAT-Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, 1989.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">As demand for educating girls has grown in traditionally sexually segregated societies, all-girl schools have been constructed (see Figure 6), paralleling processes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century in the United States. At the university level, however, prestigious schools that offer high-demand subjects such as engineering often have historically been all-male, excluding women as Harvard once did.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Susan Seymour,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cora Du Bois: Anthropologist, Diplomat, Agent\u00a0<\/span><\/em>(Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">2015)<\/span>.[\/footnote]<\/span>In other cases, there are no female faculty members teaching traditionally male subjects like engineering at all-women colleges. In Saudi Arabia, women\u2019s universities have taught courses using closed-circuit television to avoid violating norms of sexual segregation, particularly for young, unmarried women.[footnote]Carol C.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0<\/span>\u201cWomen in Science: Is the Glass Ceiling Disappearing?\u201d Proceedings of conference organized by the National Institute of Science and Technology Development Studies, the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India; Indian Council of Social Science Research; and the Indo-U.S. Science and Technology Forum. March 8\u201310, 2004. New Delhi, India.[\/footnote]In countries such as India, gynecologists and obstetricians have been predominantly female, in part because families object to male doctors examining and treating women. Thus, in places that do not have female physicians, women\u2019s health can suffer.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Alternative Models of Gender: Complementary and Fluid<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-3\">Not all binary cultures are gender-segregated; nor does gender hostility necessarily accompany gender separation. Nor are all binary cultures deeply concerned with, some might say obsessed with, regulating female sexuality and marriage. Premarital and extra-marital sex can even be common and acceptable, as among the !Kung San and Trobriand Islanders.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]\u00a0<\/span>For the !Kung San, see Marjorie\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Shostak,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Nisa: Life and Words of a Kung Woman<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(New York: Vintage, 1983). For Trobrianders, see\u00a0<\/span>Annette B. Weiner,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>The Trobrianders of Papua New Guinea<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1987).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span>And men are not always clearly ranked over women as they typically are in stratified large-scale centralized societies with \u201cpatriarchal\u201d systems. Instead, the two genders can be seen as complementary, equally valued and both recognized as necessary to society. Different need not mean unequal. The Lahu of southwest China and Thailand exemplify a complementary gender system in which men and women have distinct expected roles but a male-female pair is necessary to accomplish most daily tasks (Figure 9). A male-female pair historically took responsibility for local leadership. Male-female <strong><b>dyads<\/b><\/strong> completed daily household tasks in tandem and worked together in the fields. The title of anthropologist Shanshan Du\u2019s book, <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Chopsticks Only Work in Pairs<\/span> <\/em>(1999), encapsulates how complementary gender roles defined Lahu\u00a0society. A single chopstick is not very useful; neither is a single person, man or woman, in a dual-focused society.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote] Shanshan Du,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Chopsticks Only Work in Pairs: Gender Unity and Gender Equality Among the Lahu of Southwest China<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer403\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer402\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_258\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"wp-image-258 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163844\/gender_figure_9-e1512756205379-300x214.png\" alt=\" \" width=\"300\" height=\"214\" \/> Figure 9: Lahu farmers in Chiangmai, Thailand.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Like the Lahu, the nearby Na believe men and women both play crucial roles in a family and household. Women are associated with birth and life while men take on tasks such as butchering animals and preparing for funerals (Figures 10 and 11). Every Na house has two large pillars in the central hearth room, one representing male identity and one representing female identity. Both are crucial, and the house might well topple symbolically without both pillars. As sociologist Zhou Huashan explained in his 2002 book about the Na, this is a society that \u201cvalues women without diminishing men.\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Zhou Huashan,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Zhong nu bu qingnan de muxi mosuo: Wufu de guodu?\u00a0<\/span><\/em>[Matrilineal Mosuo,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Valuing Women without Devaluing Men: A Society without Fathers or Husbands<\/span>?<\/em>] (Beijing: Guangming Ribao Chubanshe, 2009 [2001]).[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists have also encountered relatively androgynous gender-binary cultures. In these cultures, some gender differentiation exists but \u201cgender bending\u201d and role-crossing are frequent, accepted, and reflect circumstances and individual capacities and preferences. Examples are the !Kung San mentioned earlier, Native American Washoe in the United States, and some segments of European societies in countries such as Sweden and Finland and, increasingly, in the United States.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ernestine Friedl,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women and Men: An Anthropologist\u2019s View<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975).<\/span>[\/footnote]\u00a0<\/span>Contemporary twenty-first century gender ideologies tend to emphasize commonality, not difference: shared human traits, flexibility, fluidity, and individual expression.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_260\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-260\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163847\/gender_figure_10-e1512756225475-300x226.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"226\" \/> Figure 10: A Na woman, Sigih Lamu, weeds rice seedlings outside her family\u2019s home in southwest China\u2019s Yunnan Province. Photograph by Tami Blumenfield, 2002.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer411\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer404\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_266\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-266\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163856\/gender_figure_11-e1512756272923-300x210.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"210\" \/> Figure 11: Na men carry a wooden structure to be used at a funeral. Photograph by Tami Blumenfield, 2002.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Even cultures with fairly well-defined gender roles do not necessarily view them as fixed, biologically rooted, permanent, \u201cessentialist,\u201d or \u201cnaturalized\u201d as occurred in the traditional gender ideology in the United States.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Carol C.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0<\/span>\u201cSati or Shakti: Women, Culture and Politics in India,\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Perspectives on Power: Women in Asia, Africa and Latin America<\/span><\/em>, ed. Jean O\u2019Barr, 11\u201326 (Durham: Center for International Studies, Duke University 1982).[\/footnote]<\/span> Gender may not even be an \u201cidentity\u201d in a psychological sense but, rather, a social role one assumes in a particular social context just as one moves between being a student, a daughter, an employee, a wife or husband, president of the bicycle club, and a musician.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Cultures also change over time through internal and external forces such as trade, conquest, colonialism, globalization, immigration, mass media, and, especially, films. Within every culture, there is tremendous diversity in class, ethnicity, religion, region, education level, and generation, as well as diversity related to more-individual family circumstances, predilections, and experiences. Gender expectations also vary with one\u2019s age and stage in life as well as one\u2019s social role, even within the family (e.g., \u201cwife\u201d vs. \u201csister\u201d vs. \u201cmother\u201d vs. \u201cmother-in-law\u201d and \u201cfather\u201d vs. \u201cson\u201d vs. \u201cbrother\u201d vs \u201cfather-in-law\u201d). Finally, people can appear to conform to cultural norms but find ways of working around or ignoring them.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_270\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-270\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163902\/gender_figure_12-e1512756294112-300x194.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"194\" \/> Figure 12: Gulabi Gang in India.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Even in highly male-dominated, sexually segregated societies, women find ways to pursue their own goals, to be actors, and to push the boundaries of the gender system. Among Egyptian Awlad \u2018Ali Bedouin families, for example, women rarely socialized outside their home compounds or with unrelated men. But within their spheres, they freely interacted with other women, could influence their husbands, and wrote and sang poetic couplets as expressive outlets.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Lila Abu-Lughod,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Writing Women\u2019s Worlds: Bedouin Stories<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).[\/footnote]<\/span> In some of the poorest and least-developed areas of central India, where <strong><b>patrilocal<\/b><\/strong> extended-family male-controlled households reign, activist Sampat Pal has organized local rural women to combat violence based on dishonor and gender.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Mukhopadhyay and Seymour use the term \u201cpatrifocal\u201d to describe households that consist of related males, usually brothers, and their sons, and the spouses and children of those males. See C. Mukhopadhyay and S. Seymour, \u201cIntroduction\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Women, Family, and Education in India<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Boulder: Westview Press, 1994).[\/footnote]<\/span> Her so-called \u201cGulabi Gang,\u201d the subject of two films, illustrates both the possibilities of resistance and the difficulties of changing a deeply embedded system based on gender, caste, and class system (Figure 12).[footnote]For powerful documentaries see, the film by\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Nishta Jain<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">, <em>Gulabi Gang<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Stavanger, Norway: Kudos Family Distribution, 2012); and the film by Kim Longinotto,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Pink Saris<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Women Make Movies, 2011).<\/span>[\/footnote]For a related activity, see Activity 2: Understanding Gender from a Martian Perspective.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"H2\">Unraveling Our Gender Myths: Primate Roots<span class=\"CharOverride-6\">,<\/span> \u201cMan the Hunter,<span class=\"CharOverride-6\">\u201d <\/span>and Other \u201cOrigin Stories\u201d of Gender and Male Dominance<\/h3>\r\n<blockquote>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-o-space\">Even unencumbered by pregnancy or infants, a female hunter would be less fleet, generally less strong, possibly more prone to changes in emotional <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">tonus<\/span><\/em> as a consequence of the estrus cycle, and less able to adapt to changes in temperature than males.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Lionel Tiger,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Men in Groups<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2005[1969]), 45.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-o-space ParaOverride-5\">\u2014U.S. anthropologist, 1969<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-above ParaOverride-6\">Women don\u2019t ride motorcycles because they can\u2019t; they can\u2019t because they are not strong enough to put their legs down to stop it.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Carol C. Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Sexual Division of Labor in the Family<\/span><\/em>, PhD Dissertation, University of California, Riverside, 1980, 192.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-o-space ParaOverride-5\">\u2014Five-year-old boy, Los Angeles, 1980<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-above ParaOverride-6\"><span class=\"quoted1\">Men hunted because women were not allowed to come out of their houses and roam about in forests.<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]\u00a0<\/span>Carol C. Mukhopadhyay, fieldnotes, India; and Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Cultural Context of Gendered Science: The Case of India<\/span><\/em>, 2001,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\/papers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\/papers<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-below ParaOverride-5\"><span class=\"quoted1\">\u2014Pre-college student in India, 1990<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">All cultures have \u201ccreation\u201d stories. Many have elaborate gender-related creation stories that describe the origins of males and females, their gender-specific traits, their relationships and sexual proclivities, and, sometimes, how one gender came to \u201cdominate\u201d the other. Our culture is no different. The Judeo-Christian Bible, like the Koran and other religious texts, addresses origins and gender (think of Adam and Eve), and traditional folk tales, songs, dances, and epic stories, such as the Ramayana in Hinduism and Shakespeare\u2019s <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Taming of the Shrew<\/span><\/em>, treat similar themes.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Science, too, has sought to understand gender differences. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a number of scientists, immersed in Darwinian theories, began to explore the evolutionary roots of what they assumed to be universal: male dominance. Of course, scientists, like the rest of us, view the world partially through their own cultural lenses and through a gendered version. Prior to the 1970s, women and gender relations were largely invisible in the research literature and most researchers were male so it is not surprising that 1960s theories reflected prevailing male-oriented folk beliefs about gender.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]For example, the major symposium on Man the Hunter sponsored by Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research included only four women among more than sixty listed participants. See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Man the Hunter<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]), xiv\u2013xvi.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer426\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer425\">\r\n<h4 id=\"_idContainer424\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\"><em>The Hunting Way of Life \u201cMolds Man\u201d (and Woman)<\/em><\/h4>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_272\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"227\"]<img class=\"wp-image-272 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163906\/gender_figure_13-227x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"227\" height=\"300\" \/> Figure 13: Female baboon in estrus. Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, Tanzania, 2010.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_276\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-276\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163913\/gender_figure_14-300x221.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"221\" \/> Figure 14: Baboon pair in tree: malefemale<br \/>voluntary relations. Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, Tanzania, 2010.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">The most popular and persistent theories argued that male dominance is universal, rooted in species-wide gendered biological traits that we acquired, first as part of our primate heritage, and further developed as we evolved from apes into humans. Emergence of \u201cthe hunting way of life\u201d plays a major role in this story. Crucial components include: a diet consisting primarily of meat, obtained through planned, cooperative hunts, by all-male groups, that lasted several days and covered a wide territory. Such hunts would require persistence, skill, and physical stamina; tool kits to kill, butcher, transport, preserve, and share the meat; and a social organization consisting of a stable home base and a monogamous nuclear family. Several biological changes were attributed to adopting this way of life: a larger and more complex brain, human language, an upright posture (and humans\u2019 unique foot and stride), loss of body hair, a long period of infant dependency, and the absence of \u201cestrus\u201d (ovulation-related female sexual arousal) (Figure 13), which made females sexually \u201creceptive\u201d throughout the monthly cycle. Other human characteristics purportedly made sex more enjoyable: frontal sex and fleshier breasts, buttocks, and genitals, especially the human penis. Making sex \u201csexier,\u201d some speculated, cemented the pair-bond, helping to keep the man \u201caround\u201d and the family unit stable.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Mukhopadhyay, Lecture Notes, Human Sexuality, Gender and Culture.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Hunting was also linked to a \u201cworld view\u201d in which the flight of animals from humans seemed natural and (male) aggression became normal, frequent, easy to learn, rewarded, and enjoyable. War, some have suggested, might psychologically be simply a form of hunting and pleasurable for male participants.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]S.Washburn and C.S. Lancaster, \u201cThe Evolution of Hunting.\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Man the Hunter<\/span><\/em>, 299.[\/footnote]<\/span> The Hunting Way of Life, in short, \u201cmolded man,\u201d giving our species its distinctive characteristics. And as a result, we contemporary humans cannot erase the effects of our hunting past even though we live in cities, stalk nothing but a parking place, and can omit meat from our diets.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<blockquote>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-above\">The biology, psychology, and customs that separate us from the apes\u2014all these we owe to the hunters of time past. And, although the record is incomplete and speculation looms larger than fact, for those who would understand the origin and nature of human behavior there is no choice but to try to understand \u201cMan the Hunter.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-below ParaOverride-7\">\u2014Washburn and Lancaster (1974)<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Ibid., 303.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Gender roles and male dominance were supposed to be part of our evolutionary heritage. Males evolved to be food-providers\u2014stronger, more aggressive, more effective leaders with cooperative and bonding capacities, planning skills, and technological inventiveness (tool-making). In this creation story, females never acquired those capacities because they were burdened by their reproductive roles\u2014pregnancy, giving birth, lactation, and child care\u2014and thus became dependent on males for food and protection. The gender gap widened over time. As males initiated, explored, invented, women stayed at home, nurtured, immersed themselves in domestic life. The result: men are active, women are passive; men are leaders, women are followers; men are dominant, women are subordinate.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Many of us have heard pieces of this Hunting Way of Life story. Some of the men Mukhopadhyay interviewed in Los Angeles in the late 1970s invoked \u201cour hunting past\u201d to explain why they\u2014and men generally\u2014operated barbeques rather than their wives. Women\u2019s qualifications to be president were questioned on biological grounds such as \u201cstamina\u201d and \u201ctoughness.\u201d Her women informants, all hospital nurses, doubted their navigational abilities, courage, and strength despite working in intensive care and regularly lifting heavy male patients. Mukhopadhyay encountered serious scholars who cited women\u2019s menstrual cycle and \u201cemotional instability\u201d during ovulation to explain why women \u201ccan\u2019t\u201d hunt.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Similar stories are invoked today for everything from some men\u2019s love of hunting to why men dominate \u201ctechnical\u201d fields, accumulate tools, have extra-marital affairs or commit the vast majority of homicides. Strength and toughness remain defining characteristics of masculinity in the United States, and these themes often permeate national political debates.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Jackson Katz,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Tough Guise 2: Violence, Manhood and American Culture<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Northampton, MA: Media Education Foundation, 2013).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> One element in the complex debate over gun control is the male-masculine strength-through-guns and man-the-hunter association, and it is still difficult for some males in the United States to feel comfortable with their soft, nurturant, emotional, and artistic sides.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Abigail Disney and Kathleen Hughes,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Armor of Light<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Fork Films, 2015).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">What is most striking about man-the-hunter scenarios is how closely they resemble 1950s U.S. models of family and gender, which were rooted in the late nineteenth century \u201ccult of domesticity\u201d and \u201ctrue womanhood.\u201d Father is \u201chead\u201d of the family and the final authority, whether in household decisions or in disciplining children. As \u201cprovider,\u201d Father goes \u201coutside\u201d into the cold, cruel world, hunting for work. Mother, as \u201cchief mom,\u201d remains \u201cinside\u201d at the home base, creating a domestic refuge against the \u201csurvival of the fittest\u201d \u201cjungle.\u201d American anthropologists seemed to have subconsciously projected their own folk models onto our early human ancestors.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Altering this supposedly \u201cfundamental\u201d gender system, according to widely read authors in the 1970s, would go against our basic \u201chuman nature.\u201d This belief was applied to the political arena, then a virtually all-male domain, especially at state and national levels. The following quote from 1971 is particularly relevant and worthy of critical evaluation since, for the first time, a major U.S. political party selected a woman as its 2016 presidential candidate (See Text Box 3, Gender and the Presidential Election).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<blockquote>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-above\">To make women equal participants in the political process, we will have to change the very process itself, which means changing a pattern bred into our behavior over the millennia.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-o-space ParaOverride-8\">\u2014Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Lionel\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Tiger and Robin Fox,<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>The Imperial Animal<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(New York:\u00a0<\/span>Transaction Publishers,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">1997 [1971]), 101.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Replacing Stories with Reality<\/em><\/h4>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_281\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-281\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163921\/gender_figure_15-e1512756346345-300x225.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" \/> Figure 15: Rhesus monkeys at the Periyar<br \/>Reserve in Kerala, India. Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, 2008.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_286\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-286\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163928\/gender_figure_16-e1512756377604-300x208.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"208\" \/> Figure 16: Baboon group with infants being carried by female. Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, Tanzania, 2010.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Decades of research, much of it by a new generation of women scholars, have altered our view of the hunting way of life in our evolutionary past.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Some useful reviews include the following: Linda M. Fedigan, \u201cThe Changing Role of Women in Models of Human Evolution\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a016 (1986): 25\u201366; Linda Fedigan,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Pamela L. Geller and Miranda K. Stockett.<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Feminist Anthropology: Past, Present, and Future<\/em> (<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2006); Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Engendering Archeology: Women and Prehistory\u00a0<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1991);\u00a0<\/span>Shirley Strum and Linda Fedigan\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Primate Encounters: Models of Science, Gender and Society<\/span><\/em>. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Meredith F. Small,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>What\u2019s Love Got to Do with It? The Evolution of Human Mating<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(New York: Doubleday, 1995);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Nancy Makepeace Tanner,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>On Becoming Human<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)<\/span>. For a readable short article, see Meredith Small, \u201cWhat\u2019s Love Got to Do with It,\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Discover Magazine<\/em>,\u00a0<\/span>June 1991, 46\u201351.[\/footnote]<\/span> For example, the old stereotype of primates as living in male-centered, male-dominated groups does not accurately describe our closest primate relatives, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos. The stereotypes came from 1960s research on savannah, ground-dwelling baboons that suggested they were organized socially by a stable male-dominance hierarchy, the \u201ccore\u201d of the group, that was established through force, regulated sexual access to females, and provided internal and external defense of the \u201ctroop\u201d in a supposedly hostile savannah environment.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Irven DeVore, ed.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Primate Behavior<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> Females lacked hierarchies or coalitions, were passive, and were part of dominant male \u201charems.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Critics first argued that baboons, as monkeys rather than apes, were too far removed from humans evolutionarily to tell us much about early human social organization. Then, further research on baboons living in other environments by primatologists such as Thelma Rowell discovered that those baboons were neither male-focused nor male-dominated. Instead, the stable group core was <strong><b>matrifocal<\/b><\/strong>\u2014a mother and her offspring constituted the central and enduring ties. Nor did males control female sexuality. Quite the contrary in fact. Females mated freely and frequently, choosing males of all ages, sometimes establishing special relationships\u2014 \u201cfriends with favors.\u201d Dominance, while infrequent, was not based simply on size or strength; it was learned, situational, and often stress-induced. And like other primates, both male and female baboons used sophisticated strategies, dubbed \u201cprimate politics,\u201d to predict and manipulate the intricate social networks in which they lived.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Ibid. Also, for primate politics in particular, see Sarah B.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Hrdy,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Woman That Never Evolved<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999 [1981]). See also Hrdy\u2019s website\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.citrona.com\/hrdy.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.citrona.com\/hrdy.html<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Rowell also restudied the savannah baboons. Even they did not fit the baboon \u201cstereotype.\u201d She found that their groups were loosely structured with no specialized stable male-leadership coalitions and were sociable, matrifocal, and infant-centered much like the Rhesus monkeys pictured below (see Figure 15). Females actively initiated sexual encounters with a variety of male partners. When attacked by predators or frightened by some other major threat, males, rather than \u201cdefending the troop,\u201d typically would flee, running away first and leaving the females carrying infants to follow behind (Figures 16).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Thelma Rowell.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Social Behaviour of Monkeys<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York: Penguin Books, 1972). For an excellent online article on Rowell\u2019s work with additional references, read Vinciane Despret, \u201cCulture and Gender Do Not Dissolve into How Scientists \u2018Read\u2019 Nature: Thelma Rowell\u2019s Heterodoxy.\u201d In\u00a0<span class=\"Emphasis _idGenCharOverride-2\"><em>Rebels of Life. Iconoclastic Biologists in the Twentieth Century, edited by<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>O. Hartman and M. Friedrich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 340\u2013355.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.vincianedespret.be\/2010\/04\/culture-and-gender-do-not-dissolve-into-how-scientists-read-nature-thelma-rowells-heterodoxy\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.vincianedespret.be\/2010\/04\/culture-and-gender-do-not-dissolve-into-how-scientists-read-nature-thelma-rowells-heterodoxy\/<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Man the Hunter, the Meat-Eater?<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">The second, more important challenge was to key assumptions about the hunting way of life. Archaeological and paleontological fossil evidence and ethnographic data from contemporary foragers revealed that hunting and meat it provided were not the primary subsistence mode. Instead, gathered foods such as plants, nuts, fruits, roots and small fish found in rivers and ponds constituted the bulk of such diets and provided the most stable food source in all but a few settings (northerly climates, herd migration routes, and specific geographical and historical settings). When meat was important, it was more often \u201cscavenged\u201d or \u201ccaught\u201d than hunted.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">A major symposium on human evolution concluded that \u201copportunistic\u201d \u201cscavenging\u201d was probably the best description of early human hunting activities. Often, tools found in pre-modern human sites such as caves would have been more appropriate for \u201csmashing\u201d scavenged bones than hunting live animals.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Man the Hunter<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> Hunting, when carried out, generally did not involve large-scale, all-male, cooperative expeditions involving extensive planning and lengthy expeditions over a wide territorial range. Instead, as among the Hadza of Tanzania, hunting was likely typically conducted by a single male, or perhaps two males, for a couple of hours, often without success. When hunting collectively, as occurs among the Mbuti in the Central African rainforest, groups of families likely participated with women and men driving animals into nets. Among the Agta of the Philippines, women rather than men hunt collectively using dogs to herd animals to a place where they can be killed.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]See Estioko-Griffin, Agnes A. Daughters of the Forest.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Natural History<\/span><\/em>\u00a095(5):36\u201343 (May 1986).[\/footnote]<\/span> And !Kung San men, despite what was shown in the 1957 ethnographic film <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Hunters<\/span><\/em>, do not normally hunt giraffe; they usually pursue small animals such as hares, rats, and gophers.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Discrediting the Hunting Hypothesis<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Once the \u201chunting-meat\u201d hypothesis was discredited, other parts of the theory began to unravel, especially the link between male dominance and female economic dependency. We now know that for most of human history\u201499 percent of it prior to the invention of agriculture some 10,000 or so years ago\u2014women have \u201cworked,\u201d often providing the stable sources of food for their family. Richard Lee, Marjorie Shostak, and others have detailed, with caloric counts and time-work estimates, the significance of women\u2019s gathering contributions even in societies such as the !Kung San, in which hunting occurs regularly.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Richard B.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Lee,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>The !Kung San. Men, Women and Work in a Foraging Society<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> In foraging societies that rely primarily on fish, women also play a major role, \u201ccollecting\u201d fish from rivers, lakes, and ponds. The exceptions are atypical environments such as the Arctic.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Of course, \u201cmeat-getting\u201d is a narrow definition of \u201cfood getting\u201d or \u201csubsistence\u201d work. Many food processing activities are time-consuming. Collecting water and firewood is crucial, heavy work and is often done by women (Figure 17). Making and maintaining clothing, housing, and tools also occupy a significant amount of time. Early humans, both male and female, invented an array of items for carrying things (babies, wood, water), dug tubers, processed nuts, and cooked food. The invention of string some 24,000 years ago, a discovery so essential that it produced what some have called the \u201cString Revolution,\u201d is attributed to women.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">A World Full of Women<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">,\u00a0<\/span>26.[\/footnote]<\/span> There is the work of kinship, of healing, of ritual, of \"teaching the next generation, and emotional work. All are part of the work of living and of the \u201cinvisible\u201d work that women do.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_291\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-291\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163935\/gender_figure_17-e1512756411787-300x239.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"239\" \/> Figure 17: Collecting firewood in Bansankusu,<br \/>Democratic Republic of Congo.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Nor is it just hunting that requires intelligence, planning, cooperation, and detailed knowledge. Foragers have lived in a wide variety of environments across the globe, some more challenging than others (such as Alaska). In all of these groups, both males and females have needed and have developed intensive detailed knowledge of local flora and fauna and strategies for using those resources. Human social interactions also require sophisticated mental and communication skills, both verbal and nonverbal. In short, humans\u2019 complex brains and other modern traits developed as an adaptation to complex social life, a lengthy period of child-dependency and child-rearing that required cooperative nurturing, and many different kinds of \u201cwork\u201d that even the simplest human societies performed.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Refuting Pregnancy and Motherhood as Debilitating<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Finally, cross-cultural data refutes another central man-the-hunter stereotype: the \u201cburden\u201d of pregnancy and child care. Women\u2019s reproductive roles do not generally prevent them from food-getting, including hunting; among the Agta, women hunt when pregnant. Foraging societies accommodate the work-reproduction \u201cconflict\u201d by spacing out their pregnancies using indigenous methods of \u201cfamily planning\u201d such as prolonged breast feeding, long post-pregnancy periods of sexual inactivity, and native herbs and medicinal plants. Child care, even for infants, is rarely solely the responsibility of the birth mother. Instead, multiple caretakers are the norm: spouses, children, other relatives, and neighbors.[footnote]Susan\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Seymour, \u201cMultiple Caretaking of Infants and Young Children: An Area in Critical Need of a Feminist Psychological Anthropology,\u201d<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">\u00a0<em>Ethos<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a032 no. (2004): 538\u2013556.<\/span>[\/footnote]Reciprocity is the key to human social life and to survival in small-scale societies, and reciprocal child care is but one example of such reciprocity. Children and infants accompany their mothers (or fathers) on gathering trips, as among the !Kung San, and on Aka collective net-hunting expeditions. Agta women carry nursing infants with them when gathering-hunting, leaving older children at home in the care of spouses or other relatives.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Serena Nanda and Richard L. Warms,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cultural Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2006), 274.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In pre-industrial horticultural and agricultural societies, having children and \u201cworking\u201d are not incompatible\u2014quite the opposite! Anthropologists long ago identified \u201cfemale farming systems,\u201d especially in parts of Africa and Southeast Asia, in which farming is predominantly a woman\u2019s job and men \u201chelp out\u201d as needed.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ester Boserup,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women\u2019s Role in Economic Development<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: St. Martin\u2019s Press, 1970);<\/span>\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Barbara D. Miller,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Cultural Anthropology<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Pearson\/Allyn and Bacon, 2012).<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In most agricultural societies, women who do not come from high-status or wealthy families perform a significant amount of agricultural labor, though it often goes unrecognized in the dominant gender ideology. Wet-rice agriculture, common in south and southeast Asia, is labor-intensive, particularly weeding and transplanting rice seedlings, which are often done by women (Figure 10). Harvesting rice, wheat, and other grains also entails essential input by women. Yet the Indian Census traditionally records only male family members as \u201cfarmers.\u201d In the United States, women\u2019s work on family-owned farms is often invisible.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Mauma Downie and Christina Gladwin,<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Florida Farm Wives: They Help the Family Farm Survive<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Gainesville: Food and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida, 1981).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Women may accommodate their reproductive and child-rearing roles by engaging in work that is more compatible with child care, such as cooking, and in activities that occur closer to home and are interruptible and perhaps less dangerous, though cooking fires, stoves, and implements such as knives certainly can cause harm!<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Judith K.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Brown, \u201cA Note on the Division of Labor by Sex,\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">American Anthropologist<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>\u00a0<\/em>72 (1970):1073\u201378.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> More often, women adjust their food-getting \u201cwork\u201d in response to the demands of pregnancy, breast-feeding, and other child care activities. They gather or process nuts while their children are napping; they take their children with them to the fields to weed or harvest and, in more recent times, to urban construction sites in places such as India, where women often do the heaviest (and lowest-paid) work.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In the United States, despite a long-standing cultural model of the stay-at-home mom, some mothers have always worked outside the home, mainly out of economic necessity. This shifting group includes single-divorced-widowed mothers and married African-Americans (pre- and post-slavery), immigrants, and Euro-American women with limited financial resources. But workplace policies (except during World War II) have historically made it harder rather than easier for women (and men) to carry out family responsibilities, including requiring married women and pregnant women to quit their jobs.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">See\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.momsrising.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.momsrising.org<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0for some contemporary examples of the challenges and obstacles workplaces pose for working mothers, as well as efforts to advocate for improved accommodation of parenting and working.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> Circumstances have not improved much. While pregnant women in the United States are no longer automatically dismissed from their jobs\u2014at least not legally\u2014the United States lags far behind most European countries in providing affordable <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3202345\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">child care<\/span><\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2013\/02\/23\/your-money\/us-trails-much-of-the-world-in-providing-paid-family-leave.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">paid parental leave<\/span><\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"H2\">Male Dominance: Universal and Biologically Rooted?<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Unraveling the myth of the hunting way of life and women\u2019s dependence on male hunting undermined the logic behind the argument for biologically rooted male dominance. Still, for feminist scholars, the question of male dominance remained important. Was it universal, \u201cnatural,\u201d inevitable, and unalterable? Were some societies gender-egalitarian? Was gender inequality a cultural phenomenon, a product of culturally and historically specific conditions?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Research in the 1970s and 1980s addressed these questions.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]See reviews in Naomi\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Quinn, \u201c<\/span>Anthropological Studies of Women\u2019s Status,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a06 (1977): 181\u2013225; Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">,\u00a0<\/span><em>\u201c<\/em>Anthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987<em>\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-17\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span>\u00a01<\/em>7 (1988):461\u201395.[\/footnote]<\/span> Some argued that \u201csexual asymmetry\u201d was universal and resulted from complex cultural processes related to women\u2019s reproductive roles.[footnote]Michelle Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Woman, Culture and Society<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974).[\/footnote]Others presented evidence of gender equality in small-scale societies (such as the !Kung San and Native American Iroquois) but argued that it had disappeared with the rise of private property and \u201cthe state.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Rayna Rapp Reiter, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Toward an Anthropology of Women<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Karen\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Sacks,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Sisters and Wives. The Past and Future of Sexual Equality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1979)<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> Still others focused on evaluating the \u201cstatus of women\u201d using multiple \u201cvariables\u201d or identifying \u201ckey determinants\u201d (e.g., economic, political, ecological, social, and cultural) of women\u2019s status.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Peggy\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Sanday,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> By the late 1980s, scholars realized how difficult it was to define, much less measure, male dominance across cultures and even the \u201cstatus of women\u201d in one culture.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Think of our own society or the area in which you live. How would you go about assessing the \u201cstatus of women\u201d to determine whether it is male-dominated? What would you examine? What information would you gather and from whom? What difficulties might you encounter when making a judgment? Might men and women have different views? Then imagine trying to compare the status of women in your region to the status of women in, let\u2019s say, the Philippines, Japan, or China or in a kin-based, small society like that of the Minangkabau living in Indonesia and the !Kung San in Botswana. Next, how might Martians, upon arriving in your city, decide whether you live in a \u201cmale dominated\u201d culture? What would they notice? What would they have difficulty deciphering? This experiment gives you an idea of what anthropologists confronted\u2014except they were trying to include all societies that ever existed. Many were accessible only through archaeological and paleontological evidence or through historical records, often made by travelers, sailors, or missionaries. Surviving small-scale cultures were surrounded by more-powerful societies that often imposed their cultures and gender ideologies on those under their control.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">For example, the !Kung San of Southern Africa when studied by anthropologists, had already been pushed by European colonial rulers into marginal areas. Most were living on \u201creserves\u201d similar to Indian reservations in the United States. Others lived in market towns and were sometimes involved in the tourist industry and in films such as the ethnographically flawed and ethnocentric film <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Gods Must Be Crazy <\/span><\/em>(1980). !Kung San women at the time were learning European Christian ideas about sexuality, clothing, and covering their breasts, and children were attending missionary-established schools, which taught the church\u2019s and European views of gender and spousal roles along with the Bible, Jesus, and the Virgin Mary. During the struggle against apartheid in South Africa, the South African military tried to recruit San to fight against the South West Africa People\u2019s Organization (SWAPO), taunting reluctant !Kung San men by calling them \u201cchicken\u201d and assuming, erroneously, that the !Kung San shared their \u201ctough guys\u00a0\/ tough guise\u201d version of masculinity.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]For an alternative ethnographic, research based video see\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>N!ai: The Story of a !Kung Woman<\/em>.\u00a0<\/span>1980.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Given the complexity of evaluating \u201cuniversal male dominance,\u201d scholars abandoned the search for simple \u201cglobal\u201d answers, for key \u201cdeterminants\u201d of women\u2019s status that would apply to all societies. A 1988 <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span> article by Mukhopadhyay and Higgins concluded that \u201cOne of the profound realizations of the past ten years is that the original questions, still unanswerable, may be both naive and inappropriate.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0<em>\u201c<\/em>Anthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-17\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a017 (1988), 462.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> Among other things, the concept of \u201cstatus\u201d contains at least five separate, potentially independent components: economics, power\/authority, prestige, autonomy, and gender ideologies\/beliefs. One\u2019s life-cycle stage, kinship role, class, and other socio-economic and social-identity variables affect one\u2019s gender status. Thus, even within a single culture, women\u2019s lives are not uniform.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Ibid.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\">New Directions in the Anthropology of Gender<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">More-recent research has been focused on improving the ethnographic and archaeological record and re-examining old material. Some have turned from cause-effect relations to better understanding how gender systems work and focusing on a single culture or cultural region. Others have explored a single topic, such as menstrual blood and cultural concepts of masculinity and infertility across cultures.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]See for example,<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0Evelyn Blackwood.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Webs of Power. Women, Kin, and Community in a Sumatran Village<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. 2000); Marcia Inhorn,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Infertility and Patriarchy: The Cultural Politics of Gender and Family Life in Egypt<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Thomas Buckley and Alma Gottlieb, ed. Blood Magic.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Anthropology of Menstruation.<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988);\u00a0<\/span>Marcia Inhorn, and Frank Van Balen, eds.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Infertility around the Globe: New Thinking on Childlessness, Gender and Reproductive Technologies<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Many American anthropologists \u201creturned home,\u201d looking with fresh eyes at the diversity of women\u2019s lives in their own society: working-class women, immigrant women, women of various ethnic and racial groups, and women in different geographic regions and occupations.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Johnnetta Cole, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">All American Women: Lines That Divide, Ties That Bind<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York:Free Press, 1986).Louise Lamphere, Helena Ragone and Patricia Zavella, eds.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Situated Lives: Gender and Culture in Everyday Life<\/span>.<\/em> (New York: Routledge, 1997).[\/footnote]<\/span> Some ethnographers, for example, immersed themselves in the abortion debates, conducting fieldwork to understand the perspective and logic behind pro-choice and anti-choice activists in North Dakota. Others headed to college campuses, studying the \u201cculture of romance\u201d or fraternity gang rape.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]See for example, Faye\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ginsburg.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Contested Lives: The Abortion Debate in an American Community<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Dorothy Holland and Margaret Eisenhart.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Educated in Romance.<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Chicago: University of Chicago, 1990); Peggy Sanday,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Fraternity Gang Rape: Sex, Brotherhood, and Privilege on Campus<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">. (New York: New York University Press, 2007).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span>Peggy Sanday\u2019s work on sexual coercion, including her cross-cultural study of rape-prone societies, was followed by other studies of power-coercion-gender relationships, such as using new reproductive technologies for selecting the sex of children.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Peggy Sanday, \u201cThe Socio-cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-cultural Study\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Journal of Social Issues<\/span><\/em>\u00a037 no. 5 (1981): 5\u201327. See also Conrad<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0Kottak,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Cultural Anthropology. Appreciating Cultural Diversity<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>\u00a0<\/em>(New York: McGraw Hill, 2013)<\/span>; Veena Das, Violence, Gender and Subjectivity,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Reviews of Anthropology<\/span>\u00a0<\/em>37 (2008):283\u2013299;\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Tulsi Patel, ed.<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Sex-Selective Abortion in India. Gender, Society and New Reproductive Technologies<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New Delhi, India: Sage Publications, 2007).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Many previously unexplored areas such as the discourse around reproduction, representations of women in medical professions, images in popular culture, and international development policies (which had virtually ignored gender) came under critical scrutiny.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Eleanor Leacock and Helen I. Safa, eds.,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women\u2019s Work: Development and the Division of Labor by Gender<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(South Hadley, MA: Bergin &amp; Garvey, 1986)<\/span>; Nandini Gunewardena and Ann Kingsolver, eds.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>The Gender of Globalization: Women Navigating Cultural and Economic Marginalities<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press, 2008); Kay B.<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Warren and Susan C. Bourque, \u201cWomen, Technology, and Development Ideologies. Frameworks and Findings,\u201d in Sandra Morgen, ed.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Critical Reviews for Research and Teaching<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association Publication, 1989), 382\u2013410<\/span>.[\/footnote]<\/span> Others worked on identifying complex local factors and processes that produce particular configurations of gender and gender relations, such as the <b>patrifocal<\/b> (male-focused) cultural model of family in many parts of India.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and Susan Seymour, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Women, Education and Family Structure in India<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Boulder: Westview Press, 1994).[\/footnote]<\/span> Sexuality studies expanded, challenging existing binary paradigms, making visible the lives of lesbian mothers and other traditionally marginalized sexualities and identities.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ellen Lewin,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Lesbian Mothers: Accounts of Gender in American Culture<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1993).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">The past virtual invisibility of women in archaeology disappeared as a host of new studies was published, often by feminist anthropologists, including a pioneering volume by Joan Gero and Margaret Conkey, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory<\/span>. That book gave rise to a multi-volume series specifically on gender and archaeology edited by Sarah Nelson. Everything from divisions of labor to power relations to sexuality could be scrutinized in the archaeological record.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]See<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0Joan Gero and Margaret Conkey, ed.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Engendering Archeology. Women and Prehistory<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); Sarah M.<\/span>\u00a0Nelson,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Worlds of Gender. The Archeology of Women\u2019s Lives Around the Globe<\/span>.<\/em> (Lanham, MD: Altamira, 2007). See also earlier volumes.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Rosemary A. Joyce,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Ancient Bodies, Ancient Lives: Sex, Gender and Archeology<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Thames and Hudson, 2008); Barbara Voss, \u201cSexuality Studies in Archeology,\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>\u00a037<\/em> (2008): 317\u2013336.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Some anthropologists argued that there are recurring patterns despite the complexity and variability of human gender systems. One is the impact of women\u2019s economic contributions on their power, prestige, and autonomy.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]The following analysis was developed by Mukhopadhyay in scholarly papers and in lecture notes.[\/footnote]<\/span> Women\u2019s work, alone, does not necessarily give them control or ownership of what they produce. It is not always valued and does not necessarily lead to political power. Women in many cultures engage in agricultural labor, but the fields are often owned and controlled by their husbands\u2019 families or by a landlord, as in many parts of India and Iran.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Mary E. Hegland,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Days of Revolution: Political Unrest in an Iranian Village<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015).[\/footnote]<\/span> The women have little authority, prestige, or autonomy.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]This analysis was developed by Mukhopadhyay in scholarly papers and in lecture notes. An example of this pattern from Iran is Mary E. Hegland,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Days of Revolution<\/span><\/em>.[\/footnote]<\/span> Many foraging and some horticultural societies, on the other hand, recognize women\u2019s economic and reproductive contributions, and that recognition may reflect relative equality in other spheres as well, including sexuality. Gender relations seem more egalitarian, overall, in small-scale societies such as the San, Trobrianders, and Na, in part because they are kinship-based, often with relatively few valuable resources that can be accumulated; those that exist are communally owned, usually by kinship groups in which both women and men have rights.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Another factor in gender equality is the social environment. Positive social relations\u2014an absence of constant hostility or warfare with neighbors\u2014seems to be correlated with relatively egalitarian gender relations. In contrast, militarized societies\u2014whether small-scale horticultural groups like the Sambia who perceive their neighbors as potential enemies or large-scale stratified societies with formal military organizations and vast empires\u2014seem to benefit men more than women overall.[footnote]Conrad\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Kottak,<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Cultural Anthropology. Appreciating Cultural Diversity<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">.<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">15th ed<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>.<\/em> (McGraw Hill, 2013).<\/span>[\/footnote]Warrior societies culturally value men\u2019s roles, and warfare gives men access to economic and political resources.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">As to old stereotypes about why men are warriors, there may be another explanation. From a reproductive standpoint, men are far more expendable than women, especially women of reproductive age.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]E.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Friedl,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women and Men: An Anthropologist\u2019s View<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">;<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0C. Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0<\/span><em>\u201cAnthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: 1977\u20131987.\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-17\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span>\u00a017 (1988): 461\u2013495.<\/em>[\/footnote]<\/span> While this theme has not yet been taken up by many anthropologists, male roles in warfare could be more about expendability than supposed greater male strength, aggressiveness, or courage. One can ask why it has taken so long for women in the United States to be allowed to fly combat missions? Certainly it is not about women not being strong enough to carry the plane.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]One 1970s male pilot, when asked about why there were no women pilots, said, without thinking, \u201cBecause women aren\u2019t strong enough to fly the plane!\u201d He then realized what he\u2019d said and laughed. From Mukhopadhyay, field notes, 1980.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><span style=\"background-color: #ffffff\">Patriarchy . . . But What about Matriarchy?<\/span><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">The rise of stratified agriculture-intensive centralized \u201cstates\u201d has tended to produce transformations in gender relations and gender ideologies that some have called <b>patriarchy<\/b>, a male-dominated political and authority structure and an ideology that privileges males over females overall and in every strata of society. Gender intersects with class and, often, with religion, caste, and ethnicity. So, while there could be powerful queens, males took precedence over females within royal families, and while upper-class Brahmin women in India could have male servants, they had far fewer formal assets, power, and rights than their brothers and husbands. Also, as noted earlier, families strictly controlled their movements, interactions with males, \u201csocial reputations,\u201d and marriages. Similarly, while twentieth-century British colonial women in British-controlled India had power over some Indian men, they still could not vote, hold high political office, control their own fertility or sexuality, or exercise other rights available to their male counterparts.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Ann Stoler, \u201cMaking Empire Respectable. The Politics of Race and Sexual Morality in Twentieth-century Colonial Cultures,\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Situated Lives. Gender and Culture in Everyday Life<\/span><\/em>, ed. Louise Lamphere, H. Ragone, and P. Zavella, 373\u2013399 (New York: Routledge, 1997).[\/footnote]<\/span> Of course, poor lower-class lower-caste Indian women were (and still are) the most vulnerable and mistreated in India, more so overall than their brothers, husbands, fathers, or sons.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">On the other hand, we have yet to find any \u201cmatriarchies,\u201d that is, female-dominated societies in which the extent and range of women\u2019s power, authority, status, and privilege parallels men\u2019s in patriarchal societies. In the twentieth century, some anthropologists at first confused \u201cmatriarchy\u201d with <b>matrilineal<\/b>. In matrilineal societies, descent or membership in a kinship group is transmitted from mothers to their children (male and female) and then, through daughters, to their children, and so forth (as in many Na families). Matrilineal societies create woman-centered kinship groups in which having daughters is often more important to \u201ccontinuing the line\u201d than having sons, and living arrangements after marriage often center around related women in a <b>matrilocal<\/b> extended family household (See Text Box 1, What Can We Learn from the Na?). Female sexuality may become less regulated since it is the mother who carries the \u201cseed\u201d of the lineage. In this sense, it is the reverse of the kinds of patrilineal, patrilocal, patrifocal male-oriented kinship groups and households one finds in many patriarchal societies. Peggy Sanday suggested, on these and other grounds, that the Minangkabau, a major ethnic group in Indonesia, is a matriarchy.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Peggy Sanday,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Women at the Center: Life in a Modern Matriarchy<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2002).[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Ethnographic data have shown that males, especially as members of matrilineages, can be powerful in matrilineal societies. Warfare, as previously mentioned, along with political and social stratification can alter gender dynamics. The Nayar (in Kerala, India), the Minangkabau, and the Na are matrilineal societies embedded in, or influenced by, dominant cultures and patriarchal religions such as Islam and Hinduism. The society of the Na in China is also <b>matrifocal<\/b> in some ways. Thus, the larger context, including contemporary global processes, can undermine women\u2019s power and status.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Mukhopadhyay, lecture notes, Gender and Culture.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]\u00a0<\/span>At the same time, though, many societies are clearly matrifocal, are relatively female-centered, and do not have the kinds of gender ideologies and systems found in most patriarchal societies.[footnote]See for instance Annette B. Weiner,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Trobrianders of Papua New Guinea<\/span><\/em>;<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>A World Full of Women;<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Carolyn B. Brettell and Carolyn F. Sargent, eds.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective.<\/span><\/em>\u00a0[\/footnote]Text Boxes 1 and 2 provide examples of such systems.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3 class=\"Text-Box-head\">Does Black Matriarchy Exist in Brazil? Histories of Slavery and African Cultural Survivals in Afro-Brazilian Religion<\/h3>\r\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-author\">By Abby Gondek<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\"><span class=\"CharOverride-10\">Candombl\u00e9<\/span> is an Afro-Brazilian spirit possession religion in which Yoruba (West African) deities called <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">orix\u00e1s<\/span> are honored at religious sites called <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">terreiros<\/span> where the Candombl\u00e9 priestesses (<span class=\"CharOverride-10\">m\u00e3es do santo<\/span>) and their \u201cdaughters\u201d (<span class=\"CharOverride-10\">filhas do santo<\/span>) live. One of the central \u201chubs\u201d of Candombl\u00e9 worship in Brazil is the northeastern state of Bahia, where Afro-Brazilns make up more than 80\u00a0percent of the population in the capital city, Salvador. Brazil\u2019s geography is perceived through the lenses of race and class since Bahia, a majority Afro-Brazilian state, is viewed as underdeveloped, backward, and poor relative to the whiter and wealthier Southern region.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\">[footnote]Kirsten Marie Ernst,<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>\u201cRios, Pontes E Overdrives:\u201d Northeastern Regionalism in a Globalized Brazil<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); John Collins, \u201c\u2018BUT WHAT IF I SHOULD NEED TO DEFECATE IN YOUR NEIGHBORHOOD, MADAME?\u2019: Empire, Redemption, and the \u2018Tradition of the Oppressed\u2019 in a Brazilian World Heritage Site,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cultural Anthropology<\/span>\u00a023<\/em> no. 2 (2012): 279\u2013328; Jan Rocha, \u201cAnalysis: Brazil\u2019s \u2018Racial Democracy\u2019\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">BBC News<\/span><\/em>, April 19, 2000; Allan Charles Dawson, \u201cFood and Spirits: Religion, Gender, and Identity in the \u2018African\u2019 Cuisine of Northeast Brazil,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">African and Black Diaspora<\/span>\u00a05<\/em> (2012): 243\u2013263; Alan P Marcus, \u201cSex, Color and Geography: Racialized Relations in Brazil and Its Predicaments\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Annals of the Association of American Geographers<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>103(5): 1282\u20131299.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">In the 1930s, a Jewish female anthropologist Ruth Landes provided a different perspective about Bahia, one that emphasized black women\u2019s communal power. During the time in which Landes conducted her research, the Brazilian police persecuted Candombl\u00e9 communities for \u201charboring communists.\u201d The Brazilian government was linked with Nazism, torture, rape, and racism, and Afro-Brazilians resisted this oppression.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\">[footnote]Ruth Landes,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The<\/span>\u00a0<\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>City of Women<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(New York: The MacMillan Company, 1947), 2, 6\u201313, 61\u201364, 92, 106.[\/footnote]<\/span> Also during this period, debate began among social scientists about whether Candombl\u00e9 was a matriarchal religion in which women were the primary spiritual leaders. The debate was rooted in the question of where \u201cblack matriarchy\u201d came from. Was it a result of the history of slavery or was it an African \u201ccultural survival\u201d? The debate was simultaneously about the power and importance of Afro-Brazilian women in spiritual and cultural life.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">On one side of the debate was E. Franklin Frazier, an African-American sociologist trained at University of Chicago, who maintained that Candombl\u00e9 and the lack of legal marriage gave women their important position in Bahia. He believed that black women had been matriarchal authorities since the slavery period and described them as defiant and self-reliant. On the other side of the debate was anthropologist Melville Herskovits, who was trained by German immigrant Franz Boas at Columbia University. Herskovits believed that black women\u2019s economic roles demonstrated African cultural survivals, but downplayed the priestesses\u2019 importance in Candombl\u00e9.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\">[footnote]<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">E. Franklin Frazier<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cThe Negro Family in Bahia, Brazil\u201d\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">American <em>Sociological Review<\/em><\/span><em><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a07<\/span><\/em>\u00a0no.\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">4<\/span>\u00a0(1942)<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">: 476\u2013477<\/span>;\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">E. Franklin Frazier<\/span>,\u00a0<em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">The Negro Family in the United States<\/span><\/em><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a0(Chicago: University of Chicago,<\/span>\u00a01939),<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a01<\/span>25.\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">For the opposing view<\/span>, see\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Mark Alan Healey<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201c\u2018The Sweet Matriarchy of Bahia\u2019: Ruth Landes\u2019 Ethnography of Race and Gender<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201d\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">Disposition:<\/span>\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\"><em>The Cultural Practice of Latinamericanism II<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">23<\/span>\u00a0no. 50 (1998)<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">: 101<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\">[\/footnote]<\/span> Herskovits portrayed patriarchy rather than matriarchy as the central organizing principle in Bahia. He argued that African cultural survivals in Brazil came from the patrilineal practices of Dahomey and Yoruba in West Africa and portrayed Bahian communities as male-centered with wives and \u201cconcubines\u201d catering to men and battling each other for male attention.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Ruth Landes and her work triggered the debate about \u201cblack matriarchy\u201d in Bahia. Landes had studied with anthropologists Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict at Columbia University. She began her studies of Candombl\u00e9 in 1938 in Salvador, Bahia, working with her research partner, guide, and significant other, Edison Carneiro, a scholar of Afro-Brazilian studies and journalist, resulting in publication in 1947 of <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">The City of Women<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\">[footnote]See\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Melville J. Herskovits<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cThe Negro in Bahia, Brazil: A Problem in Method\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">American Sociological Review<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a08<\/span><\/em>\u00a0no. 4 (1943)<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">: 395\u2013396<\/span>; Edison Carneiro, \u201cLetters from Edison Carneiro to Ruth Landes: Dating from September 28, 1938 to March 14, 1946\u201d (Washington, DC: Box 2 Ruth Landes Papers, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, 1938); Ruth Landes,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>The City of Women<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(New York: MacMillan Company, 1947).[\/footnote]<\/span> Landes contended that Afro-Brazilian women were the powerful matriarchal leaders of <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">terreiros<\/span> de Candombl\u00e9. She called them matriarchal because she argued that their leadership was \u201cmade up almost exclusively of women and, in any case controlled by women.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\">[footnote]Ruth\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Landes<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cFetish Worship in Brazil\u201d<\/span>\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Journal of American Folklore<\/span>\u00a053<\/em> no. 210(1940):\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">261<\/span>.[\/footnote]<\/span> Landes claimed that the women provided spiritual advice and sexual relationships in exchange for financial support from male patrons of the <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">terreiros. <\/span>She also explained that newer <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">caboclo<\/span> houses (in which indigenous spirits were worshipped in addition to Yoruba spirits) had less-stringent guidelines and allowed men to become priests and dance for the gods, actions considered taboo in the Yoruba tradition. Landes elaborated that these men were primarily \u201cpassive\u201d homosexuals. She looked down on this \u201cmodern\u201d development, which she viewed as detracting from the supposedly \u201cpure\u201d woman-centered Yoruba (West African) practices.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\">[footnote]<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Ruth Landes<\/span>,\u00a0<em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">The City of Women<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">New York: MacMillan Company,\u00a0<\/span>1947),\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">31\u201332, 37<\/span>.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Even Landes\u2019 (controversial) argument about homosexuality was part of her claim about matriarchy; she contended that the homosexual men who became <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">pais do santo<\/span> (\u201cfathers of the saint,\u201d or Candombl\u00e9 priests) had previously been \u201coutcasts\u201d\u2014prostitutes and vagrants who were hounded by the police. By becoming like the \u201cmothers\u201d and acting as women, they could gain status and respect. Landes was strongly influenced by both Edison Carneiro\u2019s opinion and the convictions of Martiniano Eliseu do Bonfim (a revered <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">babala\u00f4<\/span> or \u201cfather of the secrets\u201d) and the women priestesses of the traditional houses (<span class=\"CharOverride-10\">Gantois<\/span>, <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">Casa Branca<\/span>, and<span class=\"CharOverride-10\"> Il\u00ea Ax\u00e9 Op\u00f4 Afonj\u00e1<\/span>) with whom she spent the majority of her time. Thus, her writings likely represent the views of her primary informants, making her work unique; at that time, anthropologists (ethnocentrically) considered themselves more knowledgeable about the cultures they studied than the people in those cultures.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Landes incorporated ideas from the pre-Brazil research of E. Franklin Frazier and Melville Herskovits to contend that the existence of the matriarchy in Bahia rested on women\u2019s economic positions, sexuality, and capacities, which were influenced by (1) white slave owners\u2019 preference for black women as heads of families and the inculcation of leadership traits in black women and not black men and (2) the history of women\u2019s roles as property owners, market sellers, priestesses, and warriors in West Africa.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\">[footnote]<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Ruth Landes<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cNegro Slavery and Female Status\u201d<\/span>\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">African Affairs<\/span><\/em>\u00a052 no. 206 (1953):<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a055<\/span>. Also,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Ruth Landes<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cA Cult Matriarchate and Male Homosexuality\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology<\/span><\/em><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a035<\/span>\u00a0no. 3 (1940)<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">: 38<\/span>6\u2013387, 393\u2013394; Ru<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">th Landes<\/span>, \u201c<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Negro Slavery and Female Status,\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">African Affairs<\/span><\/em><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a052<\/span>\u00a0no.\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">206 (1953<\/span>)<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">: 55\u201357<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\">[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Landes\u2019 findings continue to be critiqued in contemporary academic contexts because some scholars disagree with her matriarchy thesis and her views about homosexual <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">pais<\/span> and <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">filhos do santo<\/span>. J.\u00a0Lorand Matory, director of African and African-American research at Duke University, has taken one of the strongest positions against Landes, arguing that she altered the evidence to argue for the existence of the \u201c<span class=\"CharOverride-10\">cult matriarchate<\/span>.\u201d Matory believes that her division between \u201cnew\u201d and \u201ctraditional\u201d houses is a false one and that men traditionally were the leaders in Candombl\u00e9. In fact, Matory contends that, at the time of Landes\u2019 research, more men than women were acting as priests.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\">[footnote]<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">J<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a0Lorand Matory<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cGendered Agendas: The Secrets Scholars Keep about Yor\u00f9b\u00e1-Atlantic Religion,\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">Gender &amp; History<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a015<\/span><\/em>\u00a0no. 3 (2003)<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">:\u00a0<\/span>413[\/footnote]<\/span> In contrast, Cheryl Sterling sees Landes\u2019 <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">The City of Women<\/span> as \u201cstill relevant today as the first feminist account of Candombl\u00e9\u201d and maintains that Candombl\u00e9 is a space in which Afro-Brazilian women are the \u201csupreme authority\u201d and that the <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">terreiro<\/span> is an enclave of \u201cfemale power.\u201d The Brazilian state stereotypes black women as socially pathological with \u201cunstable\u201d family structures, making them \u201csub-citizens,\u201d but Sterling argues that Candombl\u00e9 is a space in which female blackness prevails.[footnote]Cheryl Sterling, \u201cWomen-Space, Power, and the Sacred in Afro-Brazilian Culture,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Global South<\/span><\/em>\u00a04 no. 1 (2010): 71\u201393.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"Text-Box-head\">CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO STUDYING SEXUALITY AND GENDER<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Contemporary anthropology now recognizes the crucial role played by gender in human society. Anthropologists in the post-2000 era have focused on exploring fluidity within and beyond sexuality, incorporating a gendered lens in all anthropological research, and applying feminist science frameworks, discourse-narrative analyses, political theory, critical studies of race, and queer theory to better understand and theorize gendered dynamics and power. Pleasure, desire, trauma, mobility, boundaries, reproduction, violence, coercion, bio-politics, globalization, neoliberal \u201cdevelopment\u201d policies and discourses, immigration, and other areas of anthropological inquiry have also informed gender and sexuality studies. We next discuss some of those trends.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]There is a huge body of research on these (and other) topics that we simply have not been able to cover in one chapter of a book. We hope the material and references we have provided will give readers a starting point for further investigation![\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"H2\">Heteronormativity and Sexuality in the United States<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In the long history of human sexual relationships, we see that most involve people from different biological sexes, but some societies recognize and even celebrate partnerships between members of the same biological sex.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Many gender studies scholars have moved away from labeling people \u201cbiologically female\u201d or \u201cbiologically male,\u201d shifting instead to terms like \u201cassigned female at birth\u201d and \u201cassigned male at birth.\u201d Terms that foreground assignment help recognize the fluidity of gender identity and the existence of intersex people who do not fit neatly into those categories.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> In some places, religious institutions formalize unions while in others unions are recognized only once they result in a pregnancy or live birth. Thus, what many people in the United States consider \u201cnormal,\u201d such as the partnership of one man and one woman in a sexually exclusive relationship legitimized by the state and federal government and often sanctioned by a religious institution, is actually <b>heteronormative<\/b>. <b>Heteronormativity<\/b> is a term coined by French philosopher Michel Foucault to refer to the often-unnoticed system of rights and privileges that accompany normative sexual choices and family formation. For example, a \u201cbiologically female\u201d woman attracted to a \u201cbiologically male\u201d man who pursued that attraction and formed a relationship with that man would be following a heteronormative pattern in the United States. If she married him, she would be continuing to follow societal expectations related to gender and sexuality and would be agreeing to state involvement in her love life as she formalizes her relationship.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Despite pervasive messages reinforcing heteronormative social relations, people find other ways to satisfy their sexual desires and organize their families. Many people continue to choose partners from the so-called \u201copposite\u201d sex, a phrase that reflects the old U.S. bipolar view of males and females as being at opposite ends of a range of characteristics (strong-weak, active-passive, hard-soft, outside-inside, Mars-Venus).[footnote]Carol C. Mukhopadhyay, \u201cA Feminist Cognitive Anthropology: The Case of Women and Mathematics\u201d <em>Ethos<\/em> 32 no. 4 (2004): 458\u2013492.[\/footnote]Others select partners from the same biological sex. Increasingly, people are choosing partners who attract them\u2014perhaps female, perhaps male, and perhaps someone with ambiguous physical sexual characteristics.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Labels have changed rapidly in the United States during the twenty-first century as a wider range of sexual orientations has been openly acknowledged, accompanied by a shift in our binary view of sexuality. Rather than thinking of individuals as either heterosexual OR homosexual, scholars and activists now recognize a <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">spectrum<\/span> of sexual orientations. Given the U.S. focus on identity, it is not surprising that a range of new personhood categories, such as bisexual, queer, questioning, lesbian, and gay have emerged to reflect a more-fluid, shifting, expansive, and ambiguous conception of sexuality and sexual identity.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\"><b>Transgender<\/b>, meanwhile, is a category for people who transition from one sex to another, male to female or female to male, using a number of methods. Anthropologist David Valentine explored how the concept of \u201ctransgender\u201d became established in the United States and found that many people who were identified by others as transgender did not embrace the label themselves. This label, too, has undergone a profound shift in usage, and the high-profile transition by <a href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?as_ylo=2016&amp;q=caitlyn+jenner+gender&amp;hl=en&amp;as_sdt=1,41\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Caitlyn Jenner<\/span><\/a> in the mid-2010s has further shifted how people think about those who identify as transgender.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]David Valentine,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Imagining Transgender: An Ethnography of a Category\u00a0<\/span><\/em>(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007). See also Jessi Hempel, \u201cMy Brother\u2019s Pregnancy and the Making of a New American Family\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">TIME<\/span><\/em>\u00a0September 2016.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/time.com\/4475634\/trans-man-pregnancy-evan.\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/time.com\/4475634\/trans-man-pregnancy-evan.\/<\/span><\/a>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">By 2011, an estimated 8.7 million people in the United States identified as lesbian, gay, bisexual, and\/or transgender.[footnote]\u00a0Gary G. Gates, \u201cHow Many People are Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender?\u201d University of California, Los Angeles: Williams Institute, 2011.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/research\/census-lgbt-demographics-studies\/how-many-people-are-lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender.\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/research\/census-lgbt-demographics-studies\/how-many-people-are-lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender.\/<\/span><\/a>\u00a0[\/footnote]These communities represent a vibrant, growing, and increasingly politically and economically powerful segment of the population. While people who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender\u2014or any of a number of other sexual and gender minorities\u2014have existed throughout the United States\u2019 history, it is only since the Stonewall uprisings of 1969 that the modern LGBT movement has been a key force in U.S. society.[footnote]David Carter,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Stonewall: The Riots that Sparked a Gay Revolution<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(St. Martin\u2019s Griffin, 2010); Eric Marcus,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Making Gay History: The Half-Century Fight for Lesbian and Gay Equal Rights<\/span><\/em><span xml:lang=\"ar-SA\">\u00a0(<\/span>New York: Harper Collins, 2002).\u00a0[\/footnote]Some activists, community members, and scholars argue that LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and\/or transgender) is a better choice of labels than GLBT since it puts lesbian identity in the foreground\u2014a key issue because the term \u201cgay\u201d is often used as an umbrella term and can erase recognition of individuals who are not gay males. Recently, the acronym has been expanded to include LGBTQ (queer or questioning), LGBTQQ (both queer and questioning), LGBTQIA (queer\/questioning, intersex, and\/or asexual), and LGBTQAIA (adding allies as well).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">Like the U.S. population overall, the LGBTQ community is extremely diverse. Some African-Americans prefer the term \u201csame-gender loving\u201d because the other terms are seen as developed by and for \u201cwhite people.\u201d Emphasizing the importance and power of words, Jafari Sinclaire Allen explains that \u201csame-gender loving\u201d was \u201ccoined by the black queer activist Cleo Manago [around 1995] to mark a distinction between \u2018gay\u2019 and \u2018lesbian\u2019 culture and identification, and black men and women who have sex with members of the same sex.\u201d[footnote]Jafari Sinclaire Allen, \u201c\u2018In the Life\u2019 In Diaspora: Autonomy \/ Desire \/ Community,\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Routledge Handbook of Sexuality, Health and Rights<\/span>,<\/em> ed. Peter Aggleton and Richard Parker (New York: Routledge, 2010), 459.\u00a0[\/footnote]While scholars continue to use gay, lesbian, and queer and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control uses MSM (men who have sex with men), \u201csame-gender loving\u201d resonates in some urban communities.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Not everyone who might fit one of the LGBTQQIA designations consciously identifies with a group defined by sexual orientation. Some people highlight their other identities, as Minnesotans, for example, or their ethnicity, religion, profession, or hobby\u2014whatever they consider central and important in their lives. Some scholars argue that heteronormativity allows people who self-identify as heterosexual the luxury of not being defined by their sexual orientation. They suggest that those who identify with the sex and gender they were assigned at birth be referred to as <b>cisgender<\/b>.[footnote]\u00a0Kristen Schilt and Laurel Westbrook, \u201cDoing Gender, Doing Heteronormativity: \u2018Gender Normals,\u2019 Transgender People, and the Social Maintenance of Heterosexuality\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Gender and Society<\/span><\/em>\u00a023 no. 4 (2009): 440\u2013464.[\/footnote]Only when labels are universal rather than used only for non-normative groups, they argue, will people become aware of discrimination based on differences in sexual preference.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Though people are urging adoption of sexual identity labels, not everyone is embracing the move to self-identify in a specific category. Thus, a man who is attracted to both men and women might self-identify as bisexual and join activist communities while another might prefer not to be incorporated into any sexual-preference-based politics. Some people prefer to eliminate acronyms altogether, instead embracing terms such as <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">genderfluid<\/span> and <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">genderqueer <\/span>that recognize a spectrum instead of a static identity<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">.<\/span> This freedom to self-identify or avoid categories altogether is important. Most of all, these shifts and debates demonstrate that, like the terms themselves, LGBTQ communities in the United States are diverse and dynamic with often-changing priorities and makeup.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\">Changing Attitudes toward LGBTQ People in the United States<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In the last two decades, attitudes toward LGBTQ\u2014particularly lesbian, gay and bisexual\u2014people have changed dramatically. The most sweeping change is the extension of marriage rights to lesbian, gay, and bisexual people. The first state to extend marriage rights was Massachusetts in 2003. By 2014, more than half of U.S. Americans said they believed same-sex couples should have the right to marry, and on June 26, 2015, in <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Obergefell v. Hodges<\/span>, the U.S. supreme court declared that same-sex couples had the legal right to marry.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Justin McCarthy, \u201cSame-Sex Marriage Support Reaches New High at 55%.\u201d Gallup.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.gallup.com\/poll\/169640\/sex-marriage-support-reaches-new-high.aspx\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.gallup.com\/poll\/169640\/sex-marriage-support-reaches-new-high.aspx<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span> Few civil rights movements have seen such progress in such a short period of time. While many factors have influenced the shift in attitudes, sociologists and anthropologists have identified increased awareness of and exposure to LGBTQ people through the media and personal interactions as playing key roles.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Ellen Lewin and William Leap,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Out in Theory: The Emergence of Lesbian and Gay Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002); William Leap and Ellen Lewin,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Out in the Field: Reflections of Lesbian and Gay Anthropologist<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996).[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">Legalization of same-sex marriage also helped normalize same-sex parenting. Sarah, whose three young children\u2014including a set of twins\u2014are mothered by Sarah and her partner, was active in campaigns for marriage equality in Minnesota and ecstatic when the campaign succeeded in 2013 (see Text Box 4).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">However, legalization of same-sex marriage has not been welcomed everywhere in the United States. Anthropologist Jessica Johnson\u2019s ethnographic work profiling a Seattle-based megachurch from 2006 through 2008 initially explored their efforts to oppose same-sex marriage. Later, she shifted her focus to the rhetoric of gender, masculinity, and cisgender sexuality used by the church and its pastor.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Jessica Johnson, \u201cThe Citizen-Soldier: Masculinity, War, and Sacrifice at an Emerging Church in Seattle, Washington.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Political and Legal Anthropology Review<\/span><\/em>\u00a033 no. 2 (2010): 326\u2013351.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> Official church communications dismissed homosexuality as aberrant and mobilized members to advocate against same-sex marriage. The church\u2019s efforts were not successful.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">Interestingly, activists and gender studies scholars express concern over incorporating marriage\u2014a heteronormative institution some consider oppressive\u2014into queer spaces not previously governed by state authority. These concerns may be overshadowed by a desire for normative lives and legal protections, but as sociologist Tamara Metz and others have argued, legally intertwining passion, romance, sexual intimacy, and economic rights and responsibilities is not necessarily a move in the right direction.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Tamara Metz,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Untying the Knot: Marriage, the State, and the Case for Their Divorce<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010).[\/footnote]<\/span> As Miriam Smith has written, \u201cWe must move beyond thinking of same-sex marriage and relationship recognition as struggles that pit allegedly normalized or assimilated same-sex couples against queer politics and sensibilities and, rather, recognize the increasingly complex gender politics of same-sex marriage and relationship recognition, a politics that implicates groups beyond the LGBT community.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Miriam Smith, \u201cGender Politics and the Same-Sex Marriage Debate in the United States,\u201d Social Politics 17 no. 1 (2010): 1\u201328. Quote is on p.1[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">While U.S. culture on the whole has become more supportive and accepting of LGBTQ people, they still face challenges. Sexual orientation and gender identity are not federally protected statuses. Thus, in 32 states (as of 2016), employers can legally refuse to hire and can fire someone simply for being LGBTQ.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]\u00a0Luke Malone, \u201cHere Are The 32 States Where You Can Be Fired For Being LGBT,\u201d Vocativ.com, February 12, 2015.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.vocativ.com\/culture\/lgbt\/lgbt-rights-kansas\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.vocativ.com\/culture\/lgbt\/lgbt-rights-kansas\/<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span> Even in states where queer people have legal protection, transgender and other gender-diverse people do not. LGBTQ people can be legally denied housing and other important resources heterosexual people take for granted. LGBTQ youth made up 40 percent of homeless young people in the United States in 2012 and are often thrust into homelessness by family rejection.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>The Williams Institute. 2012. \u201cAmerica\u2019s Shame: 40% of Homeless Youth are LGBT Kids.\u201d San Diego Gay and Lesbian News, 13 July.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/americas-shame-40-of-homeless-youth-are-lgbt-kids\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/americas-shame-40-of-homeless-youth-are-lgbt-kids\/<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> Transgender people are the most vulnerable and experience high levels of violence, including homicide. See Activity 4: Bathroom Transgression.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h2 class=\"Text-Box-head\">Moving Toward Marriage Equality in Minnesota: Sarah\u2019s Letter<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">In 2013, the Minnesota state legislature voted on whether to approve same-sex marriage.\u00a0Before the vote, a woman named Sarah made the difficult decision to advocate publicly for the bill\u2019s approval. In the process, she wrote the following letter.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">Dear Minnesota Senator,<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">This is an open letter to you in support of the marriage equality bill. I may not be your constituent, and you may already know how you are planning to vote, but I ask you to read this letter with an open mind and heart nonetheless.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">I want same-sex marriage for the same reasons as many others. My partner Abby and I met in the first days of 2004 and have created a loving home together with our three kids and two cats. We had a commitment ceremony in 2007 in Minneapolis and were legally married in Vancouver during our \u201choneymoon.\u201d We want our marriage to be recognized because our kids deserve to have married parents, and because we constantly face increased stress as a result of having our relationship not recognized. But that\u2019s not why I\u2019m writing. I\u2019m writing because there is one conversation I have over and over again with my son that puts a pit in my stomach each time, and I\u2019m ready for that pit to go away.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Abby and I both wear wedding bands. We designed them prior to our ceremony and spent more time on that decision than we did on the flowers, dresses, and music combined. Our son is now three and a half and, like other kids his age, he asks about everything. All the time. When I get him dressed, change his diaper (please let him be potty-trained soon), or wipe his nose, he sees my ring. And he always asks:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first ParaOverride-11\">\u201cMama, what\u2019s that ring on your finger?\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">\u201cIt\u2019s my wedding band.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first ParaOverride-11\">\u201cWhy you wear a wedding band?\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">\u201cBecause when Ima and I got married, we picked out wedding bands and now we wear them every day. It shows that we love each other.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first ParaOverride-11\">\u201cI want wear wedding band.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">\u201cSomeday when you\u2019re all grown up, you\u2019ll fall in love and get married. And you\u2019ll get to wear a wedding band, too.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first ParaOverride-11\">\u201cI\u2019ll grow up and get married? And then I get a wedding band?\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">\u201cYep.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first ParaOverride-11\">\u201cOkay.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">And then he goes about his day. This conversation may seem silly and harmless to you, but read it again. Look at how many times the issue of marriage comes up. We call it a wedding band, but every time we say that, we know it\u2019s not completely true because we were not legally wed in Minnesota. When I tell my son about our marriage or our wedding, I know I\u2019m hiding a secret from him, but am I really supposed to explain that it was a \u201ccommitment ceremony\u201d and we are \u201ccommitted, but not \u201cmarried\u201d? He\u2019s too young to be saddled with the pain that comes from being left out. He looks at our pictures and sees that his parents made a commitment to each other because of love. He doesn\u2019t understand his grandfather\u2019s speech recognizing how bittersweet the day was because the state we call home refused to bless our union as it blesses the unions of our friends. And he doesn\u2019t understand that, when I tell him he will grow up and get married, his marriage will (most likely) be part of a tradition from which his parents are excluded.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_301\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"900\"]<img class=\"wp-image-301 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163952\/gender_figure_19-e1512756476992.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"900\" height=\"594\" \/> Figure 19: Sarah's family photo[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\"><\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">I am grateful that he is blissfully unaware right now. Imagine having the conversation with your children. Imagine the pain you would feel if innocent conversations with your child reminded you constantly that your love is not valued by your community. Don\u2019t get me wrong; our friends and family treated our ceremony as they would a legal wedding. We had a phenomenal time with good food, music, laughter, and joy. If our ceremony in Minneapolis had been enough, though, we wouldn\u2019t have bothered to get legally married in Vancouver. There is something so powerful and intangible about walking into a government office and walking out with a marriage license. We are grateful we had the opportunity there, and simply wish our state would recognize our commitment as the marriage that it is.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Take a look at the picture of my family. It\u2019s outdated, primarily because we can\u2019t get our kids to sit still long enough for a photo. I\u2019m on the right, Abby on the left. Our son is now 3.5 and our girls (twins) are almost 2. We can appreciate that this is a difficult vote for many of you and we would be honored if you think of our family and the impact this vote will have on us. We know many people outside of the Twin Cities never have a chance to meet families like ours. Tell them about us, if it helps. We are happy to answer any questions you may have. Thank you for reading.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">Sincerely,<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">Sarah<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">Minneapolis, Minnesota<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">April 2013<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first-last\"><strong><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Note<\/span><\/strong>: Minnesota legalized same-sex marriage in 2013.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 class=\"H2\">Sexuality outside the United States<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Same-sex sexual and romantic relationships probably exist in every society, but concepts like \u201cgay,\u201d \u201clesbian,\u201d and \u201cbisexual\u201d are cultural products that, in many ways, reflect a culturally specific gender ideology and a set of beliefs about how sexual preferences develop. In many cultures (such as the Sambia discussed above), same-sex sex is a behavior, not an identity. Some individuals in India identify as practicing \u201cfemale-female sexuality\u201d or \u201cmale-male sexuality.\u201d The film <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Fire<\/span> by Mira Nair aroused tremendous controversy in India partly because it depicted a same-sex relationship between two married women somewhat graphically and because it suggested alternatives available to women stuck in unhappy and abusive patriarchal marriages.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Fire<\/span><\/em>, film by Mira Nair. 1996.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=i2yW8BtM8sw\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=i2yW8BtM8sw<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span> Whether one is \u201chomosexual\u201d or \u201cheterosexual\u201d may not be linked simply to engaging in same-sex sexual behavior. Instead, as among some Brazilian males, your status in the sexual relationship, literally and symbolically, depends on (or determines!) whether you are the inserter or the penetrated.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Don Kulick, \u201cThe Gender of Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-17\">American Anthropologist<\/span>\u00a099 no. 3 (1997): 574\u2013585.<\/em>[\/footnote]<\/span> Which would you expect involves higher status?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Even anthropologists who are sensitive to cross-cultural variations in the terms and understandings that accompany same-sex sexual and romantic relationships can still unconsciously project their own meanings onto other cultures. Evelyn Blackwood, an American, described how surprised she was to realize that her Sumatran lover, who called herself a \u201cTombois,\u201d had a different conception of what constituted a \u201clesbian\u201d identity and lesbian relationship than she did.[footnote]Evelyn Blackwood, \u201cTombois in West Sumatra: Constructing Masculinity and Erotic Desire,\u201d in <em>Feminist Anthropology: A Reader<\/em>, ed. Ellen Lewin, 411\u2013434 (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006).[\/footnote]\u00a0We must be careful not to assume that other cultures share LGBTQ identities as they are understood in the United States and many European countries.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Furthermore, each country has its own approach to sexuality and marriage, and reproduction often plays a central role. In Israel, an embrace of pro-natalist policies for Jewish Israelis has meant that expensive reproductive technologies such as in\u00a0vitro fertilization are provided to women at no cost or are heavily subsidized. An Israeli gay activist described how surprised queer activists from other countries were when they found that nearly all Israeli female same-sex couples were raising children. (This embrace of same-sex parenting did not extend to male couples, for whom the state did not provide assisted reproductive support.) The pro-natalist policies can be traced in part to Israel\u2019s emergence as a state: founded in the aftermath of persecution and systematic genocide of Jewish residents of Europe from 1937 through 1945, Israel initially promoted policies that encouraged births at least in part as resistance to Nazi attempts to destroy the Jewish people. The contexts may be less dramatic elsewhere, but local and national histories often inform policies and practices.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In Thailand, Ara Wilson has explored how biological women embrace identities as <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">toms<\/span> and <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">dees<\/span>. Although these terms seem to be derived from English-language concepts (<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">dees <\/span>is etymologically related to \u201cladies\u201d), suggesting international influences, the ubiquity and acceptance of <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">toms<\/span> and <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">dees<\/span> in Thailand does diverge from patterns in the United States.[footnote]Ara Wilson, <em>The Intimate Economies of Bangkok: Tomboys, Tycoons, and Avon Ladies in the Global City<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In China (as elsewhere), the experiences of those involved in male-male sexuality and those involved in female-female sexuality can differ. In her book <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Shanghai Lalas: Female Tongzhi Communities and Politics in Urban China<\/span>, Lucetta Yip Lo Kam discusses how lesbians in China note their lack of public social spaces compared with gay men.[footnote]Lucetta Yip Lo Kam, <em>Shanghai Lalas: Female Tongzhi Communities and Politics in Urban China<\/em>. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2012).[\/footnote]\u00a0Even the words <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">lala <\/span>and <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">tongzhi<\/span> index different categories from the English terms: <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">lala <\/span>encompasses lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered people while <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">tongzhi <\/span>is a gloss term that usually refers to gay men but has been expanded in the last two decades to other uses. (<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Tongzhi<\/span> is a cooptation of the Chinese-language socialist-era term for <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">comrade<\/span>.)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Language makes a difference in how individuals and communities articulate their identities. Anthropologists such as Kam have commented on how sharing their own backgrounds with those with whom they work can be instrumental in gaining trust and building rapport. Her identity as a Chinese-speaking queer anthropologist and activist from Hong Kong helped women in Shanghai feel comfortable speaking with her and willing to include her in their networks.[footnote] Ibid.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">From these examples, we see that approaches to sexuality in different parts of the world are evolving, just as gender norms in the United States are undergoing tremendous shifts. Anthropologists often cross boundaries to research these changes, and their contributions will continue to shape understandings of the broad range of approaches to sexuality.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"H2\">Masculinity Studies<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Students in gender studies and anthropology courses on gender are often surprised to find that they will be learning about men as well as women. Early women\u2019s studies initially employed what has been called an \u201cadd women and stir\u201d approach, which led to examinations of gender as a social construct and of women\u2019s issues in contemporary society. In the 1990s, women\u2019s studies expanded to become gender studies, incorporating the study of other genders, sexuality, and issues of gender and social justice.[footnote]See Agatha M. Beins and Judith L. Kennedy, <em>Women\u2019s Studies for the Future: Foundations, Interrogations, Politics<\/em> (Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005); Florence Howe and Mari Jo Buhl, <em>The Politics of Women\u2019s Studies: Testimony from the 30 Founding Mothers<\/em> (New York: The Feminist Press, 2000); Marilyn J. Boxer and Caroline Stimpson, <em>When Women Ask the Questions: Creating Women\u2019s Studies in America<\/em> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); Susan Shaw and Janet Lee, <em>Women\u2019s Voices, Feminist Visions<\/em> (New York: McGraw Hill, 2014).[\/footnote]\u00a0Gender was recognized as being fundamentally relational: femaleness is linked to maleness, femininity to masculinity. One outgrowth of that work is the field of \u201cmasculinity studies.\u201d[footnote]Rachel Adams and Michael Savan, <em>The Masculinity Studies Reader<\/em> (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002); Judith Keagan Gardiner, <em>Masculinity Studies and Feminist Theory<\/em> (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Matthew C. Gutmann, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d <em>Annual Review of Anthropology<\/em> 26 no. 1 (2007): 385\u2013409. There were a number of earlier explorations of masculinity, several focused on African-American males. See for example Michelle Wallace, <em>Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman<\/em> (New York: Warner Books, 1980).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Masculinity studies goes beyond men and their roles to explore the relational aspects of gender. One focus is the enculturation processes through which boys learn about and learn to perform \u201cmanhood.\u201d Many U.S. studies (and several excellent videos, such as <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Tough Guise<\/span> by Jackson Katz), have examined the role of popular culture in teaching boys our culture\u2019s key concepts of masculinity, such as being \u201ctough\u201d and \u201cstrong,\u201d and shown how this \u201ctough guise\u201d stance affects men\u2019s relationships with women, with other men, and with societal institutions, reinforcing a culture of violent masculinity. Sociologist Michael Kimmel has further suggested that boys are taught that they live in a \u201cperilous world\u201d he terms \u201cGuyland.\u201d[footnote]See especially numerous films available through Media Education Foundation and Women Make Movies. See also Susan Bordo, <em>The Male Body: A New Look at Men in Public and in Private<\/em> (New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 1999); Rebecca Solnit, <em>Men Explain Things to Me<\/em> (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2014). Also, Jackson Katz\u2019 film <em>Tough Guise 2: Violence, Media, and the Crisis in Masculinity<\/em> (2013) and the website www.jacksonkatz.com\/ have other books, articles, and workshops on gender violence prevention. See also Michael Kimmel, <em>Guyland: The Perilous World Where Boys Become Men<\/em> (New York: Harper Perennial, 2009).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists began exploring concepts of masculinity cross-culturally as early as the 1970s, resulting in several key publications in 1981, including Herdt\u2019s first book on the Sambia of New Guinea and Ortner and Whitehead\u2019s volume, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Sexual Meanings<\/span>. In 1990, Gilmore analyzed cross-cultural ethnographic data in his <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts in Masculinity<\/span>.[footnote]Thomas Grego, <em>Mehinaku: The Drama of Daily Life in a Brazilian Indian Village<\/em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977). See also Paula Brown and Georgeda Buchbinder, <em>Man and Woman in the New Guinea Highlands<\/em> (Washington DC: American Anthropological Association, 1976); Gilbert Herdt, <em>Guardians of the Flutes<\/em> (film); Stanley Brandeis, <em>Metaphors of Masculinity: Sex and Status in Andalusian Folklore<\/em> (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980); Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, <em>Sexual Meanings<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); David Gilmore, <em>Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity<\/em> (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).[\/footnote]Other work followed, including a provocative video on the Sambia, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Guardians of the Flutes<\/span>. But the growth of studies of men and masculinity in the United States also stimulated new research approaches, such as \u201cperformative\u201d aspects of masculinity and how gender functions in wealthier, post-industrial societies and communities with access to new technologies and mass media.[footnote]See article by Matthew C. Guttman, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d <em>Annual Review of Anthropology<\/em> 26 (2007): 385\u2013409.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists sometimes turn to unconventional information sources as they explore gendered culture, including popular television commercials. Interestingly, the 2015 Super Bowl commercials produced for the Always feminine product brand also focused on gender themes in its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=XjJQBjWYDTs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">#Likeagirl campaign<\/span><\/a>, which probed the damaging connotations of the phrases \u201cthrow like a girl\u201d and \u201crun like a girl\u201d by first asking boys and girls to act out running and throwing, and then asking them to act out a <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">girl<\/span> running and throwing. A <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VhB3l1gCz2E\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">companion clip<\/span><\/a> further explored the negative impacts of anti-girl messages, provoking dialogue among Super Bowl viewers and in social media spaces (though, ironically, that dialogue was intended to promote consumption of feminine products). As the clips remind us, while boys and men play major roles in perceptions related to gender, so do the women who raise them, often reinforcing gendered expectations for play and aspiration. Of course, women, like men, are enculturated into their culture\u2019s gender ideology.[footnote]See several excellent videos through Media Education Foundation including <em>Dreamworlds 3, Killing Us Softly 4<\/em>, The Purity Myth as well as those addressing masculinity such as <em>Tough Guise 2, Joystick Warriors, and Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes<\/em>.[\/footnote]\u00a0Both girls and boys\u2014and adults\u2014are profoundly influenced by popular culture.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Though scholars from many disciplines publish important work on masculinity, anthropologists, with their cross-cultural research and perspectives, have significantly deepened and enriched interdisciplinary understandings. Anthropologists have made strong contributions not only by providing nuanced portrayals (of, for example, men in prison, heroin users, migrant laborers, college students, and athletes in the United States) but also through offering vivid accounts of expectations of men in other societies, including the relationship between those expectations and warfare. This can include differences in expectations based on a person\u2019s age, other role-based variations, and transformation of traditional roles as a result of globalization.[footnote]Philippe Bourgois and Jeffrey Schonberg, <em>Righteous Dopefiend<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009); Seth M. Holmes, <em>Fresh Fruit, Broken Bodies: Migrant Farmworkers in the United States<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013); Mary H. Moran, \u201cWarriors or Soldiers? Masculinity and Ritual Transvestism in the Liberian Civil War,\u201d in<em> Situated Lives<\/em>, ed. Louise Lamphere, Helena Ragone, and Patricia Zavella, 440\u2013450. New York: Routledge, 1997); Kimberly Theidon, \u201cReconstructing Masculinities: The Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colombia,\u201d in <em>The Gender, Culture, and Power Reader<\/em>, ed. Dorothy Hodgson, 420\u2013429 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Casey High, \u201cWarriors, Hunters, and Bruce Lee: Gendered Agency and the Transformation of Amazonian Masculinity\u201d <em>American Ethnologist<\/em> 37 no. 4 (2010): 753\u2013770.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Not all societies expect men to be \u201ctough guys\/guise,\u201d and those that do go about it in different ways and result in different impacts on men and women.[footnote]James W. Messerschmidt, <em>Masculinities in the Making: From the Local to the Global<\/em> (Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield, 2015).[\/footnote]For example, in Sichuan Province in China, young Nuosu men must prove their maturity through risky behavior such as theft. In recent years, theft has been supplanted for many by heroin use, particularly as young men have left their home communities for urban areas (where they are often feared by city residents and attract suspicion).[footnote]Liu Shao-hua, <em>Passage to Manhood: Youth, Masculinity, and Migration in Southwest China<\/em> (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010).[\/footnote]\u00a0Meanwhile, in the Middle East, technologies such as assisted reproduction are challenging and reshaping ideas about masculinity among some Arab men, particularly men who acknowledge and struggle with infertility. There and elsewhere, conceptions of fatherhood are considered crucial components of masculinity. In Japan, for example, a man who has not fathered a child is not considered to be fully adult.[footnote]See Marcia C. Inhorn, <em>The New Arab Man: Emergent Masculinities, Technologies, and Islam in the Middle East<\/em> (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Marcia C. Inhorn, Wendy Chavkin, and Jose-Alberto Navarro, <em>Globalized Fatherhood<\/em>. New York: Berghahn. For discussion of Japan, see Mark J. McLelland. 2005. \u201cSalarymen Doing Queer: Gay Men and the Heterosexual Public Sphere in Japan,\u201d in <em>Genders, Transgenders and Sexualities in Japan<\/em>, edited by M. J. McLelland and R. Dasgupta, 96\u2013110 (New York: Routledge, 2014).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Elsewhere, as we saw in the first part of this chapter, men are expected to be gentle nurturers of young children and to behave in ways that do not fit typical U.S. stereotypes. In Na communities, men dote on babies and small children, often rushing to pick them up when they enter a room. In South Korea, men in wildly popular singing groups wear eyeliner and elaborate clothing that would be unusual for U.S. groups, and throughout China and India, as in many other parts of the world, heterosexual men walk down the street holding hands or arm-in-arm without causing raised eyebrows. Physical contact between men, especially in sex-segregated societies, is probably far more common than contact between men and women! Touch is a human form of intimacy that need not have sexual implications. So if male-male relations are the most intimate in a society, physical expressions of those relations are \u201cnormal\u201d overall unless there is a cultural fear of male physical intimacy. There is much more nuance in actual behavior than initial appearances lead people to believe.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists are also applying approaches taken in American studies to other cultures. They are engaging in more-intimate discussions of males\u2019 self-perceptions, dilemmas, and challenges and have not hesitated to intercede, carefully, in the communities in which they work. Visual anthropologist Harjant Gill, conducting research in the Punjab region of India, began asking men about pressures they faced and found that the conversations prompted unexpected reflection. Gill titled his film <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=EJ16hle9EiM),\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink CharOverride-5\">Mardistan<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-5\"> (Macholand)<\/span> and shepherded the film through television broadcasts and smaller-scale viewings to encourage wide discussion in India of the issues he explored.[footnote]Dipanita Nath, \u201cMardistan: Four Men Talk about Masculinity in Harjant Gill\u2019s Film,\u201d <em>The Indian Express,<\/em> August 25, 2014. http:\/\/indianexpress.com\/article\/cities\/delhi\/be-a-super-man.\/ The film is available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=tSrGuXTEHsk.[\/footnote]\u00a0For a related activity, see Activity 5: Analyzing Gendered Stereotypes and Masculinity in Music Videos.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"H1\">CONCLUSION<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In 1968, a cigarette company in the United States decided to target women as tobacco consumers and used a clever marketing campaign to entice them to take up <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virginia_Slims.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">smoking<\/span><\/a>. \u201cYou\u2019ve come a long way, baby!\u201d billboards proclaimed. Women, according to the carefully constructed rhetoric, had moved away from their historic oppressed status and could\u2014and should\u2014now enjoy the full complement of twentieth-century consumer pleasures. Like men, they deserved to enjoy themselves and relax with a cigarette. The campaigns were extremely successful; within several years, smoking rates among women had increased dramatically. But had women really come a long way? We now know that tobacco (including in vaporized form) is a highly addictive substance and that its use is correlated with a host of serious health conditions. In responding to the marketing rhetoric, women moved into a new sphere of bodily pleasure and possibly enjoyed increased independence, but they did so at a huge cost to their health. They also succumbed to a long-term financial relationship with tobacco companies who relied on addicting individuals in order to profit. Knowing about the structures at work behind the scenes and the risks they took, few people today would agree that women\u2019s embrace of tobacco represented a huge step forward.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Perhaps saying \u201cYou\u2019ve come a long way, baby!\u201d with the cynical interpretation with which we read it today can serve as an analogy for our contemporary explorations of gender and culture. Certainly, many women in the United States today enjoy heightened freedoms. We can travel to previously forbidden spaces, study disciplines long considered the domain of men, shape our families to meet our own needs, work in whatever field we choose, and, we believe, live according to our own wishes. But we would be naive to ignore how gender continues to shape, constrain, and inform our lives. The research and methods of anthropology can help us become more aware of the ongoing consequences of our gendered heritage and the ways in which we are all complicit in maintaining gender ideologies that limit and restrict people\u2019s possibilities.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">By committing to speak out against subtle, gender-based discrimination and to support those struggling along difficult paths, today\u2019s anthropologists can emulate pioneers such as Franz Boas and Margaret Mead, who sought to fuse research and action. May we all be kinder to those who differ from the norm, whatever that norm may be. Only then will we all\u2014women, men and those who identify with neither category\u2014have truly come a long way. (But we will leave the infantilizing \u201cbaby\u201d to those tobacco companies!)<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>discussion questions<\/h3>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">What is \u201cnatural\u201d about how you experience gender and human sexuality? What aspects are at least partially shaped by culture? How do other cultures\u2019 beliefs and practices regarding gender and sexuality differ from those commonly found in the United States? Are there any parallels? Does it depend on which U.S. community we are talking about? What about your own beliefs and practices?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">Reflect on the various ways you have \u201clearned\u201d about gender and sexuality throughout your life. Which influences do you think had the biggest impact?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">How important is your gender to how you think about yourself, to your \u201cidentity\u201d or self-definition, to your everyday life? Reflect on what it would be like to be a different gender.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">How important is your \u201csexuality\u201d and \u201csexual orientation\u201d to how you think about yourself, to your identity or self-definition? Reflect on what it would be like if you altered your sexual identity or practices.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">In what ways have your school settings been shaped by and around gender norms?<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">How are anthropologists influenced by gender norms? How has this affected the discipline of anthropology?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Androgyny: <\/b>cultural definitions of gender that recognize some gender differentiation, but also accept \u201cgender bending\u201d and role-crossing according to individual capacities and preferences.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Binary model of gender: <\/b>cultural definitions of gender that include only two identities--male and female.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Biologic sex: <\/b>refers to male and female identity based on internal and external sex organs and chromosomes. While male and female are the most common biologic sexes, a percentage of the human population is intersex with ambiguous or mixed biological sex characteristics.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Biological determinism: <\/b>a theory that biological differences between males and females leads to fundamentally different capacities, preferences, and gendered behaviors. This scientifically unsupported view suggests that gender roles are rooted in biology, not culture.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Cisgender:<\/b> a term used to describe those who identify with the sex and gender they were assigned at birth.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Dyads: <\/b>two people in a socially approved pairing. One example is a married couple.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Gender: <\/b>the set of culturally and historically invented beliefs and expectations about gender that one learns and performs. Gender is an \u201cidentity\u201d one can choose in some societies, but there is pressure in all societies to conform to expected gender roles and identities.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Gender ideology: <\/b>a complex set of beliefs about gender and gendered capacities, propensities, preferences, identities and socially expected behaviors and interactions that apply to males, females, and other gender categories. Gender ideology can differ among cultures and is acquired through enculturation. Also known as a cultural model of gender.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Heteronormativity: <\/b>a term coined by French philosopher Michel Foucault to refer to the often-unnoticed system of rights and privileges that accompany normative sexual choices and family formation.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Legitimizing ideologies: <\/b>a set of complex belief systems, often developed by those in power, to rationalize, explain, and perpetuate systems of inequality.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Matrifocal: <\/b>groups of related females (e.g. mother-her sisters-their offspring<b>)<\/b> form the core of the family and constitute the family\u2019s most central and enduring social and emotional ties.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Matrilineal:<\/b> societies where descent or kinship group membership is transmitted through women, from mothers to their children (male and female), and then through daughters, to their children, and so forth.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Matrilocal: <\/b>a woman-centered kinship group where living arrangements after marriage often center around households containing related women.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Patriarchy: <\/b>describes a society with a male-dominated political and authority structure and an ideology that privileges males over females in domestic and public spheres.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Patrifocal: <\/b>groups of related males (e.g. a father-his brothers) and their male offspring form the core of the family and constitute the family\u2019s most central and enduring social and emotional ties.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Patrilineal:<\/b> societies where descent or kinship group membership is transmitted through men, from men to their children (male and female), and then through sons, to their children, and so forth.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Patrilocal: <\/b>a male-centered kinship group where living arrangements after marriage often center around households containing related men.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Third gender: <\/b>a gender identity that exists in non-binary gender systems offering one or more gender roles separate from male or female.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Transgender: <\/b>a category for people who transition from one sex to another, either male-to-female or female-to-male.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 class=\"H1\">RESOURCES FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"H4-below-H1\">Educational Media Companies and Distributors:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"Bulleted-list\">Documentary Education Resources. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.der.org\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.der.org<\/span><\/a>. One of the earliest distributors of anthropology-ethnographic films. Includes older, but still very useful, ethnographic films. Such films document ways of life that are rapidly disappearing.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"Bulleted-list\">Media Education Foundation. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.mediaed.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.mediaed.org\/<\/span><\/a> Focuses on contemporary USA culture, with a wide range of videos analyzing mass media, popular culture, and advertising. Videos often include teaching guides.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"Bulleted-list\">Women Make Movies. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.wmm.com\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.wmm.com<\/span><\/a>. Wide range of films\/videos by women filmmakers on diverse topics, social groups, both within the US and throughout the world. One of the earliest distributors of films on gender.<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"Bulleted-list\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Women\u2019s Media Center.<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.womensmediacenter.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.womensmediacenter.com\/<\/span><\/a> More U.S.-centered resources, especially contemporary issues of women\u2019s representation in the media.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"H4\">Some Key Accessible Readings by Anthropologists:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\">Brettell, Carolyn and Brettell, Carolyn B. and Carolyn F. Sargent, eds. <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective.<\/span> 6th edition (New York: Routledge, 2012). Excellent collection of articles, with overviews. Also includes a Film Bibliography for each topical section of the book.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\">Geller, Pamela L. and Miranda K. Stockett, eds.,<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"> Feminist Anthropology: Past, Present, and Future<\/span> (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006). Many articles by biological and archeological anthropologists<b>. <\/b><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\">Hodgson, Dorothy L., ed. <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Gender, Culture, and Power Reader.<\/span> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). Useful reader for students and non-specialist readers. Includes a wide range of articles, often adapted from longer academic articles.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\">Ellen Lewin, ed., <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Feminist Anthropology: A Reader<\/span> (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006). Excellent collection with introductory essay by editor, a pioneer in feminist and Lesbian-Gay studies.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\">Strum, Shirley and Fedigan, Linda, eds.,<span class=\"CharOverride-5\" xml:lang=\"ar-SA\">\u00a0Primate Encounters: Models of Science, Gender and Society<\/span> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\">Ward, Martha and Monica Edelstein, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">A World full of Women. <\/span>6th edition (New York: Routledge\/Taylor Francis, 2014). Readable overview of the field.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"H4\">Some Useful Organizational Websites<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/mensstudies.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">American Men\u2019s Studies Association<\/span><\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/afa.americananthro.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Association for Feminist Anthropology<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">, American Anthropological Association <\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/afa.americananthro.org\/voices-the-afa-journal\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">VOICES<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">: Journal of the Association for Feminist Anthropology <\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/afa.americananthro.org\/book-category\/book-review-topic\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Book reviews<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"> from the Association for Feminist Anthropology <\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/queeranthro.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Association for Queer Anthropology<\/span><\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.cawp.rutgers.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Center for American Women and Politics<\/span><\/a>, Rutgers University<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.feminist.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Feminist Majority Foundation<\/span><\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Guttmacher Center<\/span><\/a> (Research on reproductive health)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.nwsa.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">National Women\u2019s Studies Association<\/span><\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.plannedparenthood.org\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Planned Parenthood<\/span><\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3 class=\"H1\">ABOUT THE AUTHORS<\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer465\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-303 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163956\/gender_figure_20-188x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"188\" height=\"300\" \/><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Dr. Mukhopadhyay specializes in gender, sexuality, race\/ethnicity, and culture-cognition, with research in the USA and India on gendered families, politics, and science-engineering. In graduate school she co-created one of the earliest gender-culture courses. She has developed numerous gender classes and taught, for 20 years, a popular anthropology and gender-oriented, multi-section Human Sexuality course. Gender-related publications include: <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cognitive Anthropology Through a Gendered Lens<\/span> (2011). <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">How Exportable are Western Theories of Gendered Science?<\/span> (2009), <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">A Feminist Cognitive Anthropology: The Case of Women and Mathematics<\/span> (2004), <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Women, Education and Family Structure in India<\/span> (1994, with S. Seymour). She co-authored an early <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span> article on gender (1988) and is in the Association for Feminist Anthropology. In other work, she served as a Key Advisor for the AAA RACE project; co-authored <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">How Real is Race: A Sourcebook on Race, Culture and Biology<\/span>, (2nd Edition, 2014) and promotes active learning approaches to teaching about culture (cf.2007).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer466\"><img class=\"_idGenObjectAttribute-1 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163958\/gender_figure_21.png\" alt=\"Image of the author.\" \/><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Tami Blumenfield is Assistant Professor of Asian Studies at Furman University and was a 2016 Fulbright Scholar affiliated with Yunnan University. Since 2001, she has been engaged in a long-term ethnographic fieldwork project in northwest Yunnan Province, studying changes in education, social life, and ecology in Na communities. Blumenfield is the co-editor of <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cultural Heritage Politics in China<\/span>, with Helaine Silverman (2013), and of <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Doing Fieldwork in China\u2026With Kids! <\/span>with Candice Cornet (2016). Blumenfield also produced <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Some Na Ceremonies<\/span>, a Berkeley Media film by Onci Archei and Ruheng Duoji. Blumenfield holds a PhD in Sociocultural Anthropology from the University of Washington.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer467\"><img class=\"_idGenObjectAttribute-1 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163959\/gender_figure_22.png\" alt=\"Image of the author.\" \/><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Susan Harper, Ph.D., is an educator, activist, and advocate in Dallas, Texas. She holds a Ph.D. in Cultural Anthropology from Southern Methodist University and a Graduate Certificate in Women\u2019s Studies from Texas Woman\u2019s University. Her ethnographic research focuses on New Religious Movements, primarily NeoPaganism, in the American South; the intersection of gender, sexuality, and religious identity; and ses, sexuality, and sex education. Her work has been published in the <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Journal of Bisexuality<\/span>. Susan is passionate about a variety of social justice causes, including domestic and intimate partner violence prevention and recovery, sexual assault prevention and recovery, LGBTQ equality and inclusion, and educational justice. She has given presentations on LGBTQ<span class=\"CharOverride-14\">+<\/span> equality and inclusion to a variety of audiences, including the North Texas Society of Human Resource Managers, The Turning Point Rape Crisis Center, and various religious organizations. She teaches courses in anthropology, sociology, and Women\u2019s and Gender Studies at various universities and colleges in the DFW area. She also serves as Graduate Reader\/Editor for Texas Woman\u2019s University. She is currently working on an autoethnography about burlesque and visual anthropology project exploring the use of Pinterest by practitioners of NeoPaganism.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer468\"><img class=\"_idGenObjectAttribute-1 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06164000\/gender_figure_23.png\" alt=\"Image of the author.\" \/><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\"><span class=\"Non-Indent-Para-Char CharOverride-15\">Abby Gondek is a PhD candidate in Global and Socio-cultural Studies (majoring in Anthropology\/Sociology) at Florida International University in Miami, Florida. She defended her dissertation proposal in April 2016. Her project, \u201cJewish Women\u2019s Transracial, Transdisciplinary and Transnational Social Science Networks, 1920\u20131970\u201d uses social network analysis and grounded theory methodology\u00a0to understand the relationships between the anti-racist and pro-political\/economic justice stance taken by Jewish female social scientists and their Jewish gendered-racialized subjectivities. Further information about her work is available from<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/transform-art-gender.webs.com\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/transform-art-gender.webs.com<\/span><\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/abbygondek.blogspot.com\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/abbygondek.blogspot.com<\/span><\/a> as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.instagram.com\/abbygondek\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.instagram.com\/abbygondek\/<\/span><\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3 class=\"H1\">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">The authors wish to thank the many people who supported this writing project. We especially appreciate the editorial guidance of Nina Brown and the constructive feedback from two anonymous reviewers. We are grateful to our students as well, particularly those in Blumenfield\u2019s Gender in East Asia at Furman University who read a draft version of this chapter in 2016 and shared feedback that helped us improve the chapter, and to Mukhopadhyay\u2019s students at California State University Chico and at San Jose State University. We also thank the many individuals who shared their lives with us and with other anthropologists, enabling us to understand and appreciate the breadth, depth, and richness of human cultural diversity. Finally, Carol Mukhopadhyay extends her thanks to Nina Brown and Tami Blumenfield, and to Susan Seymour, on many levels, for help on the 2016 Gender and the Presidential Election text box.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div id=\"_idContainer351\" class=\"Basic-Text-Frame\">\n<h3 class=\"Author\"><em>Carol C. Mukhopadhyay, San Jose State University<\/em><\/h3>\n<h3 class=\"Author\"><em>Tami Blumenfield, Furman University<\/em><\/h3>\n<h3 class=\"Author\">with<em> Susan Harper, Texas Woman\u2019s University<\/em><\/h3>\n<h3 class=\"Normal ParaOverride-1\">and\u00a0<em>Abby Gondek<\/em><\/h3>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_idContainer352\" class=\"Basic-Text-Frame\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<div id=\"_idContainer352\" class=\"Basic-Text-Frame\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"Learning-Objectives\">Explain the impact of biological determinism on gender and sexual ideologies.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Learning-Objectives\">Describe ways in which gender and sexuality organize and structure the societies in which we live.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Learning-Objectives\">Discuss how some societies move beyond a gender binary.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_idContainer469\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyleOverride-1\">\n<h2 class=\"H1\">INTRODUCTION: SEX AND GENDER ACCORDING TO ANTHROPOLOGISTS<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-2\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u00a0The Introduction and much of the material in the Foundations segment draws upon and synthesizes Mukhopadhyay\u2019s decades of research, writing, and teaching courses on culture, gender, and human sexuality. Some of it has been published. Other material comes from lecture notes. See\u00a0http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-1\" href=\"#footnote-307-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists are fond of pointing out that much of what we take for granted as \u201cnatural\u201d in our lives is actually cultural\u2014it is not grounded in the natural world or in biology but invented by humans.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"We use quotation marks here and elsewhere in the chapter to alert readers to a culturally specific, culturally invented concept in the United States. We need to approach U.S. cultural inventions the same way we would a concept we encountered in a foreign, so-called \u201cexotic\u201d culture.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-2\" href=\"#footnote-307-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Because culture is invented, it takes different forms in different places and changes over time in those places. Living in the twenty-first century, we have witnessed how rapidly and dramatically culture can change, from ways of communicating to the emergence of same-sex marriage. Similarly, many of us live in culturally diverse settings and experience how varied human cultural inventions can be.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">We readily accept that clothing, language, and music are cultural\u2014invented, created, and alterable\u2014but often find it difficult to accept that gender and sexuality are not natural but deeply embedded in and shaped by culture. We struggle with the idea that the division of humans into two and only two categories, \u201cmale\u201d and \u201cfemale,\u201d is not universal, that \u201cmale\u201d and \u201cfemale\u201d are cultural concepts that take different forms and have different meanings cross-culturally. Similarly, human sexuality, rather than being simply natural is one of the most culturally significant, shaped, regulated, and symbolic of all human capacities. The concept of humans as either \u201cheterosexual\u201d or \u201chomosexual\u201d is a culturally and historically specific invention that is increasingly being challenged in the United States and elsewhere.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Part of the problem is that gender has a biological component, unlike other types of cultural inventions such as a sewing machine, cell phone, or poem. We do have bodies and there are some male-female differences, including in reproductive capacities and roles, albeit far fewer than we have been taught. Similarly, sexuality, sexual desires and responses, are partially rooted in human natural capacities. However, in many ways, sexuality and gender are like food. We have a biologically rooted need to eat to survive and we have the capacity to enjoy eating. What constitutes \u201cfood,\u201d what is \u201cdelicious\u201d or \u201crepulsive,\u201d the contexts and meanings that surround food and human eating\u2014those are cultural. Many potentially edible items are not \u201cfood\u201d (rats, bumblebees, and cats in the United States, for example), and the concept of \u201cfood\u201d itself is embedded in elaborate conventions about eating: how, when, with whom, where, \u201cutensils,\u201d for what purposes? A\u00a0\u201cromantic dinner\u201d at a \u201cgourmet restaurant\u201d is a complex cultural invention.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In short, gender and sexuality, like eating, have biological components. But cultures, over time, have erected complex and elaborate edifices around them, creating systems of meaning that often barely resemble what is natural and innate. We experience gender and sexuality largely through the prism of the culture or cultures to which we have been exposed and in which we have been raised.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In this chapter, we are asking you to reflect deeply on the ways in which what we have been taught to think of as natural, that is, our sex, gender, and our sexuality, is, in fact, deeply embedded in and shaped by our culture. We challenge you to explore exactly which, if any, aspects of our gender and our sexuality are totally natural.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">One powerful aspect of culture, and a reason cultural norms feel so natural, is that we learn culture the way we learn our native language: without formal instruction, in social contexts, picking it up from others around us, without thinking. Soon, it becomes deeply embedded in our brains. We no longer think consciously about what the sounds we hear when someone says \u201chello\u201d mean unless we do not speak English. Nor is it difficult to \u201ctell the time\u201d on a \u201cclock\u201d even though \u201ctime\u201d and \u201cclocks\u201d are complex cultural inventions.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">The same principles apply to gender and sexuality. We learn very early (by at least age three) about the categories of gender in our culture\u2014that individuals are either \u201cmale\u201d or \u201cfemale\u201d and that elaborate beliefs, behaviors, and meanings are associated with each gender. We can think of this complex set of ideas as a <strong><b>gender ideology<\/b><\/strong> or a <b><strong>cultural model of gender<\/strong>. <\/b>All societies have gender ideologies, just as they have belief systems about other significant areas of life, such as health and disease, the natural world, and social relationships, including family. For an activity related to this section, see Activity 1.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"H1\">Foundations\u00a0of the Anthropology of Gender<\/h2>\n<h3 class=\"H2-below-H1\">Gender Ideologies, Biology, and Culture<\/h3>\n<h4 class=\"H3-below-H2\"><em>Gender vs. Sex<\/em><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Words can reveal cultural beliefs. A good example is the term \u201csex.\u201d In the past, sex referred both to sexuality and to someone\u2019s biologic sex: male or female. Today, although sex still refers to sexuality, \u201cgender\u201d now means the categories male, female, or increasingly, other gender possibilities. Why has this occurred?<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">The change in terminology reflects profound alterations in gender ideology in the United States (and elsewhere). In the past, influenced by Judeo-Christian religion and nineteenth and twentieth century scientific beliefs, biology (and reproductive capacity) was literally considered to be destiny. Males and females, at least \u201cnormal\u201d males and females, were thought to be born with different intellectual, physical, and moral capacities, preferences, tastes, personalities, and predispositions for violence and suffering.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Carolyn B. Brettell and Carolyn F. Sargent,\u00a0Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective\u00a0(New York: Routledge, 2005). Also, Anne Fausto-Sterling,\u00a0Myths of Gender. Biological Theories About Women and Men\u00a0(New York: Basic Books, 1991). For some web-based examples of these nineteenth century views, see article at\u00a0http:\/\/www.bl.uk\/romantics-and-victorians\/articles\/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century. For a list of descriptive terms, see\u00a0http:\/\/www2.ivcc.edu\/gen2002\/Women_in_the_Nineteenth_Century.htm.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-3\" href=\"#footnote-307-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Ironically, many cultures, including European Christianity in the Middle Ages, viewed women as having a strong, often \u201cinsatiable\u201d sexual \u201cdrive\u201d and capacity. But by the nineteenth century, women and their sexuality were largely defined in reproductive terms, as in their capacity to \u201ccarry a man\u2019s child.\u201d Even late-twentieth-century human sexuality texts often referred only to \u201creproductive systems,\u201d to genitals as \u201creproductive\u201d organs, and excluded the \u201cclitoris\u201d and other female organs of sexual pleasure that had no reproductive function. For women, the primary, if not sole, legitimate purpose of sexuality was reproduction.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For an example of a textbook, see Herant A.\u00a0Katchadurian,\u00a0Fundamentals of Human Sexuality\u00a0(Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1989). See also Linda Stone,\u00a0Kinship and Gender: An Introduction\u00a0(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2013).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-4\" href=\"#footnote-307-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Nineteenth and mid-twentieth century European and U.S. gender ideologies linked sexuality and gender in other ways.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Material in the following paragraphs comes from Mukhopadhyay, unpublished Human Sexuality lecture notes.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-5\" href=\"#footnote-307-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Sexual preference\u2014the sex to whom one was attracted\u2014was \u201cnaturally\u201d heterosexual, at least among \u201cnormal\u201d humans, and \u201cnormal,\u201d according to mid-twentieth century Freudian-influenced psychology, was defined largely by whether one adhered to conventional gender roles for males and females. So, appropriately, \u201cmasculine\u201d men were \u201cnaturally\u201d attracted to \u201cfeminine\u201d women and vice versa. Homosexuality, too, was depicted not just as a sexual preference but as gender-inappropriate role behavior, down to gestures and color of clothing.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Herant A. Katchadurian,\u00a0Fundamentals of Human Sexuality,\u00a0365.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-6\" href=\"#footnote-307-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> This is apparent in old stereotypes of gay men as \u201ceffeminate\u201d (acting like a female, wearing \u201cfemale\u201d fabrics such as silk or colors such as pink, and participating in \u201cfeminine\u201d professions like ballet) and of lesbian women as \u201cbutch\u201d (cropped hair, riding motorcycles, wearing leather\u2014prototypical masculinity). Once again, separate phenomena\u2014sexual preference and gender role performance\u2014were conflated because of beliefs that rooted both in biology. \u201cAbnormality\u201d in one sphere (sexual preference) was linked to \u201cabnormality\u201d in the other sphere (gendered capacities and preferences).<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In short, the gender and sexual ideologies were based on <b><strong>biological determinism<\/strong>.<\/b> According to this theory, males and females were supposedly born fundamentally different reproductively and in other major capacities and preferences and were \u201cnaturally\u201d (biologically) sexually attracted to each other, although women\u2019s sexual \u201cdrive\u201d was not very well developed relative to men\u2019s and was reproductively oriented.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Rejecting Biological Determinism<\/em><\/h4>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer364\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer363\">\n<div id=\"attachment_227\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-227\" class=\"wp-image-227 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163756\/gender_figure_1-e1512755900567.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"385\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-227\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1: Hindu deities: Vishnu and<br \/> his many \u201cavatars\u201d or forms (all male).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">Decades of research on gender and sexuality, including by feminist anthropologists, has challenged these old theories, particularly biological determinism. We now understand that cultures, not nature, create the gender ideologies that go along with being born male or female and the ideologies vary widely, cross-culturally. What is considered \u201cman\u2019s work\u201d in some societies, such as carrying heavy loads, or farming, can be \u201cwoman\u2019s work\u201d in others. What is \u201cmasculine\u201d and \u201cfeminine\u201d varies: pink and blue, for example, are culturally invented gender-color linkages, and skirts and \u201cmake-up\u201d can be worn by men, indeed by \u201cwarriors.\u201d Hindu deities, male and female, are highly decorated and difficult to distinguish, at least by conventional masculinist U.S. stereotypes (see <a href=\"http:\/\/www.sanatansociety.org\/hindu_gods_and_goddesses.htm#.WNr9ZjZ8LIU\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">examples<\/span><\/a> and Figures 1 and 2).<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Women can be thought of as stronger (\u201ctougher,\u201d more \u201crational\u201d) than men. Phyllis Kaberry, an anthropologist who studied the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.era.anthropology.ac.uk\/Kaberry\/Kaberry_text\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Nsaw of Cameroon<\/span><\/a> in the 1940s, said males in that culture argued that land preparation for the rizga crop was \u201ca woman\u2019s job, which is too strenuous for the men\u201d and that \u201cwomen could carry heavy loads because they had stronger foreheads.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Phyllis\u00a0Kaberry,\u00a0Women of the Grassfields. A Study of the Economic Position of Women in Bamenda, British Cameroons\u00a0(Colonial Research publication 14. London: Her Majesty\u2019s Stationery Office.1952) The image comes from the cover of her book, which is also available online:\u00a0http:\/\/www.era.anthropology.ac.uk\/Kaberry\/Kaberry_text\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-7\" href=\"#footnote-307-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0<\/span>Among the Aka who live in the present-day Central African Republic, fathers have close, intimate, relationships with infants, play major roles in all aspects of infant-care, and can sometimes produce breast milk.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Barry S. Hewlett,\u00a0Intimate Fathers: The Nature and Context of Aka Pygmy Paternal Infant Care\u00a0(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991); and personal communication with\u00a0Mukhopadhyay.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-8\" href=\"#footnote-307-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> As for sexual desires, research on the human sexual response by William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson established that men and women have equal biological capacities for sexual pleasure and orgasm and that, because males generally ejaculate simultaneously with orgasm, it is easier for women than men to have multiple orgasms.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"W.H. Masters and V.E. Johnson,\u00a0Human Sexual Response\u00a0(New York: Bantam Books, 1966).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-9\" href=\"#footnote-307-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_231\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-231\" class=\"wp-image-231 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163803\/gender_figure_2-e1512755928828-300x215.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"215\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-231\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2: Hindu Deities: Vishnu and Goddess Shiva plus avatars.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h4><em>Gender: A Cultural Invention and a Social Role<\/em><\/h4>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer364\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer363\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">One\u2019s <strong><b>biologic sex<\/b><\/strong> is a different phenomenon than one\u2019s <strong><b>gender<\/b><\/strong>, which is socially and historically constructed.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Some feminist scholars have also questioned the \u201cnaturalness\u201d of the biological categories male and female. See for example, Judith Butler,\u00a0Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity\u00a0(New York: Routledge, 1999 [1990]).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-10\" href=\"#footnote-307-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Gender is a set of culturally invented expectations and therefore constitutes a role one assumes, learns, and performs, more or less consciously. It is an \u201cidentity\u201d one can in theory choose, at least in some societies, although there is tremendous pressure, as in the United States, to conform to the gender role and identity linked to your biologic sex.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">This is a profound transformation in how we think about both gender and sexuality. The reality of human biology is that males and females are shockingly similar.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For genital similarities, see\u00a0Janet S. Hyde and John D. DeLamater,\u00a0Understanding Human Sexuality\u00a0(McGraw Hill, 2014),\u00a094\u2013101. For more parallels, see Mukhopadhyay\u2019s online Human Sexuality course materials, at\u00a0www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-11\" href=\"#footnote-307-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> There is arguably more variability <strong><b>within<\/b><\/strong> than <strong><b>between<\/b><\/strong> each gender, especially taking into account the enormous variability in human physical traits among human populations globally.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For some idea of the enormous variability in human physical characteristics, see Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 in C. Mukhopadhyay, R. Henze, and Y. Moses,\u00a0How Real is Race: Race, Culture and Biology\u00a0(Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-12\" href=\"#footnote-307-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Notice, for example, the variability in height in the two photos of U.S. college students shown in Figures\u00a03 and\u00a04. Which gender is \u201ctaller\u201d? Much of what has been defined as \u201cbiological\u201d is actually cultural, so the possibilities for transformation and change are nearly endless! That can be liberating, especially when we are young and want to create identities that fit our particular configuration of abilities and preferences. It can also be upsetting to people who have deeply internalized and who want to maintain the old gender ideology.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"H2\">The Gender Binary and Beyond<\/h3>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer371\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer365\">\n<div id=\"attachment_234\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-234\" class=\"wp-image-234 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163808\/gender_figure_3-e1512756053580-300x157.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"157\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-234\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3: Gender variability: students in a Human Sexuality Class at San Jose State University with Dr. Carol Mukhopadhyay, 2010.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">We anthropologists, as noted earlier, love to shake up notions of what is \u201cnatural\u201d and \u201cnormal.\u201d One common assumption is that all cultures divide human beings into two and only two genders, a <strong><b>binary<\/b><\/strong> or dualistic model of gender. However, in some cultures gender is more fluid and flexible, allowing individuals born as one biologic sex to assume another gender or creating more than two genders from which individuals can select. Examples of non-binary cultures come from pre-contact Native America. Anthropologists such as Ruth Benedict long ago identified a fairly widespread phenomenon of so-called \u201ctwo-spirit\u201d people, individuals who did not comfortably conform to the gender roles and gender ideology normally associated with their biologic sex. Among the pre-contact Zuni Pueblo in New Mexico, which was a relatively gender-egalitarian horticultural society, for example, individuals could choose an alternative role of \u201cnot-men\u201d or \u201cnot-women.\u201d A two-spirited Zuni man would do the work and wear clothing normally associated with females, having shown a preference for female-identified activities and symbols at an early age. In some, but not all cases, he would eventually marry a man. Early European ethnocentric reports often described it as a form of homosexuality. Anthropologists suggested more-complex motivations, including dreams of selection by spirits, individual psychologies, biological characteristics, and negative aspects of male roles (e.g., warfare). Most significantly, these alternative gender roles were acceptable, publicly recognized, and sometimes venerated.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-4\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Information about alternative gender roles in pre-contact Native American communities can be found in\u00a0Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0A World Full of Women\u00a0(Boston: Pearson, 2013). Also, see the 2011 PBS Independent Lens film\u00a0Two Spirits\u00a0for an account of the role of two-spirit ideology in Navajo communities, including the story of a Navajo teenager who was the victim of a hate crime because of his two-spirit identity.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-13\" href=\"#footnote-307-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Less is known about additional gender roles available to biological women, although stories of \u201cmanly hearted women\u201d suggest a parallel among some Native American groups. For example, a Kutenai woman known to have lived in 1811 was originally married to a French-Canadian man but then returned to the Kutenai and assumed a male gender role, changing her name to Kauxuma nupika (Gone-to-the-Spirits), becoming a spiritual prophet, and eventually marrying a woman.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0A World Full of Women.\u00a0\" id=\"return-footnote-307-14\" href=\"#footnote-307-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_239\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-239\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-239\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163816\/gender_figure_4-e1512756082130-300x146.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"146\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-239\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4: Gender variability: students in Kalamazoo<br \/>at Michigan State University, with Dr. Carol<br \/>Mukhopadhyay, 2010.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">A well-known example of a non-binary gender system is found among the Hijra in India. Often called a <strong><b>third gender<\/b><\/strong>, these individuals are usually biologically male but adopt female clothing, gestures, and names; eschew sexual desire and sexual activity; and go through religious rituals that give them certain divine powers, including blessing or cursing couples\u2019 fertility and performing at weddings and births. Hijra may undergo voluntary surgical removal of genitals through a <em>\u201cnirvan\u201d<\/em> or rebirth operation. Some hijra are males born with ambiguous external genitals, such as a particularly small penis or testicles that did not fully descend.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-4\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Serena\u00a0Nanda,\u00a0Neither Man nor Woman: the Hijras of India\u00a0(Boston, MA: Cengage, 1999); Serena Nanda,\u00a0Gender Diversity: Cross-cultural Variations\u00a0(Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland 2000); and Gayatri Reddy and Serena Nanda, \u201cHijras: An \u201cAlternative\u201d Sex\/Gender in India,\u201d in\u00a0Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed.\u00a0C. Brettell and C. Sargent, 278\u2013285 (Upper Saddle River New Jersey: Pearson,\u00a02005).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-15\" href=\"#footnote-307-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Research has shown that individuals with ambiguous genitals, sometimes called \u201cintersex,\u201d are surprisingly common. Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein estimate that such intersex individuals constitute five percent of human births.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-4\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Janet S. Hyde and John D. DeLamater,\u00a0Understanding Human Sexuality, 99; Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0A World Full of Women.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-16\" href=\"#footnote-307-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> So what are cultures to do when faced with an infant or child who cannot easily be \u201csexed?\u201d Some cultures, including the United States, used to force children into one of the two binary categories, even if it required surgery or hormone therapy. But in other places, such as India and among the Isthmus Zapotec in southern Oaxaca, Mexico, they have instead created a third gender category that has an institutional identity and role to perform in society.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-4\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Beverly Chinas, personal communication with Mukhopadhyay. See also her writings on Isthmus Zapotec women such as:\u00a0Beverly Chinas,\u00a0The Isthmus Zapotecs: A Matrifocal Culture of Mexico\u00a0(New York:\u00a0Harcourt Brace College Publishers 1997). For a film on this culture, see Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne,\u00a0Blossoms of Fire, Film\u00a0(San Francisco: Film Arts Foundation, 2001).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-17\" href=\"#footnote-307-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">These cross-cultural examples demonstrate that the traditional rigid binary gender model in the United States is neither universal nor necessary. While all cultures recognize at least two biological sexes, usually based on genitals visible at birth, and have created at least two gender roles, many cultures go beyond the binary model, offering a third or fourth gender category. Other cultures allow individuals to adopt, without sanctions, a gender role that is not congruent with their biological sex. In short, biology need not be destiny when it comes to gender roles, as we are increasingly discovering in the United States.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em><strong>Variability among Binary Cultures<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Even societies with a binary gender system exhibit enormous variability in the meanings and practices associated with being male or female. Sometimes male-female distinctions pervade virtually all aspects of life, structuring space, work, social life, communication, body decoration, and expressive forms such as music. For instance, both genders may farm, but may have separate fields for \u201cmale\u201d and \u201cfemale\u201d crops and gender-specific crop rituals. Or, the village public space may be spatially segregated with a \u201cmen\u2019s house\u201d (a special dwelling only for men, like a \u201cmen\u2019s club\u201d) and a \u201cwomen\u2019s house.\u201d In some societies, such as the Sambia of New Guinea, even when married couples occupy the same house, the space within the house is divided into male and female areas.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Gilbert\u00a0Herdt,\u00a0The Sambia\u00a0(New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 2006). For an excellent film see Gilbert Herdt,\u00a0Guardians of the Flutes\u00a0(London UK: BBC, 1994).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-18\" href=\"#footnote-307-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Women and men can also have gender-specific religious rituals and deities and use gender-identified tools. There are cases of \u201cmale\u201d and \u201cfemale\u201d foods, rains, and even \u201clanguages\u201d (including words, verb forms, pronouns, inflections, and writing systems; one example is the Nu Shu writing system used by some women in parts of China in the twentieth century).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"More information about the Nu shu writing system can be found in the film by Yue-Qing Yang,\u00a0Nu Shu: A Hidden Language of Women in China\u00a0(New York: Women Make Movies, 1999).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-19\" href=\"#footnote-307-19\" aria-label=\"Footnote 19\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[19]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Gender ideologies can emphasize differences in character, capacities, and morality, sometimes portraying males and females as \u201copposites\u201d on a continuum.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In societies that are highly segregated by gender, gender relationships sometimes are seen as hostile or oppositional with one of the genders (usually female) viewed as potentially threatening. Female bodily fluids, such as menstrual blood and vaginal secretions, can be dangerous, damaging to men, \u201cimpure,\u201d and \u201cpolluting,\u201d especially in ritual contexts. In other cases, however, menstrual blood is associated with positive power. A girl\u2019s first menstruation may be celebrated publicly with elaborate community rituals, as among the Bemba in southern Africa, and subsequent monthly flows bring special privileges.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ernestine Friedl,\u00a0Women and Men: An Anthropologist\u2019s View\u00a0(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975). See Audrey Richards,\u00a0Chisungu: A Girl\u2019s Initiation Ceremony among the Bemba of Zambia\u00a0(London: Faber, 1956) and A. Richards,\u00a0Land, Labour and Diet in Northern Rhodesia, An Economic Study of the Bemba Tribe\u00a0(London: Oxford, 1939).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-20\" href=\"#footnote-307-20\" aria-label=\"Footnote 20\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[20]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Men in some small-scale societies go through ritualized nose-bleeding, sometimes called \u201cmale menstruation,\u201d though the meanings are quite complex.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See for example, Ian Hogbin,\u00a0The Island of Menstruating Men: Religion in Wogeo, New Guinea\u00a0(Scranton, PA: Chandler Publishing Company, 1970).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-21\" href=\"#footnote-307-21\" aria-label=\"Footnote 21\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[21]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Gender Relations: Separate and Unequal<\/em><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Of course, gender-differentiation is not unique to small-scale societies like the Sambia. Virtually all major world religions have traditionally segregated males and females spatially and \u201cmarked\u201d them in other ways. Look at eighteenth- and nineteenth- century churches, which had gender-specific seating; at contemporary Saudi Arabia, Iranian, and conservative Malaysian mosques; and at Orthodox Jewish temples today in Israel and the United States.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Ambivalence and even fear of female sexuality, or negative associations with female bodily fluids, such as menstrual blood, are widespread in the world\u2019s major religions. Orthodox Jewish women are not supposed to sleep in the same bed as their husbands when menstruating. In Kypseli, Greece, people believe that menstruating women can cause wine to go bad.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Susannah M Hoffman, Richard A Cowan and Paul Aratow,\u00a0Kypseli:\u00a0Men and Women Apart A Divided Reality\u00a0(Berkeley CA: Berkeley Media, 1976).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-22\" href=\"#footnote-307-22\" aria-label=\"Footnote 22\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[22]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> In some Catholic Portuguese villages, menstruating women are restricted from preparing fresh pork sausages and from being in the room where the sausages are made as their presence is believed to cause the pork to spoil. Contact with these women also supposedly wilts plants and causes inexplicable movements of objects.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Denise\u00a0Lawrence, Menstrual Politics: Women and Pigs in Rural Portugal, in\u00a0Blood Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation,\u00a0ed. Thomas\u00a0Buckley and Alma Gottlieb, 117\u2013136 (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1988.), 122\u2013123.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-23\" href=\"#footnote-307-23\" aria-label=\"Footnote 23\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[23]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Orthodox forms of Hinduism prohibit menstruating women from activities such as cooking and attending temple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">These traditions are being challenged. A 2016 British Broadcasting Company (BBC) television program, for example, described \u201cHappy to Bleed,\u201d a movement in India to change negative attitudes about menstruation and eliminate the ban on menstruating-age women entering the famous Sabriamala Temple in Kerala.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See\u00a0http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/programmes\/p03k6k0h. Some women are posing with photos of menstrual pads and hashtags #happytobleed:\u00a0http:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/world\/asia\/indian-women-launch-happy-to-bleed-campaign-to-protest-against-sexist-religious-rule-a6748396.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-24\" href=\"#footnote-307-24\" aria-label=\"Footnote 24\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[24]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><span style=\"background-color: #ffffff\"><em>Emergence of Public (Male) vs. Domestic (Female) Spheres<\/em><\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In large stratified and centralized societies\u2014that is, the powerful empires (so-called \u201ccivilizations\u201d) that have dominated much of the world for the past several thousand years\u2014a \u201cpublic\u201d vs. \u201cprivate\u201d or \u201cdomestic\u201d distinction appears. The public, extra-family sphere of life is a relatively recent development in human history even though most of us have grown up in or around cities and towns with their obvious public spaces, physical manifestations of the political, economic, and other extra-family institutions that characterize large-scale societies. In such settings, it is easy to identify the domestic or private spaces families occupy, but a similar public-domestic distinction exists in villages. The public sphere is associated with, and often dominated by, males. The domestic sphere, in contrast, is primarily associated with women\u2014though it, too, can be divided into male and female spheres. In India, for example, where households frequently consist of multi-generational groups of male siblings and their families, there often are \u201clounging\u201d spaces where men congregate, smoke pipes, chat, and meet visitors. Women\u2019s spaces typically focus around the kitchen or cooking hearth (if outside) or at other sites of women\u2019s activities.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See the film by Michael Camerini and Rina Gill,\u00a0Dadi\u2019s Family\u00a0(Watertown, MA: DER, 1981).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-25\" href=\"#footnote-307-25\" aria-label=\"Footnote 25\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[25]<\/sup><\/a><\/span>In some cases, an inner court is the women\u2019s area while the outer porch and roads that connect the houses are male spaces. In some Middle Eastern villages, women create over-the-roof paths for visiting each other without going \u201coutside\u201d into male spaces.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Cynthia Nelson, \u201cPublic and Private Politics: Women in the Middle Eastern World\u201d\u00a0American Ethnologist\u00a01 no. 3 (1974): 551\u201356.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-26\" href=\"#footnote-307-26\" aria-label=\"Footnote 26\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[26]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">The gender division between public and private\/domestic, however, is as symbolic as it is spatial, often emphasizing a gender ideology of social separation between males and females (except young children), social regulation of sexuality and marriage, and male rights and control over females (wives, daughters, sisters, and mothers)<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">.<\/span> It manifests as separate spaces in mosques, sex-segregated schools, and separate \u201cladies compartments\u201d on trains, as in India (Figure 5).<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_243\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-243\" class=\"wp-image-243 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163822\/gender_figure_5-e1512756111345-300x223.png\" alt=\"Sign stating &quot;mean not allowed&quot;\" width=\"300\" height=\"223\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-243\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5: A women only train car in India. Photograph by Ajay Tallam, 2007.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Of course, it is impossible to separate the genders completely. Rural women pass through the more-public spaces of a village to fetch water and firewood and to work in agricultural fields. Women shop in public markets, though that can be a \u201cman\u2019s job.\u201d As girls more often attend school, as in India, they take public transportation and thus travel through public \u201cmale\u201d spaces even if they travel to all-girl schools (Figure 6). At college, they can be immersed in and even live on campuses where men predominate, especially if they are studying engineering, computer science, or other technical subjects (Figure 7).<\/p>\n<p>This can severely limit Indian girls\u2019 educational and occupational choices, particularly for girls who come from relatively conservative families or regions.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Carol C. Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0\u201cFamily Structure and Indian Women\u2019s Participation in Science and Engineering,\u201d in\u00a0Women, Education and Family Structure in India, ed. Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and Susan Seymour, 103\u2013133 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-27\" href=\"#footnote-307-27\" aria-label=\"Footnote 27\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[27]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer388\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer383\"><\/div>\n<div id=\"_idContainer387\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer384\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\">\n<div id=\"attachment_246\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-246\" class=\"wp-image-246 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163826\/gender_figure_6-e1512756135281-300x222.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"222\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-246\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 6: All-girls\u2019 school in Bangalore, India.<br \/> Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, 1989.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_idContainer385\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\"><\/div>\n<div id=\"_idContainer386\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\">\n<div class=\"mceTemp\">One way in which women navigate \u201cmale\u201d spaces is by adopting routes, behavior (avoiding eye contact), and\/or clothing that create separation.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Elizabeth Fernea,\u00a0Guests of the Sheik.an Ethnography of an Iraqi Village\u00a0(New York: Anchor Books, 1965).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-28\" href=\"#footnote-307-28\" aria-label=\"Footnote 28\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[28]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The term \u201c<em>purdah<\/em>,\u201d the separation or segregation of women from men, literally means \u201cveiling,\u201d although other devices can be used. In nineteenth century Jaipur, Rajasthan, royal Rajput women inhabited the inner courtyard spaces of the palace. But an elaborate false building front, the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.jaipur.org.uk\/forts-monuments\/hawa-mahal.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">hawa mahal<\/span><\/a>, allowed them to view the comings and goings on the street without being exposed to the public male gaze.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_250\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-250\" class=\"wp-image-250 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163832\/gender_figure_7-e1512756159895-300x178.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"178\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-250\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 7: Management studies graduate students at CUSAT-Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, 1989.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">As demand for educating girls has grown in traditionally sexually segregated societies, all-girl schools have been constructed (see Figure 6), paralleling processes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century in the United States. At the university level, however, prestigious schools that offer high-demand subjects such as engineering often have historically been all-male, excluding women as Harvard once did.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Susan Seymour,\u00a0Cora Du Bois: Anthropologist, Diplomat, Agent\u00a0(Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press,\u00a02015).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-29\" href=\"#footnote-307-29\" aria-label=\"Footnote 29\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[29]<\/sup><\/a><\/span>In other cases, there are no female faculty members teaching traditionally male subjects like engineering at all-women colleges. In Saudi Arabia, women\u2019s universities have taught courses using closed-circuit television to avoid violating norms of sexual segregation, particularly for young, unmarried women.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Carol C.\u00a0Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0\u201cWomen in Science: Is the Glass Ceiling Disappearing?\u201d Proceedings of conference organized by the National Institute of Science and Technology Development Studies, the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India; Indian Council of Social Science Research; and the Indo-U.S. Science and Technology Forum. March 8\u201310, 2004. New Delhi, India.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-30\" href=\"#footnote-307-30\" aria-label=\"Footnote 30\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[30]<\/sup><\/a>In countries such as India, gynecologists and obstetricians have been predominantly female, in part because families object to male doctors examining and treating women. Thus, in places that do not have female physicians, women\u2019s health can suffer.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Alternative Models of Gender: Complementary and Fluid<\/em><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-3\">Not all binary cultures are gender-segregated; nor does gender hostility necessarily accompany gender separation. Nor are all binary cultures deeply concerned with, some might say obsessed with, regulating female sexuality and marriage. Premarital and extra-marital sex can even be common and acceptable, as among the !Kung San and Trobriand Islanders.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u00a0For the !Kung San, see Marjorie\u00a0Shostak,\u00a0Nisa: Life and Words of a Kung Woman\u00a0(New York: Vintage, 1983). For Trobrianders, see\u00a0Annette B. Weiner,\u00a0The Trobrianders of Papua New Guinea\u00a0(New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1987).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-31\" href=\"#footnote-307-31\" aria-label=\"Footnote 31\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[31]<\/sup><\/a><\/span>And men are not always clearly ranked over women as they typically are in stratified large-scale centralized societies with \u201cpatriarchal\u201d systems. Instead, the two genders can be seen as complementary, equally valued and both recognized as necessary to society. Different need not mean unequal. The Lahu of southwest China and Thailand exemplify a complementary gender system in which men and women have distinct expected roles but a male-female pair is necessary to accomplish most daily tasks (Figure 9). A male-female pair historically took responsibility for local leadership. Male-female <strong><b>dyads<\/b><\/strong> completed daily household tasks in tandem and worked together in the fields. The title of anthropologist Shanshan Du\u2019s book, <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Chopsticks Only Work in Pairs<\/span> <\/em>(1999), encapsulates how complementary gender roles defined Lahu\u00a0society. A single chopstick is not very useful; neither is a single person, man or woman, in a dual-focused society.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Shanshan Du,\u00a0Chopsticks Only Work in Pairs: Gender Unity and Gender Equality Among the Lahu of Southwest China\u00a0(New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-32\" href=\"#footnote-307-32\" aria-label=\"Footnote 32\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[32]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer403\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer402\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\">\n<div id=\"attachment_258\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-258\" class=\"wp-image-258 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163844\/gender_figure_9-e1512756205379-300x214.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"214\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-258\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 9: Lahu farmers in Chiangmai, Thailand.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Like the Lahu, the nearby Na believe men and women both play crucial roles in a family and household. Women are associated with birth and life while men take on tasks such as butchering animals and preparing for funerals (Figures 10 and 11). Every Na house has two large pillars in the central hearth room, one representing male identity and one representing female identity. Both are crucial, and the house might well topple symbolically without both pillars. As sociologist Zhou Huashan explained in his 2002 book about the Na, this is a society that \u201cvalues women without diminishing men.\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Zhou Huashan,\u00a0Zhong nu bu qingnan de muxi mosuo: Wufu de guodu?\u00a0[Matrilineal Mosuo,\u00a0Valuing Women without Devaluing Men: A Society without Fathers or Husbands?] (Beijing: Guangming Ribao Chubanshe, 2009 [2001]).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-33\" href=\"#footnote-307-33\" aria-label=\"Footnote 33\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[33]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists have also encountered relatively androgynous gender-binary cultures. In these cultures, some gender differentiation exists but \u201cgender bending\u201d and role-crossing are frequent, accepted, and reflect circumstances and individual capacities and preferences. Examples are the !Kung San mentioned earlier, Native American Washoe in the United States, and some segments of European societies in countries such as Sweden and Finland and, increasingly, in the United States.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ernestine Friedl,\u00a0Women and Men: An Anthropologist\u2019s View\u00a0(Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-34\" href=\"#footnote-307-34\" aria-label=\"Footnote 34\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[34]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0<\/span>Contemporary twenty-first century gender ideologies tend to emphasize commonality, not difference: shared human traits, flexibility, fluidity, and individual expression.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_260\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-260\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-260\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163847\/gender_figure_10-e1512756225475-300x226.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"226\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-260\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 10: A Na woman, Sigih Lamu, weeds rice seedlings outside her family\u2019s home in southwest China\u2019s Yunnan Province. Photograph by Tami Blumenfield, 2002.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer411\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer404\">\n<div id=\"attachment_266\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-266\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-266\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163856\/gender_figure_11-e1512756272923-300x210.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"210\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-266\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 11: Na men carry a wooden structure to be used at a funeral. Photograph by Tami Blumenfield, 2002.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Even cultures with fairly well-defined gender roles do not necessarily view them as fixed, biologically rooted, permanent, \u201cessentialist,\u201d or \u201cnaturalized\u201d as occurred in the traditional gender ideology in the United States.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Carol C.\u00a0Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0\u201cSati or Shakti: Women, Culture and Politics in India,\u201d in\u00a0Perspectives on Power: Women in Asia, Africa and Latin America, ed. Jean O\u2019Barr, 11\u201326 (Durham: Center for International Studies, Duke University 1982).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-35\" href=\"#footnote-307-35\" aria-label=\"Footnote 35\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[35]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Gender may not even be an \u201cidentity\u201d in a psychological sense but, rather, a social role one assumes in a particular social context just as one moves between being a student, a daughter, an employee, a wife or husband, president of the bicycle club, and a musician.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Cultures also change over time through internal and external forces such as trade, conquest, colonialism, globalization, immigration, mass media, and, especially, films. Within every culture, there is tremendous diversity in class, ethnicity, religion, region, education level, and generation, as well as diversity related to more-individual family circumstances, predilections, and experiences. Gender expectations also vary with one\u2019s age and stage in life as well as one\u2019s social role, even within the family (e.g., \u201cwife\u201d vs. \u201csister\u201d vs. \u201cmother\u201d vs. \u201cmother-in-law\u201d and \u201cfather\u201d vs. \u201cson\u201d vs. \u201cbrother\u201d vs \u201cfather-in-law\u201d). Finally, people can appear to conform to cultural norms but find ways of working around or ignoring them.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_270\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-270\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-270\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163902\/gender_figure_12-e1512756294112-300x194.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"194\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-270\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 12: Gulabi Gang in India.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Even in highly male-dominated, sexually segregated societies, women find ways to pursue their own goals, to be actors, and to push the boundaries of the gender system. Among Egyptian Awlad \u2018Ali Bedouin families, for example, women rarely socialized outside their home compounds or with unrelated men. But within their spheres, they freely interacted with other women, could influence their husbands, and wrote and sang poetic couplets as expressive outlets.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Lila Abu-Lughod,\u00a0Writing Women\u2019s Worlds: Bedouin Stories\u00a0(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-36\" href=\"#footnote-307-36\" aria-label=\"Footnote 36\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[36]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> In some of the poorest and least-developed areas of central India, where <strong><b>patrilocal<\/b><\/strong> extended-family male-controlled households reign, activist Sampat Pal has organized local rural women to combat violence based on dishonor and gender.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mukhopadhyay and Seymour use the term \u201cpatrifocal\u201d to describe households that consist of related males, usually brothers, and their sons, and the spouses and children of those males. See C. Mukhopadhyay and S. Seymour, \u201cIntroduction\u201d in\u00a0Women, Family, and Education in India\u00a0(Boulder: Westview Press, 1994).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-37\" href=\"#footnote-307-37\" aria-label=\"Footnote 37\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[37]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Her so-called \u201cGulabi Gang,\u201d the subject of two films, illustrates both the possibilities of resistance and the difficulties of changing a deeply embedded system based on gender, caste, and class system (Figure 12).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For powerful documentaries see, the film by\u00a0Nishta Jain, Gulabi Gang\u00a0(Stavanger, Norway: Kudos Family Distribution, 2012); and the film by Kim Longinotto,\u00a0Pink Saris\u00a0(New York: Women Make Movies, 2011).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-38\" href=\"#footnote-307-38\" aria-label=\"Footnote 38\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[38]<\/sup><\/a>For a related activity, see Activity 2: Understanding Gender from a Martian Perspective.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"H2\">Unraveling Our Gender Myths: Primate Roots<span class=\"CharOverride-6\">,<\/span> \u201cMan the Hunter,<span class=\"CharOverride-6\">\u201d <\/span>and Other \u201cOrigin Stories\u201d of Gender and Male Dominance<\/h3>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-o-space\">Even unencumbered by pregnancy or infants, a female hunter would be less fleet, generally less strong, possibly more prone to changes in emotional <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">tonus<\/span><\/em> as a consequence of the estrus cycle, and less able to adapt to changes in temperature than males.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Lionel Tiger,\u00a0Men in Groups\u00a0(New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2005[1969]), 45.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-39\" href=\"#footnote-307-39\" aria-label=\"Footnote 39\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[39]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-o-space ParaOverride-5\">\u2014U.S. anthropologist, 1969<\/p>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-above ParaOverride-6\">Women don\u2019t ride motorcycles because they can\u2019t; they can\u2019t because they are not strong enough to put their legs down to stop it.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Carol C. Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0The Sexual Division of Labor in the Family, PhD Dissertation, University of California, Riverside, 1980, 192.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-40\" href=\"#footnote-307-40\" aria-label=\"Footnote 40\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[40]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-o-space ParaOverride-5\">\u2014Five-year-old boy, Los Angeles, 1980<\/p>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-above ParaOverride-6\"><span class=\"quoted1\">Men hunted because women were not allowed to come out of their houses and roam about in forests.<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u00a0Carol C. Mukhopadhyay, fieldnotes, India; and Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0The Cultural Context of Gendered Science: The Case of India, 2001,\u00a0www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\/papers.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-41\" href=\"#footnote-307-41\" aria-label=\"Footnote 41\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[41]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-below ParaOverride-5\"><span class=\"quoted1\">\u2014Pre-college student in India, 1990<\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p class=\"Normal\">All cultures have \u201ccreation\u201d stories. Many have elaborate gender-related creation stories that describe the origins of males and females, their gender-specific traits, their relationships and sexual proclivities, and, sometimes, how one gender came to \u201cdominate\u201d the other. Our culture is no different. The Judeo-Christian Bible, like the Koran and other religious texts, addresses origins and gender (think of Adam and Eve), and traditional folk tales, songs, dances, and epic stories, such as the Ramayana in Hinduism and Shakespeare\u2019s <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Taming of the Shrew<\/span><\/em>, treat similar themes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Science, too, has sought to understand gender differences. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a number of scientists, immersed in Darwinian theories, began to explore the evolutionary roots of what they assumed to be universal: male dominance. Of course, scientists, like the rest of us, view the world partially through their own cultural lenses and through a gendered version. Prior to the 1970s, women and gender relations were largely invisible in the research literature and most researchers were male so it is not surprising that 1960s theories reflected prevailing male-oriented folk beliefs about gender.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For example, the major symposium on Man the Hunter sponsored by Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research included only four women among more than sixty listed participants. See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore,\u00a0Man the Hunter\u00a0(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]), xiv\u2013xvi.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-42\" href=\"#footnote-307-42\" aria-label=\"Footnote 42\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[42]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer426\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer425\">\n<h4 id=\"_idContainer424\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\"><em>The Hunting Way of Life \u201cMolds Man\u201d (and Woman)<\/em><\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_272\" style=\"width: 237px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-272\" class=\"wp-image-272 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163906\/gender_figure_13-227x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"227\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-272\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 13: Female baboon in estrus. Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, Tanzania, 2010.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_276\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-276\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-276\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163913\/gender_figure_14-300x221.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"221\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-276\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 14: Baboon pair in tree: malefemale<br \/>voluntary relations. Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, Tanzania, 2010.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">The most popular and persistent theories argued that male dominance is universal, rooted in species-wide gendered biological traits that we acquired, first as part of our primate heritage, and further developed as we evolved from apes into humans. Emergence of \u201cthe hunting way of life\u201d plays a major role in this story. Crucial components include: a diet consisting primarily of meat, obtained through planned, cooperative hunts, by all-male groups, that lasted several days and covered a wide territory. Such hunts would require persistence, skill, and physical stamina; tool kits to kill, butcher, transport, preserve, and share the meat; and a social organization consisting of a stable home base and a monogamous nuclear family. Several biological changes were attributed to adopting this way of life: a larger and more complex brain, human language, an upright posture (and humans\u2019 unique foot and stride), loss of body hair, a long period of infant dependency, and the absence of \u201cestrus\u201d (ovulation-related female sexual arousal) (Figure 13), which made females sexually \u201creceptive\u201d throughout the monthly cycle. Other human characteristics purportedly made sex more enjoyable: frontal sex and fleshier breasts, buttocks, and genitals, especially the human penis. Making sex \u201csexier,\u201d some speculated, cemented the pair-bond, helping to keep the man \u201caround\u201d and the family unit stable.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mukhopadhyay, Lecture Notes, Human Sexuality, Gender and Culture.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-43\" href=\"#footnote-307-43\" aria-label=\"Footnote 43\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[43]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Hunting was also linked to a \u201cworld view\u201d in which the flight of animals from humans seemed natural and (male) aggression became normal, frequent, easy to learn, rewarded, and enjoyable. War, some have suggested, might psychologically be simply a form of hunting and pleasurable for male participants.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"S.Washburn and C.S. Lancaster, \u201cThe Evolution of Hunting.\u201d in\u00a0Man the Hunter, 299.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-44\" href=\"#footnote-307-44\" aria-label=\"Footnote 44\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[44]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The Hunting Way of Life, in short, \u201cmolded man,\u201d giving our species its distinctive characteristics. And as a result, we contemporary humans cannot erase the effects of our hunting past even though we live in cities, stalk nothing but a parking place, and can omit meat from our diets.<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-above\">The biology, psychology, and customs that separate us from the apes\u2014all these we owe to the hunters of time past. And, although the record is incomplete and speculation looms larger than fact, for those who would understand the origin and nature of human behavior there is no choice but to try to understand \u201cMan the Hunter.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-below ParaOverride-7\">\u2014Washburn and Lancaster (1974)<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ibid., 303.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-45\" href=\"#footnote-307-45\" aria-label=\"Footnote 45\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[45]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Gender roles and male dominance were supposed to be part of our evolutionary heritage. Males evolved to be food-providers\u2014stronger, more aggressive, more effective leaders with cooperative and bonding capacities, planning skills, and technological inventiveness (tool-making). In this creation story, females never acquired those capacities because they were burdened by their reproductive roles\u2014pregnancy, giving birth, lactation, and child care\u2014and thus became dependent on males for food and protection. The gender gap widened over time. As males initiated, explored, invented, women stayed at home, nurtured, immersed themselves in domestic life. The result: men are active, women are passive; men are leaders, women are followers; men are dominant, women are subordinate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Many of us have heard pieces of this Hunting Way of Life story. Some of the men Mukhopadhyay interviewed in Los Angeles in the late 1970s invoked \u201cour hunting past\u201d to explain why they\u2014and men generally\u2014operated barbeques rather than their wives. Women\u2019s qualifications to be president were questioned on biological grounds such as \u201cstamina\u201d and \u201ctoughness.\u201d Her women informants, all hospital nurses, doubted their navigational abilities, courage, and strength despite working in intensive care and regularly lifting heavy male patients. Mukhopadhyay encountered serious scholars who cited women\u2019s menstrual cycle and \u201cemotional instability\u201d during ovulation to explain why women \u201ccan\u2019t\u201d hunt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Similar stories are invoked today for everything from some men\u2019s love of hunting to why men dominate \u201ctechnical\u201d fields, accumulate tools, have extra-marital affairs or commit the vast majority of homicides. Strength and toughness remain defining characteristics of masculinity in the United States, and these themes often permeate national political debates.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jackson Katz,\u00a0Tough Guise 2: Violence, Manhood and American Culture\u00a0(Northampton, MA: Media Education Foundation, 2013).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-46\" href=\"#footnote-307-46\" aria-label=\"Footnote 46\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[46]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> One element in the complex debate over gun control is the male-masculine strength-through-guns and man-the-hunter association, and it is still difficult for some males in the United States to feel comfortable with their soft, nurturant, emotional, and artistic sides.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Abigail Disney and Kathleen Hughes,\u00a0The Armor of Light\u00a0(New York: Fork Films, 2015).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-47\" href=\"#footnote-307-47\" aria-label=\"Footnote 47\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[47]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">What is most striking about man-the-hunter scenarios is how closely they resemble 1950s U.S. models of family and gender, which were rooted in the late nineteenth century \u201ccult of domesticity\u201d and \u201ctrue womanhood.\u201d Father is \u201chead\u201d of the family and the final authority, whether in household decisions or in disciplining children. As \u201cprovider,\u201d Father goes \u201coutside\u201d into the cold, cruel world, hunting for work. Mother, as \u201cchief mom,\u201d remains \u201cinside\u201d at the home base, creating a domestic refuge against the \u201csurvival of the fittest\u201d \u201cjungle.\u201d American anthropologists seemed to have subconsciously projected their own folk models onto our early human ancestors.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Altering this supposedly \u201cfundamental\u201d gender system, according to widely read authors in the 1970s, would go against our basic \u201chuman nature.\u201d This belief was applied to the political arena, then a virtually all-male domain, especially at state and national levels. The following quote from 1971 is particularly relevant and worthy of critical evaluation since, for the first time, a major U.S. political party selected a woman as its 2016 presidential candidate (See Text Box 3, Gender and the Presidential Election).<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-above\">To make women equal participants in the political process, we will have to change the very process itself, which means changing a pattern bred into our behavior over the millennia.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-o-space ParaOverride-8\">\u2014Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Lionel\u00a0Tiger and Robin Fox,\u00a0The Imperial Animal\u00a0(New York:\u00a0Transaction Publishers,\u00a01997 [1971]), 101.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-48\" href=\"#footnote-307-48\" aria-label=\"Footnote 48\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[48]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Replacing Stories with Reality<\/em><\/h4>\n<div id=\"attachment_281\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-281\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-281\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163921\/gender_figure_15-e1512756346345-300x225.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-281\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 15: Rhesus monkeys at the Periyar<br \/>Reserve in Kerala, India. Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, 2008.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_286\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-286\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-286\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163928\/gender_figure_16-e1512756377604-300x208.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"208\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-286\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 16: Baboon group with infants being carried by female. Photograph by Carol Mukhopadhyay, Tanzania, 2010.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Decades of research, much of it by a new generation of women scholars, have altered our view of the hunting way of life in our evolutionary past.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Some useful reviews include the following: Linda M. Fedigan, \u201cThe Changing Role of Women in Models of Human Evolution\u201d\u00a0Annual Review of Anthropology\u00a016 (1986): 25\u201366; Linda Fedigan,\u00a0Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds\u00a0(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992);\u00a0Pamela L. Geller and Miranda K. Stockett.\u00a0Feminist Anthropology: Past, Present, and Future (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2006); Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey,\u00a0Engendering Archeology: Women and Prehistory\u00a0(Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1991);\u00a0Shirley Strum and Linda Fedigan\u00a0Primate Encounters: Models of Science, Gender and Society. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Meredith F. Small,\u00a0What\u2019s Love Got to Do with It? The Evolution of Human Mating\u00a0(New York: Doubleday, 1995);\u00a0Nancy Makepeace Tanner,\u00a0On Becoming Human\u00a0(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). For a readable short article, see Meredith Small, \u201cWhat\u2019s Love Got to Do with It,\u201d\u00a0Discover Magazine,\u00a0June 1991, 46\u201351.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-49\" href=\"#footnote-307-49\" aria-label=\"Footnote 49\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[49]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> For example, the old stereotype of primates as living in male-centered, male-dominated groups does not accurately describe our closest primate relatives, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos. The stereotypes came from 1960s research on savannah, ground-dwelling baboons that suggested they were organized socially by a stable male-dominance hierarchy, the \u201ccore\u201d of the group, that was established through force, regulated sexual access to females, and provided internal and external defense of the \u201ctroop\u201d in a supposedly hostile savannah environment.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Irven DeVore, ed.\u00a0Primate Behavior\u00a0(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-50\" href=\"#footnote-307-50\" aria-label=\"Footnote 50\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[50]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Females lacked hierarchies or coalitions, were passive, and were part of dominant male \u201charems.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Critics first argued that baboons, as monkeys rather than apes, were too far removed from humans evolutionarily to tell us much about early human social organization. Then, further research on baboons living in other environments by primatologists such as Thelma Rowell discovered that those baboons were neither male-focused nor male-dominated. Instead, the stable group core was <strong><b>matrifocal<\/b><\/strong>\u2014a mother and her offspring constituted the central and enduring ties. Nor did males control female sexuality. Quite the contrary in fact. Females mated freely and frequently, choosing males of all ages, sometimes establishing special relationships\u2014 \u201cfriends with favors.\u201d Dominance, while infrequent, was not based simply on size or strength; it was learned, situational, and often stress-induced. And like other primates, both male and female baboons used sophisticated strategies, dubbed \u201cprimate politics,\u201d to predict and manipulate the intricate social networks in which they lived.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ibid. Also, for primate politics in particular, see Sarah B.\u00a0Hrdy,\u00a0The Woman That Never Evolved\u00a0(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999 [1981]). See also Hrdy\u2019s website\u00a0http:\/\/www.citrona.com\/hrdy.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-51\" href=\"#footnote-307-51\" aria-label=\"Footnote 51\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[51]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Rowell also restudied the savannah baboons. Even they did not fit the baboon \u201cstereotype.\u201d She found that their groups were loosely structured with no specialized stable male-leadership coalitions and were sociable, matrifocal, and infant-centered much like the Rhesus monkeys pictured below (see Figure 15). Females actively initiated sexual encounters with a variety of male partners. When attacked by predators or frightened by some other major threat, males, rather than \u201cdefending the troop,\u201d typically would flee, running away first and leaving the females carrying infants to follow behind (Figures 16).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Thelma Rowell.\u00a0Social Behaviour of Monkeys\u00a0(New York: Penguin Books, 1972). For an excellent online article on Rowell\u2019s work with additional references, read Vinciane Despret, \u201cCulture and Gender Do Not Dissolve into How Scientists \u2018Read\u2019 Nature: Thelma Rowell\u2019s Heterodoxy.\u201d In\u00a0Rebels of Life. Iconoclastic Biologists in the Twentieth Century, edited by\u00a0O. Hartman and M. Friedrich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 340\u2013355.\u00a0http:\/\/www.vincianedespret.be\/2010\/04\/culture-and-gender-do-not-dissolve-into-how-scientists-read-nature-thelma-rowells-heterodoxy\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-52\" href=\"#footnote-307-52\" aria-label=\"Footnote 52\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[52]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Man the Hunter, the Meat-Eater?<\/em><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">The second, more important challenge was to key assumptions about the hunting way of life. Archaeological and paleontological fossil evidence and ethnographic data from contemporary foragers revealed that hunting and meat it provided were not the primary subsistence mode. Instead, gathered foods such as plants, nuts, fruits, roots and small fish found in rivers and ponds constituted the bulk of such diets and provided the most stable food source in all but a few settings (northerly climates, herd migration routes, and specific geographical and historical settings). When meat was important, it was more often \u201cscavenged\u201d or \u201ccaught\u201d than hunted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">A major symposium on human evolution concluded that \u201copportunistic\u201d \u201cscavenging\u201d was probably the best description of early human hunting activities. Often, tools found in pre-modern human sites such as caves would have been more appropriate for \u201csmashing\u201d scavenged bones than hunting live animals.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds.\u00a0Man the Hunter\u00a0(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-53\" href=\"#footnote-307-53\" aria-label=\"Footnote 53\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[53]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Hunting, when carried out, generally did not involve large-scale, all-male, cooperative expeditions involving extensive planning and lengthy expeditions over a wide territorial range. Instead, as among the Hadza of Tanzania, hunting was likely typically conducted by a single male, or perhaps two males, for a couple of hours, often without success. When hunting collectively, as occurs among the Mbuti in the Central African rainforest, groups of families likely participated with women and men driving animals into nets. Among the Agta of the Philippines, women rather than men hunt collectively using dogs to herd animals to a place where they can be killed.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Estioko-Griffin, Agnes A. Daughters of the Forest.\u00a0Natural History\u00a095(5):36\u201343 (May 1986).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-54\" href=\"#footnote-307-54\" aria-label=\"Footnote 54\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[54]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> And !Kung San men, despite what was shown in the 1957 ethnographic film <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Hunters<\/span><\/em>, do not normally hunt giraffe; they usually pursue small animals such as hares, rats, and gophers.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Discrediting the Hunting Hypothesis<\/em><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Once the \u201chunting-meat\u201d hypothesis was discredited, other parts of the theory began to unravel, especially the link between male dominance and female economic dependency. We now know that for most of human history\u201499 percent of it prior to the invention of agriculture some 10,000 or so years ago\u2014women have \u201cworked,\u201d often providing the stable sources of food for their family. Richard Lee, Marjorie Shostak, and others have detailed, with caloric counts and time-work estimates, the significance of women\u2019s gathering contributions even in societies such as the !Kung San, in which hunting occurs regularly.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Richard B.\u00a0Lee,\u00a0The !Kung San. Men, Women and Work in a Foraging Society\u00a0(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-55\" href=\"#footnote-307-55\" aria-label=\"Footnote 55\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[55]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> In foraging societies that rely primarily on fish, women also play a major role, \u201ccollecting\u201d fish from rivers, lakes, and ponds. The exceptions are atypical environments such as the Arctic.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Of course, \u201cmeat-getting\u201d is a narrow definition of \u201cfood getting\u201d or \u201csubsistence\u201d work. Many food processing activities are time-consuming. Collecting water and firewood is crucial, heavy work and is often done by women (Figure 17). Making and maintaining clothing, housing, and tools also occupy a significant amount of time. Early humans, both male and female, invented an array of items for carrying things (babies, wood, water), dug tubers, processed nuts, and cooked food. The invention of string some 24,000 years ago, a discovery so essential that it produced what some have called the \u201cString Revolution,\u201d is attributed to women.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0A World Full of Women,\u00a026.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-56\" href=\"#footnote-307-56\" aria-label=\"Footnote 56\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[56]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> There is the work of kinship, of healing, of ritual, of &#8220;teaching the next generation, and emotional work. All are part of the work of living and of the \u201cinvisible\u201d work that women do.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_291\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-291\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-291\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163935\/gender_figure_17-e1512756411787-300x239.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"239\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-291\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 17: Collecting firewood in Bansankusu,<br \/>Democratic Republic of Congo.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Nor is it just hunting that requires intelligence, planning, cooperation, and detailed knowledge. Foragers have lived in a wide variety of environments across the globe, some more challenging than others (such as Alaska). In all of these groups, both males and females have needed and have developed intensive detailed knowledge of local flora and fauna and strategies for using those resources. Human social interactions also require sophisticated mental and communication skills, both verbal and nonverbal. In short, humans\u2019 complex brains and other modern traits developed as an adaptation to complex social life, a lengthy period of child-dependency and child-rearing that required cooperative nurturing, and many different kinds of \u201cwork\u201d that even the simplest human societies performed.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Refuting Pregnancy and Motherhood as Debilitating<\/em><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Finally, cross-cultural data refutes another central man-the-hunter stereotype: the \u201cburden\u201d of pregnancy and child care. Women\u2019s reproductive roles do not generally prevent them from food-getting, including hunting; among the Agta, women hunt when pregnant. Foraging societies accommodate the work-reproduction \u201cconflict\u201d by spacing out their pregnancies using indigenous methods of \u201cfamily planning\u201d such as prolonged breast feeding, long post-pregnancy periods of sexual inactivity, and native herbs and medicinal plants. Child care, even for infants, is rarely solely the responsibility of the birth mother. Instead, multiple caretakers are the norm: spouses, children, other relatives, and neighbors.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Susan\u00a0Seymour, \u201cMultiple Caretaking of Infants and Young Children: An Area in Critical Need of a Feminist Psychological Anthropology,\u201d\u00a0Ethos\u00a032 no. (2004): 538\u2013556.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-57\" href=\"#footnote-307-57\" aria-label=\"Footnote 57\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[57]<\/sup><\/a>Reciprocity is the key to human social life and to survival in small-scale societies, and reciprocal child care is but one example of such reciprocity. Children and infants accompany their mothers (or fathers) on gathering trips, as among the !Kung San, and on Aka collective net-hunting expeditions. Agta women carry nursing infants with them when gathering-hunting, leaving older children at home in the care of spouses or other relatives.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Serena Nanda and Richard L. Warms,\u00a0Cultural Anthropology\u00a0(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2006), 274.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-58\" href=\"#footnote-307-58\" aria-label=\"Footnote 58\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[58]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In pre-industrial horticultural and agricultural societies, having children and \u201cworking\u201d are not incompatible\u2014quite the opposite! Anthropologists long ago identified \u201cfemale farming systems,\u201d especially in parts of Africa and Southeast Asia, in which farming is predominantly a woman\u2019s job and men \u201chelp out\u201d as needed.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ester Boserup,\u00a0Women\u2019s Role in Economic Development\u00a0(New York: St. Martin\u2019s Press, 1970);\u00a0Barbara D. Miller,\u00a0Cultural Anthropology\u00a0(Pearson\/Allyn and Bacon, 2012).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-59\" href=\"#footnote-307-59\" aria-label=\"Footnote 59\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[59]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In most agricultural societies, women who do not come from high-status or wealthy families perform a significant amount of agricultural labor, though it often goes unrecognized in the dominant gender ideology. Wet-rice agriculture, common in south and southeast Asia, is labor-intensive, particularly weeding and transplanting rice seedlings, which are often done by women (Figure 10). Harvesting rice, wheat, and other grains also entails essential input by women. Yet the Indian Census traditionally records only male family members as \u201cfarmers.\u201d In the United States, women\u2019s work on family-owned farms is often invisible.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mauma Downie and Christina Gladwin,\u00a0Florida Farm Wives: They Help the Family Farm Survive\u00a0(Gainesville: Food and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida, 1981).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-60\" href=\"#footnote-307-60\" aria-label=\"Footnote 60\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[60]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Women may accommodate their reproductive and child-rearing roles by engaging in work that is more compatible with child care, such as cooking, and in activities that occur closer to home and are interruptible and perhaps less dangerous, though cooking fires, stoves, and implements such as knives certainly can cause harm!<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Judith K.\u00a0Brown, \u201cA Note on the Division of Labor by Sex,\u201d\u00a0American Anthropologist\u00a072 (1970):1073\u201378.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-61\" href=\"#footnote-307-61\" aria-label=\"Footnote 61\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[61]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> More often, women adjust their food-getting \u201cwork\u201d in response to the demands of pregnancy, breast-feeding, and other child care activities. They gather or process nuts while their children are napping; they take their children with them to the fields to weed or harvest and, in more recent times, to urban construction sites in places such as India, where women often do the heaviest (and lowest-paid) work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In the United States, despite a long-standing cultural model of the stay-at-home mom, some mothers have always worked outside the home, mainly out of economic necessity. This shifting group includes single-divorced-widowed mothers and married African-Americans (pre- and post-slavery), immigrants, and Euro-American women with limited financial resources. But workplace policies (except during World War II) have historically made it harder rather than easier for women (and men) to carry out family responsibilities, including requiring married women and pregnant women to quit their jobs.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See\u00a0www.momsrising.org\u00a0for some contemporary examples of the challenges and obstacles workplaces pose for working mothers, as well as efforts to advocate for improved accommodation of parenting and working.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-62\" href=\"#footnote-307-62\" aria-label=\"Footnote 62\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[62]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Circumstances have not improved much. While pregnant women in the United States are no longer automatically dismissed from their jobs\u2014at least not legally\u2014the United States lags far behind most European countries in providing affordable <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3202345\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">child care<\/span><\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2013\/02\/23\/your-money\/us-trails-much-of-the-world-in-providing-paid-family-leave.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">paid parental leave<\/span><\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"H2\">Male Dominance: Universal and Biologically Rooted?<\/h3>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Unraveling the myth of the hunting way of life and women\u2019s dependence on male hunting undermined the logic behind the argument for biologically rooted male dominance. Still, for feminist scholars, the question of male dominance remained important. Was it universal, \u201cnatural,\u201d inevitable, and unalterable? Were some societies gender-egalitarian? Was gender inequality a cultural phenomenon, a product of culturally and historically specific conditions?<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Research in the 1970s and 1980s addressed these questions.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See reviews in Naomi\u00a0Quinn, \u201cAnthropological Studies of Women\u2019s Status,\u201d\u00a0Annual Review of Anthropology\u00a06 (1977): 181\u2013225; Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0\u201cAnthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987\u201d\u00a0Annual Review of Anthropology\u00a017 (1988):461\u201395.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-63\" href=\"#footnote-307-63\" aria-label=\"Footnote 63\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[63]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Some argued that \u201csexual asymmetry\u201d was universal and resulted from complex cultural processes related to women\u2019s reproductive roles.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Michelle Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere, ed.\u00a0Woman, Culture and Society\u00a0(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-64\" href=\"#footnote-307-64\" aria-label=\"Footnote 64\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[64]<\/sup><\/a>Others presented evidence of gender equality in small-scale societies (such as the !Kung San and Native American Iroquois) but argued that it had disappeared with the rise of private property and \u201cthe state.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Rayna Rapp Reiter, ed.\u00a0Toward an Anthropology of Women\u00a0(New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Karen\u00a0Sacks,\u00a0Sisters and Wives. The Past and Future of Sexual Equality\u00a0(Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1979).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-65\" href=\"#footnote-307-65\" aria-label=\"Footnote 65\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[65]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Still others focused on evaluating the \u201cstatus of women\u201d using multiple \u201cvariables\u201d or identifying \u201ckey determinants\u201d (e.g., economic, political, ecological, social, and cultural) of women\u2019s status.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Peggy\u00a0Sanday,\u00a0Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality\u00a0(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-66\" href=\"#footnote-307-66\" aria-label=\"Footnote 66\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[66]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> By the late 1980s, scholars realized how difficult it was to define, much less measure, male dominance across cultures and even the \u201cstatus of women\u201d in one culture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Think of our own society or the area in which you live. How would you go about assessing the \u201cstatus of women\u201d to determine whether it is male-dominated? What would you examine? What information would you gather and from whom? What difficulties might you encounter when making a judgment? Might men and women have different views? Then imagine trying to compare the status of women in your region to the status of women in, let\u2019s say, the Philippines, Japan, or China or in a kin-based, small society like that of the Minangkabau living in Indonesia and the !Kung San in Botswana. Next, how might Martians, upon arriving in your city, decide whether you live in a \u201cmale dominated\u201d culture? What would they notice? What would they have difficulty deciphering? This experiment gives you an idea of what anthropologists confronted\u2014except they were trying to include all societies that ever existed. Many were accessible only through archaeological and paleontological evidence or through historical records, often made by travelers, sailors, or missionaries. Surviving small-scale cultures were surrounded by more-powerful societies that often imposed their cultures and gender ideologies on those under their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">For example, the !Kung San of Southern Africa when studied by anthropologists, had already been pushed by European colonial rulers into marginal areas. Most were living on \u201creserves\u201d similar to Indian reservations in the United States. Others lived in market towns and were sometimes involved in the tourist industry and in films such as the ethnographically flawed and ethnocentric film <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Gods Must Be Crazy <\/span><\/em>(1980). !Kung San women at the time were learning European Christian ideas about sexuality, clothing, and covering their breasts, and children were attending missionary-established schools, which taught the church\u2019s and European views of gender and spousal roles along with the Bible, Jesus, and the Virgin Mary. During the struggle against apartheid in South Africa, the South African military tried to recruit San to fight against the South West Africa People\u2019s Organization (SWAPO), taunting reluctant !Kung San men by calling them \u201cchicken\u201d and assuming, erroneously, that the !Kung San shared their \u201ctough guys\u00a0\/ tough guise\u201d version of masculinity.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For an alternative ethnographic, research based video see\u00a0N!ai: The Story of a !Kung Woman.\u00a01980.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-67\" href=\"#footnote-307-67\" aria-label=\"Footnote 67\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[67]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Given the complexity of evaluating \u201cuniversal male dominance,\u201d scholars abandoned the search for simple \u201cglobal\u201d answers, for key \u201cdeterminants\u201d of women\u2019s status that would apply to all societies. A 1988 <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span> article by Mukhopadhyay and Higgins concluded that \u201cOne of the profound realizations of the past ten years is that the original questions, still unanswerable, may be both naive and inappropriate.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0\u201cAnthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987,\u201d\u00a0Annual Review of Anthropology\u00a017 (1988), 462.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-68\" href=\"#footnote-307-68\" aria-label=\"Footnote 68\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[68]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Among other things, the concept of \u201cstatus\u201d contains at least five separate, potentially independent components: economics, power\/authority, prestige, autonomy, and gender ideologies\/beliefs. One\u2019s life-cycle stage, kinship role, class, and other socio-economic and social-identity variables affect one\u2019s gender status. Thus, even within a single culture, women\u2019s lives are not uniform.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ibid.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-69\" href=\"#footnote-307-69\" aria-label=\"Footnote 69\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[69]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\">New Directions in the Anthropology of Gender<\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">More-recent research has been focused on improving the ethnographic and archaeological record and re-examining old material. Some have turned from cause-effect relations to better understanding how gender systems work and focusing on a single culture or cultural region. Others have explored a single topic, such as menstrual blood and cultural concepts of masculinity and infertility across cultures.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See for example,\u00a0Evelyn Blackwood.\u00a0Webs of Power. Women, Kin, and Community in a Sumatran Village\u00a0(Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. 2000); Marcia Inhorn,\u00a0Infertility and Patriarchy: The Cultural Politics of Gender and Family Life in Egypt\u00a0(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996);\u00a0Thomas Buckley and Alma Gottlieb, ed. Blood Magic.\u00a0The Anthropology of Menstruation.(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988);\u00a0Marcia Inhorn, and Frank Van Balen, eds.\u00a0Infertility around the Globe: New Thinking on Childlessness, Gender and Reproductive Technologies\u00a0(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-70\" href=\"#footnote-307-70\" aria-label=\"Footnote 70\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[70]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Many American anthropologists \u201creturned home,\u201d looking with fresh eyes at the diversity of women\u2019s lives in their own society: working-class women, immigrant women, women of various ethnic and racial groups, and women in different geographic regions and occupations.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Johnnetta Cole, ed.\u00a0All American Women: Lines That Divide, Ties That Bind\u00a0(New York:Free Press, 1986).Louise Lamphere, Helena Ragone and Patricia Zavella, eds.\u00a0Situated Lives: Gender and Culture in Everyday Life. (New York: Routledge, 1997).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-71\" href=\"#footnote-307-71\" aria-label=\"Footnote 71\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[71]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Some ethnographers, for example, immersed themselves in the abortion debates, conducting fieldwork to understand the perspective and logic behind pro-choice and anti-choice activists in North Dakota. Others headed to college campuses, studying the \u201cculture of romance\u201d or fraternity gang rape.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See for example, Faye\u00a0Ginsburg.\u00a0Contested Lives: The Abortion Debate in an American Community\u00a0(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989);\u00a0Dorothy Holland and Margaret Eisenhart.\u00a0Educated in Romance.\u00a0(Chicago: University of Chicago, 1990); Peggy Sanday,\u00a0Fraternity Gang Rape: Sex, Brotherhood, and Privilege on Campus. (New York: New York University Press, 2007).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-72\" href=\"#footnote-307-72\" aria-label=\"Footnote 72\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[72]<\/sup><\/a><\/span>Peggy Sanday\u2019s work on sexual coercion, including her cross-cultural study of rape-prone societies, was followed by other studies of power-coercion-gender relationships, such as using new reproductive technologies for selecting the sex of children.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Peggy Sanday, \u201cThe Socio-cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-cultural Study\u201d\u00a0Journal of Social Issues\u00a037 no. 5 (1981): 5\u201327. See also Conrad\u00a0Kottak,\u00a0Cultural Anthropology. Appreciating Cultural Diversity\u00a0(New York: McGraw Hill, 2013); Veena Das, Violence, Gender and Subjectivity,\u00a0Annual Reviews of Anthropology\u00a037 (2008):283\u2013299;\u00a0Tulsi Patel, ed.\u00a0Sex-Selective Abortion in India. Gender, Society and New Reproductive Technologies\u00a0(New Delhi, India: Sage Publications, 2007).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-73\" href=\"#footnote-307-73\" aria-label=\"Footnote 73\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[73]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Many previously unexplored areas such as the discourse around reproduction, representations of women in medical professions, images in popular culture, and international development policies (which had virtually ignored gender) came under critical scrutiny.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Eleanor Leacock and Helen I. Safa, eds.,\u00a0Women\u2019s Work: Development and the Division of Labor by Gender\u00a0(South Hadley, MA: Bergin &amp; Garvey, 1986); Nandini Gunewardena and Ann Kingsolver, eds.\u00a0The Gender of Globalization: Women Navigating Cultural and Economic Marginalities\u00a0(Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press, 2008); Kay B.Warren and Susan C. Bourque, \u201cWomen, Technology, and Development Ideologies. Frameworks and Findings,\u201d in Sandra Morgen, ed.\u00a0Critical Reviews for Research and Teaching\u00a0(Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association Publication, 1989), 382\u2013410.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-74\" href=\"#footnote-307-74\" aria-label=\"Footnote 74\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[74]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Others worked on identifying complex local factors and processes that produce particular configurations of gender and gender relations, such as the <b>patrifocal<\/b> (male-focused) cultural model of family in many parts of India.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and Susan Seymour, ed.\u00a0Women, Education and Family Structure in India\u00a0(Boulder: Westview Press, 1994).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-75\" href=\"#footnote-307-75\" aria-label=\"Footnote 75\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[75]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Sexuality studies expanded, challenging existing binary paradigms, making visible the lives of lesbian mothers and other traditionally marginalized sexualities and identities.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ellen Lewin,\u00a0Lesbian Mothers: Accounts of Gender in American Culture\u00a0(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1993).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-76\" href=\"#footnote-307-76\" aria-label=\"Footnote 76\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[76]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">The past virtual invisibility of women in archaeology disappeared as a host of new studies was published, often by feminist anthropologists, including a pioneering volume by Joan Gero and Margaret Conkey, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Engendering Archaeology: Women and Prehistory<\/span>. That book gave rise to a multi-volume series specifically on gender and archaeology edited by Sarah Nelson. Everything from divisions of labor to power relations to sexuality could be scrutinized in the archaeological record.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See\u00a0Joan Gero and Margaret Conkey, ed.\u00a0Engendering Archeology. Women and Prehistory\u00a0(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); Sarah M.\u00a0Nelson,\u00a0Worlds of Gender. The Archeology of Women\u2019s Lives Around the Globe. (Lanham, MD: Altamira, 2007). See also earlier volumes.\u00a0Rosemary A. Joyce,\u00a0Ancient Bodies, Ancient Lives: Sex, Gender and Archeology\u00a0(New York: Thames and Hudson, 2008); Barbara Voss, \u201cSexuality Studies in Archeology,\u201d\u00a0Annual Review of Anthropology\u00a037 (2008): 317\u2013336.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-77\" href=\"#footnote-307-77\" aria-label=\"Footnote 77\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[77]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Some anthropologists argued that there are recurring patterns despite the complexity and variability of human gender systems. One is the impact of women\u2019s economic contributions on their power, prestige, and autonomy.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The following analysis was developed by Mukhopadhyay in scholarly papers and in lecture notes.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-78\" href=\"#footnote-307-78\" aria-label=\"Footnote 78\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[78]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Women\u2019s work, alone, does not necessarily give them control or ownership of what they produce. It is not always valued and does not necessarily lead to political power. Women in many cultures engage in agricultural labor, but the fields are often owned and controlled by their husbands\u2019 families or by a landlord, as in many parts of India and Iran.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mary E. Hegland,\u00a0Days of Revolution: Political Unrest in an Iranian Village\u00a0(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-79\" href=\"#footnote-307-79\" aria-label=\"Footnote 79\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[79]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The women have little authority, prestige, or autonomy.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This analysis was developed by Mukhopadhyay in scholarly papers and in lecture notes. An example of this pattern from Iran is Mary E. Hegland,\u00a0Days of Revolution.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-80\" href=\"#footnote-307-80\" aria-label=\"Footnote 80\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[80]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Many foraging and some horticultural societies, on the other hand, recognize women\u2019s economic and reproductive contributions, and that recognition may reflect relative equality in other spheres as well, including sexuality. Gender relations seem more egalitarian, overall, in small-scale societies such as the San, Trobrianders, and Na, in part because they are kinship-based, often with relatively few valuable resources that can be accumulated; those that exist are communally owned, usually by kinship groups in which both women and men have rights.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Another factor in gender equality is the social environment. Positive social relations\u2014an absence of constant hostility or warfare with neighbors\u2014seems to be correlated with relatively egalitarian gender relations. In contrast, militarized societies\u2014whether small-scale horticultural groups like the Sambia who perceive their neighbors as potential enemies or large-scale stratified societies with formal military organizations and vast empires\u2014seem to benefit men more than women overall.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Conrad\u00a0Kottak,\u00a0Cultural Anthropology. Appreciating Cultural Diversity.15th ed. (McGraw Hill, 2013).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-81\" href=\"#footnote-307-81\" aria-label=\"Footnote 81\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[81]<\/sup><\/a>Warrior societies culturally value men\u2019s roles, and warfare gives men access to economic and political resources.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">As to old stereotypes about why men are warriors, there may be another explanation. From a reproductive standpoint, men are far more expendable than women, especially women of reproductive age.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"E.\u00a0Friedl,\u00a0Women and Men: An Anthropologist\u2019s View;\u00a0C. Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0\u201cAnthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: 1977\u20131987.\u201d\u00a0Annual Review of Anthropology\u00a017 (1988): 461\u2013495.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-82\" href=\"#footnote-307-82\" aria-label=\"Footnote 82\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[82]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> While this theme has not yet been taken up by many anthropologists, male roles in warfare could be more about expendability than supposed greater male strength, aggressiveness, or courage. One can ask why it has taken so long for women in the United States to be allowed to fly combat missions? Certainly it is not about women not being strong enough to carry the plane.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"One 1970s male pilot, when asked about why there were no women pilots, said, without thinking, \u201cBecause women aren\u2019t strong enough to fly the plane!\u201d He then realized what he\u2019d said and laughed. From Mukhopadhyay, field notes, 1980.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-83\" href=\"#footnote-307-83\" aria-label=\"Footnote 83\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[83]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><span style=\"background-color: #ffffff\">Patriarchy . . . But What about Matriarchy?<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">The rise of stratified agriculture-intensive centralized \u201cstates\u201d has tended to produce transformations in gender relations and gender ideologies that some have called <b>patriarchy<\/b>, a male-dominated political and authority structure and an ideology that privileges males over females overall and in every strata of society. Gender intersects with class and, often, with religion, caste, and ethnicity. So, while there could be powerful queens, males took precedence over females within royal families, and while upper-class Brahmin women in India could have male servants, they had far fewer formal assets, power, and rights than their brothers and husbands. Also, as noted earlier, families strictly controlled their movements, interactions with males, \u201csocial reputations,\u201d and marriages. Similarly, while twentieth-century British colonial women in British-controlled India had power over some Indian men, they still could not vote, hold high political office, control their own fertility or sexuality, or exercise other rights available to their male counterparts.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ann Stoler, \u201cMaking Empire Respectable. The Politics of Race and Sexual Morality in Twentieth-century Colonial Cultures,\u201d in\u00a0Situated Lives. Gender and Culture in Everyday Life, ed. Louise Lamphere, H. Ragone, and P. Zavella, 373\u2013399 (New York: Routledge, 1997).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-84\" href=\"#footnote-307-84\" aria-label=\"Footnote 84\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[84]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Of course, poor lower-class lower-caste Indian women were (and still are) the most vulnerable and mistreated in India, more so overall than their brothers, husbands, fathers, or sons.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">On the other hand, we have yet to find any \u201cmatriarchies,\u201d that is, female-dominated societies in which the extent and range of women\u2019s power, authority, status, and privilege parallels men\u2019s in patriarchal societies. In the twentieth century, some anthropologists at first confused \u201cmatriarchy\u201d with <b>matrilineal<\/b>. In matrilineal societies, descent or membership in a kinship group is transmitted from mothers to their children (male and female) and then, through daughters, to their children, and so forth (as in many Na families). Matrilineal societies create woman-centered kinship groups in which having daughters is often more important to \u201ccontinuing the line\u201d than having sons, and living arrangements after marriage often center around related women in a <b>matrilocal<\/b> extended family household (See Text Box 1, What Can We Learn from the Na?). Female sexuality may become less regulated since it is the mother who carries the \u201cseed\u201d of the lineage. In this sense, it is the reverse of the kinds of patrilineal, patrilocal, patrifocal male-oriented kinship groups and households one finds in many patriarchal societies. Peggy Sanday suggested, on these and other grounds, that the Minangkabau, a major ethnic group in Indonesia, is a matriarchy.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Peggy Sanday,\u00a0Women at the Center: Life in a Modern Matriarchy\u00a0(Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2002).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-85\" href=\"#footnote-307-85\" aria-label=\"Footnote 85\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[85]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Ethnographic data have shown that males, especially as members of matrilineages, can be powerful in matrilineal societies. Warfare, as previously mentioned, along with political and social stratification can alter gender dynamics. The Nayar (in Kerala, India), the Minangkabau, and the Na are matrilineal societies embedded in, or influenced by, dominant cultures and patriarchal religions such as Islam and Hinduism. The society of the Na in China is also <b>matrifocal<\/b> in some ways. Thus, the larger context, including contemporary global processes, can undermine women\u2019s power and status.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mukhopadhyay, lecture notes, Gender and Culture.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-86\" href=\"#footnote-307-86\" aria-label=\"Footnote 86\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[86]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0<\/span>At the same time, though, many societies are clearly matrifocal, are relatively female-centered, and do not have the kinds of gender ideologies and systems found in most patriarchal societies.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See for instance Annette B. Weiner,\u00a0The Trobrianders of Papua New Guinea;\u00a0Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0A World Full of Women;\u00a0Carolyn B. Brettell and Carolyn F. Sargent, eds.\u00a0Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective.\u00a0\" id=\"return-footnote-307-87\" href=\"#footnote-307-87\" aria-label=\"Footnote 87\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[87]<\/sup><\/a>Text Boxes 1 and 2 provide examples of such systems.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3 class=\"Text-Box-head\">Does Black Matriarchy Exist in Brazil? Histories of Slavery and African Cultural Survivals in Afro-Brazilian Religion<\/h3>\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-author\">By Abby Gondek<\/h4>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\"><span class=\"CharOverride-10\">Candombl\u00e9<\/span> is an Afro-Brazilian spirit possession religion in which Yoruba (West African) deities called <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">orix\u00e1s<\/span> are honored at religious sites called <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">terreiros<\/span> where the Candombl\u00e9 priestesses (<span class=\"CharOverride-10\">m\u00e3es do santo<\/span>) and their \u201cdaughters\u201d (<span class=\"CharOverride-10\">filhas do santo<\/span>) live. One of the central \u201chubs\u201d of Candombl\u00e9 worship in Brazil is the northeastern state of Bahia, where Afro-Brazilns make up more than 80\u00a0percent of the population in the capital city, Salvador. Brazil\u2019s geography is perceived through the lenses of race and class since Bahia, a majority Afro-Brazilian state, is viewed as underdeveloped, backward, and poor relative to the whiter and wealthier Southern region.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Kirsten Marie Ernst,\u201cRios, Pontes E Overdrives:\u201d Northeastern Regionalism in a Globalized Brazil\u00a0(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); John Collins, \u201c\u2018BUT WHAT IF I SHOULD NEED TO DEFECATE IN YOUR NEIGHBORHOOD, MADAME?\u2019: Empire, Redemption, and the \u2018Tradition of the Oppressed\u2019 in a Brazilian World Heritage Site,\u201d\u00a0Cultural Anthropology\u00a023 no. 2 (2012): 279\u2013328; Jan Rocha, \u201cAnalysis: Brazil\u2019s \u2018Racial Democracy\u2019\u201d\u00a0BBC News, April 19, 2000; Allan Charles Dawson, \u201cFood and Spirits: Religion, Gender, and Identity in the \u2018African\u2019 Cuisine of Northeast Brazil,\u201d\u00a0African and Black Diaspora\u00a05 (2012): 243\u2013263; Alan P Marcus, \u201cSex, Color and Geography: Racialized Relations in Brazil and Its Predicaments\u201d\u00a0Annals of the Association of American Geographers\u00a0103(5): 1282\u20131299.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-88\" href=\"#footnote-307-88\" aria-label=\"Footnote 88\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[88]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">In the 1930s, a Jewish female anthropologist Ruth Landes provided a different perspective about Bahia, one that emphasized black women\u2019s communal power. During the time in which Landes conducted her research, the Brazilian police persecuted Candombl\u00e9 communities for \u201charboring communists.\u201d The Brazilian government was linked with Nazism, torture, rape, and racism, and Afro-Brazilians resisted this oppression.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ruth Landes,\u00a0The\u00a0City of Women\u00a0(New York: The MacMillan Company, 1947), 2, 6\u201313, 61\u201364, 92, 106.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-89\" href=\"#footnote-307-89\" aria-label=\"Footnote 89\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[89]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Also during this period, debate began among social scientists about whether Candombl\u00e9 was a matriarchal religion in which women were the primary spiritual leaders. The debate was rooted in the question of where \u201cblack matriarchy\u201d came from. Was it a result of the history of slavery or was it an African \u201ccultural survival\u201d? The debate was simultaneously about the power and importance of Afro-Brazilian women in spiritual and cultural life.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">On one side of the debate was E. Franklin Frazier, an African-American sociologist trained at University of Chicago, who maintained that Candombl\u00e9 and the lack of legal marriage gave women their important position in Bahia. He believed that black women had been matriarchal authorities since the slavery period and described them as defiant and self-reliant. On the other side of the debate was anthropologist Melville Herskovits, who was trained by German immigrant Franz Boas at Columbia University. Herskovits believed that black women\u2019s economic roles demonstrated African cultural survivals, but downplayed the priestesses\u2019 importance in Candombl\u00e9.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"E. Franklin Frazier,\u00a0\u201cThe Negro Family in Bahia, Brazil\u201d\u00a0American Sociological Review\u00a07\u00a0no.\u00a04\u00a0(1942): 476\u2013477;\u00a0E. Franklin Frazier,\u00a0The Negro Family in the United States\u00a0(Chicago: University of Chicago,\u00a01939),\u00a0125.\u00a0For the opposing view, see\u00a0Mark Alan Healey,\u00a0\u201c\u2018The Sweet Matriarchy of Bahia\u2019: Ruth Landes\u2019 Ethnography of Race and Gender.\u201d\u00a0Disposition:\u00a0The Cultural Practice of Latinamericanism II\u00a023\u00a0no. 50 (1998): 101.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-90\" href=\"#footnote-307-90\" aria-label=\"Footnote 90\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[90]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Herskovits portrayed patriarchy rather than matriarchy as the central organizing principle in Bahia. He argued that African cultural survivals in Brazil came from the patrilineal practices of Dahomey and Yoruba in West Africa and portrayed Bahian communities as male-centered with wives and \u201cconcubines\u201d catering to men and battling each other for male attention.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Ruth Landes and her work triggered the debate about \u201cblack matriarchy\u201d in Bahia. Landes had studied with anthropologists Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict at Columbia University. She began her studies of Candombl\u00e9 in 1938 in Salvador, Bahia, working with her research partner, guide, and significant other, Edison Carneiro, a scholar of Afro-Brazilian studies and journalist, resulting in publication in 1947 of <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">The City of Women<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See\u00a0Melville J. Herskovits,\u00a0\u201cThe Negro in Bahia, Brazil: A Problem in Method\u201d\u00a0American Sociological Review\u00a08\u00a0no. 4 (1943): 395\u2013396; Edison Carneiro, \u201cLetters from Edison Carneiro to Ruth Landes: Dating from September 28, 1938 to March 14, 1946\u201d (Washington, DC: Box 2 Ruth Landes Papers, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, 1938); Ruth Landes,\u00a0The City of Women\u00a0(New York: MacMillan Company, 1947).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-91\" href=\"#footnote-307-91\" aria-label=\"Footnote 91\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[91]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Landes contended that Afro-Brazilian women were the powerful matriarchal leaders of <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">terreiros<\/span> de Candombl\u00e9. She called them matriarchal because she argued that their leadership was \u201cmade up almost exclusively of women and, in any case controlled by women.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ruth\u00a0Landes,\u00a0\u201cFetish Worship in Brazil\u201d\u00a0The Journal of American Folklore\u00a053 no. 210(1940):\u00a0261.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-92\" href=\"#footnote-307-92\" aria-label=\"Footnote 92\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[92]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Landes claimed that the women provided spiritual advice and sexual relationships in exchange for financial support from male patrons of the <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">terreiros. <\/span>She also explained that newer <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">caboclo<\/span> houses (in which indigenous spirits were worshipped in addition to Yoruba spirits) had less-stringent guidelines and allowed men to become priests and dance for the gods, actions considered taboo in the Yoruba tradition. Landes elaborated that these men were primarily \u201cpassive\u201d homosexuals. She looked down on this \u201cmodern\u201d development, which she viewed as detracting from the supposedly \u201cpure\u201d woman-centered Yoruba (West African) practices.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ruth Landes,\u00a0The City of Women\u00a0(New York: MacMillan Company,\u00a01947),\u00a031\u201332, 37.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-93\" href=\"#footnote-307-93\" aria-label=\"Footnote 93\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[93]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Even Landes\u2019 (controversial) argument about homosexuality was part of her claim about matriarchy; she contended that the homosexual men who became <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">pais do santo<\/span> (\u201cfathers of the saint,\u201d or Candombl\u00e9 priests) had previously been \u201coutcasts\u201d\u2014prostitutes and vagrants who were hounded by the police. By becoming like the \u201cmothers\u201d and acting as women, they could gain status and respect. Landes was strongly influenced by both Edison Carneiro\u2019s opinion and the convictions of Martiniano Eliseu do Bonfim (a revered <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">babala\u00f4<\/span> or \u201cfather of the secrets\u201d) and the women priestesses of the traditional houses (<span class=\"CharOverride-10\">Gantois<\/span>, <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">Casa Branca<\/span>, and<span class=\"CharOverride-10\"> Il\u00ea Ax\u00e9 Op\u00f4 Afonj\u00e1<\/span>) with whom she spent the majority of her time. Thus, her writings likely represent the views of her primary informants, making her work unique; at that time, anthropologists (ethnocentrically) considered themselves more knowledgeable about the cultures they studied than the people in those cultures.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Landes incorporated ideas from the pre-Brazil research of E. Franklin Frazier and Melville Herskovits to contend that the existence of the matriarchy in Bahia rested on women\u2019s economic positions, sexuality, and capacities, which were influenced by (1) white slave owners\u2019 preference for black women as heads of families and the inculcation of leadership traits in black women and not black men and (2) the history of women\u2019s roles as property owners, market sellers, priestesses, and warriors in West Africa.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ruth Landes,\u00a0\u201cNegro Slavery and Female Status\u201d\u00a0African Affairs\u00a052 no. 206 (1953):\u00a055. Also,\u00a0Ruth Landes,\u00a0\u201cA Cult Matriarchate and Male Homosexuality\u201d\u00a0The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology\u00a035\u00a0no. 3 (1940): 386\u2013387, 393\u2013394; Ruth Landes, \u201cNegro Slavery and Female Status,\u201d\u00a0African Affairs\u00a052\u00a0no.\u00a0206 (1953): 55\u201357.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-94\" href=\"#footnote-307-94\" aria-label=\"Footnote 94\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[94]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Landes\u2019 findings continue to be critiqued in contemporary academic contexts because some scholars disagree with her matriarchy thesis and her views about homosexual <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">pais<\/span> and <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">filhos do santo<\/span>. J.\u00a0Lorand Matory, director of African and African-American research at Duke University, has taken one of the strongest positions against Landes, arguing that she altered the evidence to argue for the existence of the \u201c<span class=\"CharOverride-10\">cult matriarchate<\/span>.\u201d Matory believes that her division between \u201cnew\u201d and \u201ctraditional\u201d houses is a false one and that men traditionally were the leaders in Candombl\u00e9. In fact, Matory contends that, at the time of Landes\u2019 research, more men than women were acting as priests.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"J.\u00a0Lorand Matory,\u00a0\u201cGendered Agendas: The Secrets Scholars Keep about Yor\u00f9b\u00e1-Atlantic Religion,\u201d\u00a0Gender &amp; History\u00a015\u00a0no. 3 (2003):\u00a0413\" id=\"return-footnote-307-95\" href=\"#footnote-307-95\" aria-label=\"Footnote 95\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[95]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> In contrast, Cheryl Sterling sees Landes\u2019 <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">The City of Women<\/span> as \u201cstill relevant today as the first feminist account of Candombl\u00e9\u201d and maintains that Candombl\u00e9 is a space in which Afro-Brazilian women are the \u201csupreme authority\u201d and that the <span class=\"CharOverride-10\">terreiro<\/span> is an enclave of \u201cfemale power.\u201d The Brazilian state stereotypes black women as socially pathological with \u201cunstable\u201d family structures, making them \u201csub-citizens,\u201d but Sterling argues that Candombl\u00e9 is a space in which female blackness prevails.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Cheryl Sterling, \u201cWomen-Space, Power, and the Sacred in Afro-Brazilian Culture,\u201d\u00a0The Global South\u00a04 no. 1 (2010): 71\u201393.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-96\" href=\"#footnote-307-96\" aria-label=\"Footnote 96\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[96]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"Text-Box-head\">CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO STUDYING SEXUALITY AND GENDER<\/h2>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Contemporary anthropology now recognizes the crucial role played by gender in human society. Anthropologists in the post-2000 era have focused on exploring fluidity within and beyond sexuality, incorporating a gendered lens in all anthropological research, and applying feminist science frameworks, discourse-narrative analyses, political theory, critical studies of race, and queer theory to better understand and theorize gendered dynamics and power. Pleasure, desire, trauma, mobility, boundaries, reproduction, violence, coercion, bio-politics, globalization, neoliberal \u201cdevelopment\u201d policies and discourses, immigration, and other areas of anthropological inquiry have also informed gender and sexuality studies. We next discuss some of those trends.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"There is a huge body of research on these (and other) topics that we simply have not been able to cover in one chapter of a book. We hope the material and references we have provided will give readers a starting point for further investigation!\" id=\"return-footnote-307-97\" href=\"#footnote-307-97\" aria-label=\"Footnote 97\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[97]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h3 class=\"H2\">Heteronormativity and Sexuality in the United States<\/h3>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In the long history of human sexual relationships, we see that most involve people from different biological sexes, but some societies recognize and even celebrate partnerships between members of the same biological sex.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Many gender studies scholars have moved away from labeling people \u201cbiologically female\u201d or \u201cbiologically male,\u201d shifting instead to terms like \u201cassigned female at birth\u201d and \u201cassigned male at birth.\u201d Terms that foreground assignment help recognize the fluidity of gender identity and the existence of intersex people who do not fit neatly into those categories.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-98\" href=\"#footnote-307-98\" aria-label=\"Footnote 98\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[98]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> In some places, religious institutions formalize unions while in others unions are recognized only once they result in a pregnancy or live birth. Thus, what many people in the United States consider \u201cnormal,\u201d such as the partnership of one man and one woman in a sexually exclusive relationship legitimized by the state and federal government and often sanctioned by a religious institution, is actually <b>heteronormative<\/b>. <b>Heteronormativity<\/b> is a term coined by French philosopher Michel Foucault to refer to the often-unnoticed system of rights and privileges that accompany normative sexual choices and family formation. For example, a \u201cbiologically female\u201d woman attracted to a \u201cbiologically male\u201d man who pursued that attraction and formed a relationship with that man would be following a heteronormative pattern in the United States. If she married him, she would be continuing to follow societal expectations related to gender and sexuality and would be agreeing to state involvement in her love life as she formalizes her relationship.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Despite pervasive messages reinforcing heteronormative social relations, people find other ways to satisfy their sexual desires and organize their families. Many people continue to choose partners from the so-called \u201copposite\u201d sex, a phrase that reflects the old U.S. bipolar view of males and females as being at opposite ends of a range of characteristics (strong-weak, active-passive, hard-soft, outside-inside, Mars-Venus).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Carol C. Mukhopadhyay, \u201cA Feminist Cognitive Anthropology: The Case of Women and Mathematics\u201d Ethos 32 no. 4 (2004): 458\u2013492.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-99\" href=\"#footnote-307-99\" aria-label=\"Footnote 99\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[99]<\/sup><\/a>Others select partners from the same biological sex. Increasingly, people are choosing partners who attract them\u2014perhaps female, perhaps male, and perhaps someone with ambiguous physical sexual characteristics.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Labels have changed rapidly in the United States during the twenty-first century as a wider range of sexual orientations has been openly acknowledged, accompanied by a shift in our binary view of sexuality. Rather than thinking of individuals as either heterosexual OR homosexual, scholars and activists now recognize a <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">spectrum<\/span> of sexual orientations. Given the U.S. focus on identity, it is not surprising that a range of new personhood categories, such as bisexual, queer, questioning, lesbian, and gay have emerged to reflect a more-fluid, shifting, expansive, and ambiguous conception of sexuality and sexual identity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\"><b>Transgender<\/b>, meanwhile, is a category for people who transition from one sex to another, male to female or female to male, using a number of methods. Anthropologist David Valentine explored how the concept of \u201ctransgender\u201d became established in the United States and found that many people who were identified by others as transgender did not embrace the label themselves. This label, too, has undergone a profound shift in usage, and the high-profile transition by <a href=\"https:\/\/scholar.google.com\/scholar?as_ylo=2016&amp;q=caitlyn+jenner+gender&amp;hl=en&amp;as_sdt=1,41\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Caitlyn Jenner<\/span><\/a> in the mid-2010s has further shifted how people think about those who identify as transgender.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"David Valentine,\u00a0Imagining Transgender: An Ethnography of a Category\u00a0(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007). See also Jessi Hempel, \u201cMy Brother\u2019s Pregnancy and the Making of a New American Family\u201d\u00a0TIME\u00a0September 2016.\u00a0http:\/\/time.com\/4475634\/trans-man-pregnancy-evan.\/\" id=\"return-footnote-307-100\" href=\"#footnote-307-100\" aria-label=\"Footnote 100\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[100]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">By 2011, an estimated 8.7 million people in the United States identified as lesbian, gay, bisexual, and\/or transgender.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u00a0Gary G. Gates, \u201cHow Many People are Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender?\u201d University of California, Los Angeles: Williams Institute, 2011.\u00a0http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/research\/census-lgbt-demographics-studies\/how-many-people-are-lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender.\/\u00a0\" id=\"return-footnote-307-101\" href=\"#footnote-307-101\" aria-label=\"Footnote 101\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[101]<\/sup><\/a>These communities represent a vibrant, growing, and increasingly politically and economically powerful segment of the population. While people who identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender\u2014or any of a number of other sexual and gender minorities\u2014have existed throughout the United States\u2019 history, it is only since the Stonewall uprisings of 1969 that the modern LGBT movement has been a key force in U.S. society.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"David Carter,\u00a0Stonewall: The Riots that Sparked a Gay Revolution\u00a0(St. Martin\u2019s Griffin, 2010); Eric Marcus,\u00a0Making Gay History: The Half-Century Fight for Lesbian and Gay Equal Rights\u00a0(New York: Harper Collins, 2002).\u00a0\" id=\"return-footnote-307-102\" href=\"#footnote-307-102\" aria-label=\"Footnote 102\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[102]<\/sup><\/a>Some activists, community members, and scholars argue that LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and\/or transgender) is a better choice of labels than GLBT since it puts lesbian identity in the foreground\u2014a key issue because the term \u201cgay\u201d is often used as an umbrella term and can erase recognition of individuals who are not gay males. Recently, the acronym has been expanded to include LGBTQ (queer or questioning), LGBTQQ (both queer and questioning), LGBTQIA (queer\/questioning, intersex, and\/or asexual), and LGBTQAIA (adding allies as well).<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">Like the U.S. population overall, the LGBTQ community is extremely diverse. Some African-Americans prefer the term \u201csame-gender loving\u201d because the other terms are seen as developed by and for \u201cwhite people.\u201d Emphasizing the importance and power of words, Jafari Sinclaire Allen explains that \u201csame-gender loving\u201d was \u201ccoined by the black queer activist Cleo Manago [around 1995] to mark a distinction between \u2018gay\u2019 and \u2018lesbian\u2019 culture and identification, and black men and women who have sex with members of the same sex.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jafari Sinclaire Allen, \u201c\u2018In the Life\u2019 In Diaspora: Autonomy \/ Desire \/ Community,\u201d in\u00a0Routledge Handbook of Sexuality, Health and Rights, ed. Peter Aggleton and Richard Parker (New York: Routledge, 2010), 459.\u00a0\" id=\"return-footnote-307-103\" href=\"#footnote-307-103\" aria-label=\"Footnote 103\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[103]<\/sup><\/a>While scholars continue to use gay, lesbian, and queer and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control uses MSM (men who have sex with men), \u201csame-gender loving\u201d resonates in some urban communities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Not everyone who might fit one of the LGBTQQIA designations consciously identifies with a group defined by sexual orientation. Some people highlight their other identities, as Minnesotans, for example, or their ethnicity, religion, profession, or hobby\u2014whatever they consider central and important in their lives. Some scholars argue that heteronormativity allows people who self-identify as heterosexual the luxury of not being defined by their sexual orientation. They suggest that those who identify with the sex and gender they were assigned at birth be referred to as <b>cisgender<\/b>.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u00a0Kristen Schilt and Laurel Westbrook, \u201cDoing Gender, Doing Heteronormativity: \u2018Gender Normals,\u2019 Transgender People, and the Social Maintenance of Heterosexuality\u201d\u00a0Gender and Society\u00a023 no. 4 (2009): 440\u2013464.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-104\" href=\"#footnote-307-104\" aria-label=\"Footnote 104\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[104]<\/sup><\/a>Only when labels are universal rather than used only for non-normative groups, they argue, will people become aware of discrimination based on differences in sexual preference.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Though people are urging adoption of sexual identity labels, not everyone is embracing the move to self-identify in a specific category. Thus, a man who is attracted to both men and women might self-identify as bisexual and join activist communities while another might prefer not to be incorporated into any sexual-preference-based politics. Some people prefer to eliminate acronyms altogether, instead embracing terms such as <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">genderfluid<\/span> and <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">genderqueer <\/span>that recognize a spectrum instead of a static identity<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">.<\/span> This freedom to self-identify or avoid categories altogether is important. Most of all, these shifts and debates demonstrate that, like the terms themselves, LGBTQ communities in the United States are diverse and dynamic with often-changing priorities and makeup.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\">Changing Attitudes toward LGBTQ People in the United States<\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In the last two decades, attitudes toward LGBTQ\u2014particularly lesbian, gay and bisexual\u2014people have changed dramatically. The most sweeping change is the extension of marriage rights to lesbian, gay, and bisexual people. The first state to extend marriage rights was Massachusetts in 2003. By 2014, more than half of U.S. Americans said they believed same-sex couples should have the right to marry, and on June 26, 2015, in <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Obergefell v. Hodges<\/span>, the U.S. supreme court declared that same-sex couples had the legal right to marry.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Justin McCarthy, \u201cSame-Sex Marriage Support Reaches New High at 55%.\u201d Gallup.\u00a0http:\/\/www.gallup.com\/poll\/169640\/sex-marriage-support-reaches-new-high.aspx.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-105\" href=\"#footnote-307-105\" aria-label=\"Footnote 105\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[105]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Few civil rights movements have seen such progress in such a short period of time. While many factors have influenced the shift in attitudes, sociologists and anthropologists have identified increased awareness of and exposure to LGBTQ people through the media and personal interactions as playing key roles.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ellen Lewin and William Leap,\u00a0Out in Theory: The Emergence of Lesbian and Gay Anthropology\u00a0(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002); William Leap and Ellen Lewin,\u00a0Out in the Field: Reflections of Lesbian and Gay Anthropologist\u00a0(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-106\" href=\"#footnote-307-106\" aria-label=\"Footnote 106\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[106]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">Legalization of same-sex marriage also helped normalize same-sex parenting. Sarah, whose three young children\u2014including a set of twins\u2014are mothered by Sarah and her partner, was active in campaigns for marriage equality in Minnesota and ecstatic when the campaign succeeded in 2013 (see Text Box 4).<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">However, legalization of same-sex marriage has not been welcomed everywhere in the United States. Anthropologist Jessica Johnson\u2019s ethnographic work profiling a Seattle-based megachurch from 2006 through 2008 initially explored their efforts to oppose same-sex marriage. Later, she shifted her focus to the rhetoric of gender, masculinity, and cisgender sexuality used by the church and its pastor.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jessica Johnson, \u201cThe Citizen-Soldier: Masculinity, War, and Sacrifice at an Emerging Church in Seattle, Washington.\u201d\u00a0Political and Legal Anthropology Review\u00a033 no. 2 (2010): 326\u2013351.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-107\" href=\"#footnote-307-107\" aria-label=\"Footnote 107\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[107]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Official church communications dismissed homosexuality as aberrant and mobilized members to advocate against same-sex marriage. The church\u2019s efforts were not successful.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">Interestingly, activists and gender studies scholars express concern over incorporating marriage\u2014a heteronormative institution some consider oppressive\u2014into queer spaces not previously governed by state authority. These concerns may be overshadowed by a desire for normative lives and legal protections, but as sociologist Tamara Metz and others have argued, legally intertwining passion, romance, sexual intimacy, and economic rights and responsibilities is not necessarily a move in the right direction.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Tamara Metz,\u00a0Untying the Knot: Marriage, the State, and the Case for Their Divorce\u00a0(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-108\" href=\"#footnote-307-108\" aria-label=\"Footnote 108\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[108]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> As Miriam Smith has written, \u201cWe must move beyond thinking of same-sex marriage and relationship recognition as struggles that pit allegedly normalized or assimilated same-sex couples against queer politics and sensibilities and, rather, recognize the increasingly complex gender politics of same-sex marriage and relationship recognition, a politics that implicates groups beyond the LGBT community.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Miriam Smith, \u201cGender Politics and the Same-Sex Marriage Debate in the United States,\u201d Social Politics 17 no. 1 (2010): 1\u201328. Quote is on p.1\" id=\"return-footnote-307-109\" href=\"#footnote-307-109\" aria-label=\"Footnote 109\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[109]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">While U.S. culture on the whole has become more supportive and accepting of LGBTQ people, they still face challenges. Sexual orientation and gender identity are not federally protected statuses. Thus, in 32 states (as of 2016), employers can legally refuse to hire and can fire someone simply for being LGBTQ.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u00a0Luke Malone, \u201cHere Are The 32 States Where You Can Be Fired For Being LGBT,\u201d Vocativ.com, February 12, 2015.\u00a0http:\/\/www.vocativ.com\/culture\/lgbt\/lgbt-rights-kansas\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-110\" href=\"#footnote-307-110\" aria-label=\"Footnote 110\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[110]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Even in states where queer people have legal protection, transgender and other gender-diverse people do not. LGBTQ people can be legally denied housing and other important resources heterosexual people take for granted. LGBTQ youth made up 40 percent of homeless young people in the United States in 2012 and are often thrust into homelessness by family rejection.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The Williams Institute. 2012. \u201cAmerica\u2019s Shame: 40% of Homeless Youth are LGBT Kids.\u201d San Diego Gay and Lesbian News, 13 July.\u00a0http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/americas-shame-40-of-homeless-youth-are-lgbt-kids\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-111\" href=\"#footnote-307-111\" aria-label=\"Footnote 111\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[111]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Transgender people are the most vulnerable and experience high levels of violence, including homicide. See Activity 4: Bathroom Transgression.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h2 class=\"Text-Box-head\">Moving Toward Marriage Equality in Minnesota: Sarah\u2019s Letter<\/h2>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">In 2013, the Minnesota state legislature voted on whether to approve same-sex marriage.\u00a0Before the vote, a woman named Sarah made the difficult decision to advocate publicly for the bill\u2019s approval. In the process, she wrote the following letter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">Dear Minnesota Senator,<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">This is an open letter to you in support of the marriage equality bill. I may not be your constituent, and you may already know how you are planning to vote, but I ask you to read this letter with an open mind and heart nonetheless.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">I want same-sex marriage for the same reasons as many others. My partner Abby and I met in the first days of 2004 and have created a loving home together with our three kids and two cats. We had a commitment ceremony in 2007 in Minneapolis and were legally married in Vancouver during our \u201choneymoon.\u201d We want our marriage to be recognized because our kids deserve to have married parents, and because we constantly face increased stress as a result of having our relationship not recognized. But that\u2019s not why I\u2019m writing. I\u2019m writing because there is one conversation I have over and over again with my son that puts a pit in my stomach each time, and I\u2019m ready for that pit to go away.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Abby and I both wear wedding bands. We designed them prior to our ceremony and spent more time on that decision than we did on the flowers, dresses, and music combined. Our son is now three and a half and, like other kids his age, he asks about everything. All the time. When I get him dressed, change his diaper (please let him be potty-trained soon), or wipe his nose, he sees my ring. And he always asks:<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first ParaOverride-11\">\u201cMama, what\u2019s that ring on your finger?\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">\u201cIt\u2019s my wedding band.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first ParaOverride-11\">\u201cWhy you wear a wedding band?\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">\u201cBecause when Ima and I got married, we picked out wedding bands and now we wear them every day. It shows that we love each other.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first ParaOverride-11\">\u201cI want wear wedding band.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">\u201cSomeday when you\u2019re all grown up, you\u2019ll fall in love and get married. And you\u2019ll get to wear a wedding band, too.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first ParaOverride-11\">\u201cI\u2019ll grow up and get married? And then I get a wedding band?\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">\u201cYep.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first ParaOverride-11\">\u201cOkay.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">And then he goes about his day. This conversation may seem silly and harmless to you, but read it again. Look at how many times the issue of marriage comes up. We call it a wedding band, but every time we say that, we know it\u2019s not completely true because we were not legally wed in Minnesota. When I tell my son about our marriage or our wedding, I know I\u2019m hiding a secret from him, but am I really supposed to explain that it was a \u201ccommitment ceremony\u201d and we are \u201ccommitted, but not \u201cmarried\u201d? He\u2019s too young to be saddled with the pain that comes from being left out. He looks at our pictures and sees that his parents made a commitment to each other because of love. He doesn\u2019t understand his grandfather\u2019s speech recognizing how bittersweet the day was because the state we call home refused to bless our union as it blesses the unions of our friends. And he doesn\u2019t understand that, when I tell him he will grow up and get married, his marriage will (most likely) be part of a tradition from which his parents are excluded.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_301\" style=\"width: 910px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-301\" class=\"wp-image-301 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163952\/gender_figure_19-e1512756476992.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"900\" height=\"594\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-301\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 19: Sarah&#8217;s family photo<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\"><\/div>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">I am grateful that he is blissfully unaware right now. Imagine having the conversation with your children. Imagine the pain you would feel if innocent conversations with your child reminded you constantly that your love is not valued by your community. Don\u2019t get me wrong; our friends and family treated our ceremony as they would a legal wedding. We had a phenomenal time with good food, music, laughter, and joy. If our ceremony in Minneapolis had been enough, though, we wouldn\u2019t have bothered to get legally married in Vancouver. There is something so powerful and intangible about walking into a government office and walking out with a marriage license. We are grateful we had the opportunity there, and simply wish our state would recognize our commitment as the marriage that it is.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Take a look at the picture of my family. It\u2019s outdated, primarily because we can\u2019t get our kids to sit still long enough for a photo. I\u2019m on the right, Abby on the left. Our son is now 3.5 and our girls (twins) are almost 2. We can appreciate that this is a difficult vote for many of you and we would be honored if you think of our family and the impact this vote will have on us. We know many people outside of the Twin Cities never have a chance to meet families like ours. Tell them about us, if it helps. We are happy to answer any questions you may have. Thank you for reading.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">Sincerely,<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">Sarah<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">Minneapolis, Minnesota<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first\">April 2013<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-first-last\"><strong><span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Note<\/span><\/strong>: Minnesota legalized same-sex marriage in 2013.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 class=\"H2\">Sexuality outside the United States<\/h3>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Same-sex sexual and romantic relationships probably exist in every society, but concepts like \u201cgay,\u201d \u201clesbian,\u201d and \u201cbisexual\u201d are cultural products that, in many ways, reflect a culturally specific gender ideology and a set of beliefs about how sexual preferences develop. In many cultures (such as the Sambia discussed above), same-sex sex is a behavior, not an identity. Some individuals in India identify as practicing \u201cfemale-female sexuality\u201d or \u201cmale-male sexuality.\u201d The film <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Fire<\/span> by Mira Nair aroused tremendous controversy in India partly because it depicted a same-sex relationship between two married women somewhat graphically and because it suggested alternatives available to women stuck in unhappy and abusive patriarchal marriages.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Fire, film by Mira Nair. 1996.\u00a0https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=i2yW8BtM8sw.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-112\" href=\"#footnote-307-112\" aria-label=\"Footnote 112\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[112]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Whether one is \u201chomosexual\u201d or \u201cheterosexual\u201d may not be linked simply to engaging in same-sex sexual behavior. Instead, as among some Brazilian males, your status in the sexual relationship, literally and symbolically, depends on (or determines!) whether you are the inserter or the penetrated.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Don Kulick, \u201cThe Gender of Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes\u201d\u00a0American Anthropologist\u00a099 no. 3 (1997): 574\u2013585.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-113\" href=\"#footnote-307-113\" aria-label=\"Footnote 113\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[113]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Which would you expect involves higher status?<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Even anthropologists who are sensitive to cross-cultural variations in the terms and understandings that accompany same-sex sexual and romantic relationships can still unconsciously project their own meanings onto other cultures. Evelyn Blackwood, an American, described how surprised she was to realize that her Sumatran lover, who called herself a \u201cTombois,\u201d had a different conception of what constituted a \u201clesbian\u201d identity and lesbian relationship than she did.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Evelyn Blackwood, \u201cTombois in West Sumatra: Constructing Masculinity and Erotic Desire,\u201d in Feminist Anthropology: A Reader, ed. Ellen Lewin, 411\u2013434 (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-114\" href=\"#footnote-307-114\" aria-label=\"Footnote 114\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[114]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0We must be careful not to assume that other cultures share LGBTQ identities as they are understood in the United States and many European countries.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Furthermore, each country has its own approach to sexuality and marriage, and reproduction often plays a central role. In Israel, an embrace of pro-natalist policies for Jewish Israelis has meant that expensive reproductive technologies such as in\u00a0vitro fertilization are provided to women at no cost or are heavily subsidized. An Israeli gay activist described how surprised queer activists from other countries were when they found that nearly all Israeli female same-sex couples were raising children. (This embrace of same-sex parenting did not extend to male couples, for whom the state did not provide assisted reproductive support.) The pro-natalist policies can be traced in part to Israel\u2019s emergence as a state: founded in the aftermath of persecution and systematic genocide of Jewish residents of Europe from 1937 through 1945, Israel initially promoted policies that encouraged births at least in part as resistance to Nazi attempts to destroy the Jewish people. The contexts may be less dramatic elsewhere, but local and national histories often inform policies and practices.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In Thailand, Ara Wilson has explored how biological women embrace identities as <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">toms<\/span> and <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">dees<\/span>. Although these terms seem to be derived from English-language concepts (<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">dees <\/span>is etymologically related to \u201cladies\u201d), suggesting international influences, the ubiquity and acceptance of <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">toms<\/span> and <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">dees<\/span> in Thailand does diverge from patterns in the United States.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ara Wilson, The Intimate Economies of Bangkok: Tomboys, Tycoons, and Avon Ladies in the Global City (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-115\" href=\"#footnote-307-115\" aria-label=\"Footnote 115\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[115]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In China (as elsewhere), the experiences of those involved in male-male sexuality and those involved in female-female sexuality can differ. In her book <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Shanghai Lalas: Female Tongzhi Communities and Politics in Urban China<\/span>, Lucetta Yip Lo Kam discusses how lesbians in China note their lack of public social spaces compared with gay men.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Lucetta Yip Lo Kam, Shanghai Lalas: Female Tongzhi Communities and Politics in Urban China. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2012).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-116\" href=\"#footnote-307-116\" aria-label=\"Footnote 116\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[116]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Even the words <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">lala <\/span>and <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">tongzhi<\/span> index different categories from the English terms: <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">lala <\/span>encompasses lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered people while <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">tongzhi <\/span>is a gloss term that usually refers to gay men but has been expanded in the last two decades to other uses. (<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Tongzhi<\/span> is a cooptation of the Chinese-language socialist-era term for <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">comrade<\/span>.)<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Language makes a difference in how individuals and communities articulate their identities. Anthropologists such as Kam have commented on how sharing their own backgrounds with those with whom they work can be instrumental in gaining trust and building rapport. Her identity as a Chinese-speaking queer anthropologist and activist from Hong Kong helped women in Shanghai feel comfortable speaking with her and willing to include her in their networks.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ibid.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-117\" href=\"#footnote-307-117\" aria-label=\"Footnote 117\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[117]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">From these examples, we see that approaches to sexuality in different parts of the world are evolving, just as gender norms in the United States are undergoing tremendous shifts. Anthropologists often cross boundaries to research these changes, and their contributions will continue to shape understandings of the broad range of approaches to sexuality.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"H2\">Masculinity Studies<\/h3>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Students in gender studies and anthropology courses on gender are often surprised to find that they will be learning about men as well as women. Early women\u2019s studies initially employed what has been called an \u201cadd women and stir\u201d approach, which led to examinations of gender as a social construct and of women\u2019s issues in contemporary society. In the 1990s, women\u2019s studies expanded to become gender studies, incorporating the study of other genders, sexuality, and issues of gender and social justice.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Agatha M. Beins and Judith L. Kennedy, Women\u2019s Studies for the Future: Foundations, Interrogations, Politics (Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005); Florence Howe and Mari Jo Buhl, The Politics of Women\u2019s Studies: Testimony from the 30 Founding Mothers (New York: The Feminist Press, 2000); Marilyn J. Boxer and Caroline Stimpson, When Women Ask the Questions: Creating Women\u2019s Studies in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); Susan Shaw and Janet Lee, Women\u2019s Voices, Feminist Visions (New York: McGraw Hill, 2014).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-118\" href=\"#footnote-307-118\" aria-label=\"Footnote 118\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[118]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Gender was recognized as being fundamentally relational: femaleness is linked to maleness, femininity to masculinity. One outgrowth of that work is the field of \u201cmasculinity studies.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Rachel Adams and Michael Savan, The Masculinity Studies Reader (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002); Judith Keagan Gardiner, Masculinity Studies and Feminist Theory (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Matthew C. Gutmann, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d Annual Review of Anthropology 26 no. 1 (2007): 385\u2013409. There were a number of earlier explorations of masculinity, several focused on African-American males. See for example Michelle Wallace, Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman (New York: Warner Books, 1980).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-119\" href=\"#footnote-307-119\" aria-label=\"Footnote 119\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[119]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Masculinity studies goes beyond men and their roles to explore the relational aspects of gender. One focus is the enculturation processes through which boys learn about and learn to perform \u201cmanhood.\u201d Many U.S. studies (and several excellent videos, such as <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Tough Guise<\/span> by Jackson Katz), have examined the role of popular culture in teaching boys our culture\u2019s key concepts of masculinity, such as being \u201ctough\u201d and \u201cstrong,\u201d and shown how this \u201ctough guise\u201d stance affects men\u2019s relationships with women, with other men, and with societal institutions, reinforcing a culture of violent masculinity. Sociologist Michael Kimmel has further suggested that boys are taught that they live in a \u201cperilous world\u201d he terms \u201cGuyland.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See especially numerous films available through Media Education Foundation and Women Make Movies. See also Susan Bordo, The Male Body: A New Look at Men in Public and in Private (New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 1999); Rebecca Solnit, Men Explain Things to Me (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2014). Also, Jackson Katz\u2019 film Tough Guise 2: Violence, Media, and the Crisis in Masculinity (2013) and the website www.jacksonkatz.com\/ have other books, articles, and workshops on gender violence prevention. See also Michael Kimmel, Guyland: The Perilous World Where Boys Become Men (New York: Harper Perennial, 2009).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-120\" href=\"#footnote-307-120\" aria-label=\"Footnote 120\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[120]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists began exploring concepts of masculinity cross-culturally as early as the 1970s, resulting in several key publications in 1981, including Herdt\u2019s first book on the Sambia of New Guinea and Ortner and Whitehead\u2019s volume, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Sexual Meanings<\/span>. In 1990, Gilmore analyzed cross-cultural ethnographic data in his <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts in Masculinity<\/span>.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Thomas Grego, Mehinaku: The Drama of Daily Life in a Brazilian Indian Village (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977). See also Paula Brown and Georgeda Buchbinder, Man and Woman in the New Guinea Highlands (Washington DC: American Anthropological Association, 1976); Gilbert Herdt, Guardians of the Flutes (film); Stanley Brandeis, Metaphors of Masculinity: Sex and Status in Andalusian Folklore (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980); Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, Sexual Meanings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); David Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-121\" href=\"#footnote-307-121\" aria-label=\"Footnote 121\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[121]<\/sup><\/a>Other work followed, including a provocative video on the Sambia, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Guardians of the Flutes<\/span>. But the growth of studies of men and masculinity in the United States also stimulated new research approaches, such as \u201cperformative\u201d aspects of masculinity and how gender functions in wealthier, post-industrial societies and communities with access to new technologies and mass media.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See article by Matthew C. Guttman, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (2007): 385\u2013409.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-122\" href=\"#footnote-307-122\" aria-label=\"Footnote 122\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[122]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists sometimes turn to unconventional information sources as they explore gendered culture, including popular television commercials. Interestingly, the 2015 Super Bowl commercials produced for the Always feminine product brand also focused on gender themes in its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=XjJQBjWYDTs\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">#Likeagirl campaign<\/span><\/a>, which probed the damaging connotations of the phrases \u201cthrow like a girl\u201d and \u201crun like a girl\u201d by first asking boys and girls to act out running and throwing, and then asking them to act out a <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">girl<\/span> running and throwing. A <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VhB3l1gCz2E\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">companion clip<\/span><\/a> further explored the negative impacts of anti-girl messages, provoking dialogue among Super Bowl viewers and in social media spaces (though, ironically, that dialogue was intended to promote consumption of feminine products). As the clips remind us, while boys and men play major roles in perceptions related to gender, so do the women who raise them, often reinforcing gendered expectations for play and aspiration. Of course, women, like men, are enculturated into their culture\u2019s gender ideology.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See several excellent videos through Media Education Foundation including Dreamworlds 3, Killing Us Softly 4, The Purity Myth as well as those addressing masculinity such as Tough Guise 2, Joystick Warriors, and Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-123\" href=\"#footnote-307-123\" aria-label=\"Footnote 123\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[123]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Both girls and boys\u2014and adults\u2014are profoundly influenced by popular culture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Though scholars from many disciplines publish important work on masculinity, anthropologists, with their cross-cultural research and perspectives, have significantly deepened and enriched interdisciplinary understandings. Anthropologists have made strong contributions not only by providing nuanced portrayals (of, for example, men in prison, heroin users, migrant laborers, college students, and athletes in the United States) but also through offering vivid accounts of expectations of men in other societies, including the relationship between those expectations and warfare. This can include differences in expectations based on a person\u2019s age, other role-based variations, and transformation of traditional roles as a result of globalization.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Philippe Bourgois and Jeffrey Schonberg, Righteous Dopefiend (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009); Seth M. Holmes, Fresh Fruit, Broken Bodies: Migrant Farmworkers in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013); Mary H. Moran, \u201cWarriors or Soldiers? Masculinity and Ritual Transvestism in the Liberian Civil War,\u201d in Situated Lives, ed. Louise Lamphere, Helena Ragone, and Patricia Zavella, 440\u2013450. New York: Routledge, 1997); Kimberly Theidon, \u201cReconstructing Masculinities: The Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colombia,\u201d in The Gender, Culture, and Power Reader, ed. Dorothy Hodgson, 420\u2013429 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Casey High, \u201cWarriors, Hunters, and Bruce Lee: Gendered Agency and the Transformation of Amazonian Masculinity\u201d American Ethnologist 37 no. 4 (2010): 753\u2013770.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-124\" href=\"#footnote-307-124\" aria-label=\"Footnote 124\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[124]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Not all societies expect men to be \u201ctough guys\/guise,\u201d and those that do go about it in different ways and result in different impacts on men and women.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"James W. Messerschmidt, Masculinities in the Making: From the Local to the Global (Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield, 2015).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-125\" href=\"#footnote-307-125\" aria-label=\"Footnote 125\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[125]<\/sup><\/a>For example, in Sichuan Province in China, young Nuosu men must prove their maturity through risky behavior such as theft. In recent years, theft has been supplanted for many by heroin use, particularly as young men have left their home communities for urban areas (where they are often feared by city residents and attract suspicion).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Liu Shao-hua, Passage to Manhood: Youth, Masculinity, and Migration in Southwest China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-126\" href=\"#footnote-307-126\" aria-label=\"Footnote 126\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[126]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Meanwhile, in the Middle East, technologies such as assisted reproduction are challenging and reshaping ideas about masculinity among some Arab men, particularly men who acknowledge and struggle with infertility. There and elsewhere, conceptions of fatherhood are considered crucial components of masculinity. In Japan, for example, a man who has not fathered a child is not considered to be fully adult.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Marcia C. Inhorn, The New Arab Man: Emergent Masculinities, Technologies, and Islam in the Middle East (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Marcia C. Inhorn, Wendy Chavkin, and Jose-Alberto Navarro, Globalized Fatherhood. New York: Berghahn. For discussion of Japan, see Mark J. McLelland. 2005. \u201cSalarymen Doing Queer: Gay Men and the Heterosexual Public Sphere in Japan,\u201d in Genders, Transgenders and Sexualities in Japan, edited by M. J. McLelland and R. Dasgupta, 96\u2013110 (New York: Routledge, 2014).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-127\" href=\"#footnote-307-127\" aria-label=\"Footnote 127\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[127]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Elsewhere, as we saw in the first part of this chapter, men are expected to be gentle nurturers of young children and to behave in ways that do not fit typical U.S. stereotypes. In Na communities, men dote on babies and small children, often rushing to pick them up when they enter a room. In South Korea, men in wildly popular singing groups wear eyeliner and elaborate clothing that would be unusual for U.S. groups, and throughout China and India, as in many other parts of the world, heterosexual men walk down the street holding hands or arm-in-arm without causing raised eyebrows. Physical contact between men, especially in sex-segregated societies, is probably far more common than contact between men and women! Touch is a human form of intimacy that need not have sexual implications. So if male-male relations are the most intimate in a society, physical expressions of those relations are \u201cnormal\u201d overall unless there is a cultural fear of male physical intimacy. There is much more nuance in actual behavior than initial appearances lead people to believe.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists are also applying approaches taken in American studies to other cultures. They are engaging in more-intimate discussions of males\u2019 self-perceptions, dilemmas, and challenges and have not hesitated to intercede, carefully, in the communities in which they work. Visual anthropologist Harjant Gill, conducting research in the Punjab region of India, began asking men about pressures they faced and found that the conversations prompted unexpected reflection. Gill titled his film <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=EJ16hle9EiM),\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink CharOverride-5\">Mardistan<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-5\"> (Macholand)<\/span> and shepherded the film through television broadcasts and smaller-scale viewings to encourage wide discussion in India of the issues he explored.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Dipanita Nath, \u201cMardistan: Four Men Talk about Masculinity in Harjant Gill\u2019s Film,\u201d The Indian Express, August 25, 2014. http:\/\/indianexpress.com\/article\/cities\/delhi\/be-a-super-man.\/ The film is available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=tSrGuXTEHsk.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-128\" href=\"#footnote-307-128\" aria-label=\"Footnote 128\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[128]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0For a related activity, see Activity 5: Analyzing Gendered Stereotypes and Masculinity in Music Videos.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"H1\">CONCLUSION<\/h2>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In 1968, a cigarette company in the United States decided to target women as tobacco consumers and used a clever marketing campaign to entice them to take up <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Virginia_Slims.\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">smoking<\/span><\/a>. \u201cYou\u2019ve come a long way, baby!\u201d billboards proclaimed. Women, according to the carefully constructed rhetoric, had moved away from their historic oppressed status and could\u2014and should\u2014now enjoy the full complement of twentieth-century consumer pleasures. Like men, they deserved to enjoy themselves and relax with a cigarette. The campaigns were extremely successful; within several years, smoking rates among women had increased dramatically. But had women really come a long way? We now know that tobacco (including in vaporized form) is a highly addictive substance and that its use is correlated with a host of serious health conditions. In responding to the marketing rhetoric, women moved into a new sphere of bodily pleasure and possibly enjoyed increased independence, but they did so at a huge cost to their health. They also succumbed to a long-term financial relationship with tobacco companies who relied on addicting individuals in order to profit. Knowing about the structures at work behind the scenes and the risks they took, few people today would agree that women\u2019s embrace of tobacco represented a huge step forward.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Perhaps saying \u201cYou\u2019ve come a long way, baby!\u201d with the cynical interpretation with which we read it today can serve as an analogy for our contemporary explorations of gender and culture. Certainly, many women in the United States today enjoy heightened freedoms. We can travel to previously forbidden spaces, study disciplines long considered the domain of men, shape our families to meet our own needs, work in whatever field we choose, and, we believe, live according to our own wishes. But we would be naive to ignore how gender continues to shape, constrain, and inform our lives. The research and methods of anthropology can help us become more aware of the ongoing consequences of our gendered heritage and the ways in which we are all complicit in maintaining gender ideologies that limit and restrict people\u2019s possibilities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">By committing to speak out against subtle, gender-based discrimination and to support those struggling along difficult paths, today\u2019s anthropologists can emulate pioneers such as Franz Boas and Margaret Mead, who sought to fuse research and action. May we all be kinder to those who differ from the norm, whatever that norm may be. Only then will we all\u2014women, men and those who identify with neither category\u2014have truly come a long way. (But we will leave the infantilizing \u201cbaby\u201d to those tobacco companies!)<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>discussion questions<\/h3>\n<ol>\n<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">What is \u201cnatural\u201d about how you experience gender and human sexuality? What aspects are at least partially shaped by culture? How do other cultures\u2019 beliefs and practices regarding gender and sexuality differ from those commonly found in the United States? Are there any parallels? Does it depend on which U.S. community we are talking about? What about your own beliefs and practices?<\/li>\n<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">Reflect on the various ways you have \u201clearned\u201d about gender and sexuality throughout your life. Which influences do you think had the biggest impact?<\/li>\n<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">How important is your gender to how you think about yourself, to your \u201cidentity\u201d or self-definition, to your everyday life? Reflect on what it would be like to be a different gender.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">How important is your \u201csexuality\u201d and \u201csexual orientation\u201d to how you think about yourself, to your identity or self-definition? Reflect on what it would be like if you altered your sexual identity or practices.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">In what ways have your school settings been shaped by and around gender norms?<\/li>\n<li class=\"Discussion-Questions-numbered\">How are anthropologists influenced by gender norms? How has this affected the discipline of anthropology?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Androgyny: <\/b>cultural definitions of gender that recognize some gender differentiation, but also accept \u201cgender bending\u201d and role-crossing according to individual capacities and preferences.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Binary model of gender: <\/b>cultural definitions of gender that include only two identities&#8211;male and female.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Biologic sex: <\/b>refers to male and female identity based on internal and external sex organs and chromosomes. While male and female are the most common biologic sexes, a percentage of the human population is intersex with ambiguous or mixed biological sex characteristics.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Biological determinism: <\/b>a theory that biological differences between males and females leads to fundamentally different capacities, preferences, and gendered behaviors. This scientifically unsupported view suggests that gender roles are rooted in biology, not culture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Cisgender:<\/b> a term used to describe those who identify with the sex and gender they were assigned at birth.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Dyads: <\/b>two people in a socially approved pairing. One example is a married couple.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Gender: <\/b>the set of culturally and historically invented beliefs and expectations about gender that one learns and performs. Gender is an \u201cidentity\u201d one can choose in some societies, but there is pressure in all societies to conform to expected gender roles and identities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Gender ideology: <\/b>a complex set of beliefs about gender and gendered capacities, propensities, preferences, identities and socially expected behaviors and interactions that apply to males, females, and other gender categories. Gender ideology can differ among cultures and is acquired through enculturation. Also known as a cultural model of gender.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Heteronormativity: <\/b>a term coined by French philosopher Michel Foucault to refer to the often-unnoticed system of rights and privileges that accompany normative sexual choices and family formation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Legitimizing ideologies: <\/b>a set of complex belief systems, often developed by those in power, to rationalize, explain, and perpetuate systems of inequality.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Matrifocal: <\/b>groups of related females (e.g. mother-her sisters-their offspring<b>)<\/b> form the core of the family and constitute the family\u2019s most central and enduring social and emotional ties.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Matrilineal:<\/b> societies where descent or kinship group membership is transmitted through women, from mothers to their children (male and female), and then through daughters, to their children, and so forth.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Matrilocal: <\/b>a woman-centered kinship group where living arrangements after marriage often center around households containing related women.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Patriarchy: <\/b>describes a society with a male-dominated political and authority structure and an ideology that privileges males over females in domestic and public spheres.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Patrifocal: <\/b>groups of related males (e.g. a father-his brothers) and their male offspring form the core of the family and constitute the family\u2019s most central and enduring social and emotional ties.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Patrilineal:<\/b> societies where descent or kinship group membership is transmitted through men, from men to their children (male and female), and then through sons, to their children, and so forth.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Patrilocal: <\/b>a male-centered kinship group where living arrangements after marriage often center around households containing related men.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Third gender: <\/b>a gender identity that exists in non-binary gender systems offering one or more gender roles separate from male or female.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Glossary\"><b>Transgender: <\/b>a category for people who transition from one sex to another, either male-to-female or female-to-male.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 class=\"H1\">RESOURCES FOR FURTHER EXPLORATION<\/h2>\n<p class=\"H4-below-H1\">Educational Media Companies and Distributors:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"Bulleted-list\">Documentary Education Resources. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.der.org\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.der.org<\/span><\/a>. One of the earliest distributors of anthropology-ethnographic films. Includes older, but still very useful, ethnographic films. Such films document ways of life that are rapidly disappearing.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Bulleted-list\">Media Education Foundation. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.mediaed.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.mediaed.org\/<\/span><\/a> Focuses on contemporary USA culture, with a wide range of videos analyzing mass media, popular culture, and advertising. Videos often include teaching guides.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Bulleted-list\">Women Make Movies. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.wmm.com\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.wmm.com<\/span><\/a>. Wide range of films\/videos by women filmmakers on diverse topics, social groups, both within the US and throughout the world. One of the earliest distributors of films on gender.<\/li>\n<li class=\"Bulleted-list\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Women\u2019s Media Center.<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/www.womensmediacenter.com\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.womensmediacenter.com\/<\/span><\/a> More U.S.-centered resources, especially contemporary issues of women\u2019s representation in the media.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"H4\">Some Key Accessible Readings by Anthropologists:<\/p>\n<p class=\"References\">Brettell, Carolyn and Brettell, Carolyn B. and Carolyn F. Sargent, eds. <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective.<\/span> 6th edition (New York: Routledge, 2012). Excellent collection of articles, with overviews. Also includes a Film Bibliography for each topical section of the book.<\/p>\n<p class=\"References\">Geller, Pamela L. and Miranda K. Stockett, eds.,<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"> Feminist Anthropology: Past, Present, and Future<\/span> (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006). Many articles by biological and archeological anthropologists<b>. <\/b><\/p>\n<p class=\"References\">Hodgson, Dorothy L., ed. <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Gender, Culture, and Power Reader.<\/span> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). Useful reader for students and non-specialist readers. Includes a wide range of articles, often adapted from longer academic articles.<\/p>\n<p class=\"References\">Ellen Lewin, ed., <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Feminist Anthropology: A Reader<\/span> (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006). Excellent collection with introductory essay by editor, a pioneer in feminist and Lesbian-Gay studies.<\/p>\n<p class=\"References\">Strum, Shirley and Fedigan, Linda, eds.,<span class=\"CharOverride-5\" xml:lang=\"ar-SA\">\u00a0Primate Encounters: Models of Science, Gender and Society<\/span> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).<\/p>\n<p class=\"References\">Ward, Martha and Monica Edelstein, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">A World full of Women. <\/span>6th edition (New York: Routledge\/Taylor Francis, 2014). Readable overview of the field.<\/p>\n<p class=\"H4\">Some Useful Organizational Websites<\/p>\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/mensstudies.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">American Men\u2019s Studies Association<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/afa.americananthro.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Association for Feminist Anthropology<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">, American Anthropological Association <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/afa.americananthro.org\/voices-the-afa-journal\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">VOICES<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">: Journal of the Association for Feminist Anthropology <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/afa.americananthro.org\/book-category\/book-review-topic\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Book reviews<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"> from the Association for Feminist Anthropology <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/queeranthro.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Association for Queer Anthropology<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.cawp.rutgers.edu\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Center for American Women and Politics<\/span><\/a>, Rutgers University<\/p>\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.feminist.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Feminist Majority Foundation<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Guttmacher Center<\/span><\/a> (Research on reproductive health)<\/p>\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.nwsa.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">National Women\u2019s Studies Association<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"References\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.plannedparenthood.org\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Planned Parenthood<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3 class=\"H1\">ABOUT THE AUTHORS<\/h3>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer465\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-303 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163956\/gender_figure_20-188x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"188\" height=\"300\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Dr. Mukhopadhyay specializes in gender, sexuality, race\/ethnicity, and culture-cognition, with research in the USA and India on gendered families, politics, and science-engineering. In graduate school she co-created one of the earliest gender-culture courses. She has developed numerous gender classes and taught, for 20 years, a popular anthropology and gender-oriented, multi-section Human Sexuality course. Gender-related publications include: <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cognitive Anthropology Through a Gendered Lens<\/span> (2011). <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">How Exportable are Western Theories of Gendered Science?<\/span> (2009), <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">A Feminist Cognitive Anthropology: The Case of Women and Mathematics<\/span> (2004), <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Women, Education and Family Structure in India<\/span> (1994, with S. Seymour). She co-authored an early <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span> article on gender (1988) and is in the Association for Feminist Anthropology. In other work, she served as a Key Advisor for the AAA RACE project; co-authored <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">How Real is Race: A Sourcebook on Race, Culture and Biology<\/span>, (2nd Edition, 2014) and promotes active learning approaches to teaching about culture (cf.2007).<\/p>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer466\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"_idGenObjectAttribute-1 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163958\/gender_figure_21.png\" alt=\"Image of the author.\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Tami Blumenfield is Assistant Professor of Asian Studies at Furman University and was a 2016 Fulbright Scholar affiliated with Yunnan University. Since 2001, she has been engaged in a long-term ethnographic fieldwork project in northwest Yunnan Province, studying changes in education, social life, and ecology in Na communities. Blumenfield is the co-editor of <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cultural Heritage Politics in China<\/span>, with Helaine Silverman (2013), and of <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Doing Fieldwork in China\u2026With Kids! <\/span>with Candice Cornet (2016). Blumenfield also produced <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Some Na Ceremonies<\/span>, a Berkeley Media film by Onci Archei and Ruheng Duoji. Blumenfield holds a PhD in Sociocultural Anthropology from the University of Washington.<\/p>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer467\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"_idGenObjectAttribute-1 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163959\/gender_figure_22.png\" alt=\"Image of the author.\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Susan Harper, Ph.D., is an educator, activist, and advocate in Dallas, Texas. She holds a Ph.D. in Cultural Anthropology from Southern Methodist University and a Graduate Certificate in Women\u2019s Studies from Texas Woman\u2019s University. Her ethnographic research focuses on New Religious Movements, primarily NeoPaganism, in the American South; the intersection of gender, sexuality, and religious identity; and ses, sexuality, and sex education. Her work has been published in the <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Journal of Bisexuality<\/span>. Susan is passionate about a variety of social justice causes, including domestic and intimate partner violence prevention and recovery, sexual assault prevention and recovery, LGBTQ equality and inclusion, and educational justice. She has given presentations on LGBTQ<span class=\"CharOverride-14\">+<\/span> equality and inclusion to a variety of audiences, including the North Texas Society of Human Resource Managers, The Turning Point Rape Crisis Center, and various religious organizations. She teaches courses in anthropology, sociology, and Women\u2019s and Gender Studies at various universities and colleges in the DFW area. She also serves as Graduate Reader\/Editor for Texas Woman\u2019s University. She is currently working on an autoethnography about burlesque and visual anthropology project exploring the use of Pinterest by practitioners of NeoPaganism.<\/p>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer468\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"_idGenObjectAttribute-1 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06164000\/gender_figure_23.png\" alt=\"Image of the author.\" \/><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\"><span class=\"Non-Indent-Para-Char CharOverride-15\">Abby Gondek is a PhD candidate in Global and Socio-cultural Studies (majoring in Anthropology\/Sociology) at Florida International University in Miami, Florida. She defended her dissertation proposal in April 2016. Her project, \u201cJewish Women\u2019s Transracial, Transdisciplinary and Transnational Social Science Networks, 1920\u20131970\u201d uses social network analysis and grounded theory methodology\u00a0to understand the relationships between the anti-racist and pro-political\/economic justice stance taken by Jewish female social scientists and their Jewish gendered-racialized subjectivities. Further information about her work is available from<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/transform-art-gender.webs.com\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/transform-art-gender.webs.com<\/span><\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/abbygondek.blogspot.com\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/abbygondek.blogspot.com<\/span><\/a> as well as <a href=\"https:\/\/www.instagram.com\/abbygondek\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.instagram.com\/abbygondek\/<\/span><\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3 class=\"H1\">ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<\/h3>\n<p class=\"Normal\">The authors wish to thank the many people who supported this writing project. We especially appreciate the editorial guidance of Nina Brown and the constructive feedback from two anonymous reviewers. We are grateful to our students as well, particularly those in Blumenfield\u2019s Gender in East Asia at Furman University who read a draft version of this chapter in 2016 and shared feedback that helped us improve the chapter, and to Mukhopadhyay\u2019s students at California State University Chico and at San Jose State University. We also thank the many individuals who shared their lives with us and with other anthropologists, enabling us to understand and appreciate the breadth, depth, and richness of human cultural diversity. Finally, Carol Mukhopadhyay extends her thanks to Nina Brown and Tami Blumenfield, and to Susan Seymour, on many levels, for help on the 2016 Gender and the Presidential Election text box.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-307\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Edited by Nina Brown, Laura Tubelle de Gonzalez, and Thomas McIlwraith. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: American Anthropological Association. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/\">http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>added content &amp; made edits. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Nadine Fernandez. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-307-1\"><\/span>\u00a0The Introduction and much of the material in the Foundations segment draws upon and synthesizes Mukhopadhyay\u2019s decades of research, writing, and teaching courses on culture, gender, and human sexuality. Some of it has been published. Other material comes from lecture notes. See\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-2\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-2\">We use quotation marks here and elsewhere in the chapter to alert readers to a culturally specific, culturally invented concept in the United States. We need to approach U.S. cultural inventions the same way we would a concept we encountered in a foreign, so-called \u201cexotic\u201d culture. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-3\"><\/span>See Carolyn B. Brettell and Carolyn F. Sargent,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective<\/span>\u00a0<\/em>(New York: Routledge, 2005). Also, Anne Fausto-Sterling,<em>\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Myths of Gender. Biological Theories About Women and Men<\/span>\u00a0<\/em>(New York: Basic Books, 1991). For some web-based examples of these nineteenth century views, see article at\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.bl.uk\/romantics-and-victorians\/articles\/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.bl.uk\/romantics-and-victorians\/articles\/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century<\/span><\/a>. For a list of descriptive terms, see\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www2.ivcc.edu\/gen2002\/Women_in_the_Nineteenth_Century.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www2.ivcc.edu\/gen2002\/Women_in_the_Nineteenth_Century.htm<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-4\">For an example of a textbook, see Herant A.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Katchadurian,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Fundamentals of Human Sexuality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1989). See also Linda Stone,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Kinship and Gender: An Introduction<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2013).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-5\">Material in the following paragraphs comes from Mukhopadhyay, unpublished Human Sexuality lecture notes. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-6\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Herant A. Katchadurian,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Fundamentals of Human Sexuality<\/em>,\u00a0<\/span>365. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-7\">Phyllis\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Kaberry,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Women of the Grassfields. A Study of the Economic Position of Women in Bamenda, British Cameroons<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Colonial Research publication 14. London: Her Majesty\u2019s Stationery Office.1952) The image comes from the cover of her book, which is also available online:\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.era.anthropology.ac.uk\/Kaberry\/Kaberry_text\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.era.anthropology.ac.uk\/Kaberry\/Kaberry_text\/<\/span><\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-8\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">See Barry S. Hewlett,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Intimate Fathers: The Nature and Context of Aka Pygmy Paternal Infant Care<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991); and personal communication with\u00a0<\/span>Mukhopadhyay<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-9\">W.H. Masters and V.E. Johnson,<em>\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Human Sexual Response<\/span><\/em>\u00a0<span class=\"HTML-Cite _idGenCharOverride-2\">(New York: Bantam Books, 1966).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-10\">Some feminist scholars have also questioned the \u201cnaturalness\u201d of the biological categories male and female. See for example, Judith Butler,<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">\u00a0<em>Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity<\/em><\/span>\u00a0(New York: Routledge, 1999 [1990]). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-11\">For genital similarities, see\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Janet S. Hyde and John D. DeLamater,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Understanding Human Sexuality\u00a0<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(McGraw Hill, 2014),\u00a0<\/span>94\u2013101. For more parallels, see Mukhopadhyay\u2019s online Human Sexuality course materials, at\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-12\"><\/span>For some idea of the enormous variability in human physical characteristics, see Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 in C. Mukhopadhyay, R. Henze, and Y. Moses,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">How Real is Race: Race, Culture and Biology\u00a0<\/span><\/em>(Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-13\">Information about alternative gender roles in pre-contact Native American communities can be found in\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">A World Full of Women\u00a0<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Boston: Pearson, 2013). Also, see the 2011 PBS Independent Lens film\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Two Spirits<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0for an account of the role of two-spirit ideology in Navajo communities, including the story of a Navajo teenager who was the victim of a hate crime because of his two-spirit identity.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-14\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>A World Full of Women<\/em>.<\/span>\u00a0 <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-15\">Serena\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Nanda,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Neither Man nor Woman: the Hijras of India<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Boston, MA: Cengage, 1999); Serena Nanda,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Gender Diversity: Cross-cultural Variations\u00a0<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland 2000); and Gayatri Reddy and Serena Nanda, \u201cHijras: An \u201cAlternative\u201d Sex\/Gender in India,\u201d in<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective<\/span><\/em>, ed.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">C. Brettell and C. Sargent, 278\u2013285 (<\/span>Upper Saddle River New Jersey: Pearson,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">2005)<\/span>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-16\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Janet S. Hyde and John D. DeLamater,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Understanding Human Sexuality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">, 99; Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>A World Full of Women<\/em>.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-17\">Beverly Chinas, personal communication with Mukhopadhyay. See also her writings on Isthmus Zapotec women such as:<em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0Beverly Chinas,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Isthmus Zapotecs: A Matrifocal Culture of Mexico<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York:\u00a0<\/span>Harcourt Brace College Publishers 1997). For a film on this culture, see Maureen Gosling and Ellen Osborne,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Blossoms of Fire<\/em>, Film\u00a0<\/span>(San Francisco: Film Arts Foundation, 2001)<span class=\"CharOverride-5\">.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-18\">Gilbert\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Herdt,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Sambia<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 2006). For an excellent film see Gilbert Herdt,<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Guardians of the Flutes<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(London UK: BBC, 1994).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-19\">More information about the Nu shu writing system can be found in the film by Yue-Qing Yang,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Nu Shu: A Hidden Language of Women in China<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York: Women Make Movies, 1999). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-19\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 19\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-20\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ernestine Friedl,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women and Men: An Anthropologist\u2019s View<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975). See Audrey Richards,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Chisungu: A Girl\u2019s Initiation Ceremony among the Bemba of Zambia<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(London: Faber, 1956) and A. Richards,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Land, <em>Labour and Diet in Northern Rhodesia, An Economic Study of the Bemba Tribe<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(London: Oxford, 1939).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-20\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 20\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-21\"><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">See for example, Ian Hogbin,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"a-size-extra-large CharOverride-16\">The Island of Menstruating Men: Religion in Wogeo, New Guinea<\/span><\/em><span class=\"a-size-extra-large\">\u00a0(Scranton, PA: Chandler Publishing Company, 1970).<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-21\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 21\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-22\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Susannah M Hoffman, Richard A Cowan and Paul Aratow,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Kypseli:<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">\u00a0Men and Women Apart A Divided Reality<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Berkeley CA: Berkeley Media, 1976). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-22\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 22\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-23\">Denise\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Lawrence, Menstrual Politics: Women and Pigs in Rural Portugal, in\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Blood Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation<\/em>,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">ed. Thomas<\/span>\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Buckley and Alma Gottlieb, 117\u2013136 (Berkeley: University of California Press. 1988.), 122\u2013123.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-23\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 23\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-24\">See\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/programmes\/p03k6k0h\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/programmes\/p03k6k0h<\/span><\/a>. Some women are posing with photos of menstrual pads and hashtags #happytobleed:\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/world\/asia\/indian-women-launch-happy-to-bleed-campaign-to-protest-against-sexist-religious-rule-a6748396.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.independent.co.uk\/news\/world\/asia\/indian-women-launch-happy-to-bleed-campaign-to-protest-against-sexist-religious-rule-a6748396.html<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-24\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 24\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-25\">See the film by Michael Camerini and Rina Gill,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Dadi\u2019s Family<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Watertown, MA: DER, 1981).  <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-25\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 25\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-26\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Cynthia Nelson, \u201cPublic and Private Politics: Women in the Middle Eastern World\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">American Ethnologist<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a01 no. 3 (1974): 551\u201356.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-26\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 26\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-27\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Carol C. Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0<\/span>\u201cFamily Structure and Indian Women\u2019s Participation in Science and Engineering,\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Women, Education and Family Structure in India<\/span><\/em>, ed. Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and Susan Seymour, 103\u2013133 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-27\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 27\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-28\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Elizabeth Fernea,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Guests of the Sheik.an Ethnography of an Iraqi Village<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>\u00a0<\/em>(New York: Anchor Books, 1965).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-28\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 28\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-29\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Susan Seymour,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cora Du Bois: Anthropologist, Diplomat, Agent\u00a0<\/span><\/em>(Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">2015)<\/span>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-29\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 29\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-30\">Carol C.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0<\/span>\u201cWomen in Science: Is the Glass Ceiling Disappearing?\u201d Proceedings of conference organized by the National Institute of Science and Technology Development Studies, the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India; Indian Council of Social Science Research; and the Indo-U.S. Science and Technology Forum. March 8\u201310, 2004. New Delhi, India. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-30\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 30\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-31\">\u00a0<\/span>For the !Kung San, see Marjorie\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Shostak,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Nisa: Life and Words of a Kung Woman<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(New York: Vintage, 1983). For Trobrianders, see\u00a0<\/span>Annette B. Weiner,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>The Trobrianders of Papua New Guinea<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1987).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-31\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 31\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-32\"> Shanshan Du,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Chopsticks Only Work in Pairs: Gender Unity and Gender Equality Among the Lahu of Southwest China<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(New York: Columbia University Press, 1999). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-32\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 32\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-33\">Zhou Huashan,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Zhong nu bu qingnan de muxi mosuo: Wufu de guodu?\u00a0<\/span><\/em>[Matrilineal Mosuo,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Valuing Women without Devaluing Men: A Society without Fathers or Husbands<\/span>?<\/em>] (Beijing: Guangming Ribao Chubanshe, 2009 [2001]). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-33\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 33\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-34\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ernestine Friedl,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women and Men: An Anthropologist\u2019s View<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-34\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 34\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-35\">Carol C.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0<\/span>\u201cSati or Shakti: Women, Culture and Politics in India,\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Perspectives on Power: Women in Asia, Africa and Latin America<\/span><\/em>, ed. Jean O\u2019Barr, 11\u201326 (Durham: Center for International Studies, Duke University 1982). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-35\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 35\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-36\">Lila Abu-Lughod,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Writing Women\u2019s Worlds: Bedouin Stories<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-36\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 36\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-37\">Mukhopadhyay and Seymour use the term \u201cpatrifocal\u201d to describe households that consist of related males, usually brothers, and their sons, and the spouses and children of those males. See C. Mukhopadhyay and S. Seymour, \u201cIntroduction\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Women, Family, and Education in India<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Boulder: Westview Press, 1994). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-37\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 37\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-38\">For powerful documentaries see, the film by\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Nishta Jain<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">, <em>Gulabi Gang<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Stavanger, Norway: Kudos Family Distribution, 2012); and the film by Kim Longinotto,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Pink Saris<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Women Make Movies, 2011).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-38\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 38\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-39\"><\/span>Lionel Tiger,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Men in Groups<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2005[1969]), 45.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-39\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 39\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-40\">Carol C. Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Sexual Division of Labor in the Family<\/span><\/em>, PhD Dissertation, University of California, Riverside, 1980, 192. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-40\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 40\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-41\">\u00a0<\/span>Carol C. Mukhopadhyay, fieldnotes, India; and Mukhopadhyay,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Cultural Context of Gendered Science: The Case of India<\/span><\/em>, 2001,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\/papers\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\/papers<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-41\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 41\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-42\">For example, the major symposium on Man the Hunter sponsored by Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research included only four women among more than sixty listed participants. See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Man the Hunter<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]), xiv\u2013xvi. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-42\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 42\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-43\">Mukhopadhyay, Lecture Notes, Human Sexuality, Gender and Culture. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-43\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 43\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-44\">S.Washburn and C.S. Lancaster, \u201cThe Evolution of Hunting.\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Man the Hunter<\/span><\/em>, 299. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-44\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 44\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-45\">Ibid., 303. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-45\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 45\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-46\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Jackson Katz,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Tough Guise 2: Violence, Manhood and American Culture<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Northampton, MA: Media Education Foundation, 2013).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-46\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 46\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-47\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Abigail Disney and Kathleen Hughes,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Armor of Light<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Fork Films, 2015).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-47\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 47\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-48\">Lionel\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Tiger and Robin Fox,<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>The Imperial Animal<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(New York:\u00a0<\/span>Transaction Publishers,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">1997 [1971]), 101.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-48\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 48\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-49\">Some useful reviews include the following: Linda M. Fedigan, \u201cThe Changing Role of Women in Models of Human Evolution\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a016 (1986): 25\u201366; Linda Fedigan,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Pamela L. Geller and Miranda K. Stockett.<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Feminist Anthropology: Past, Present, and Future<\/em> (<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2006); Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Engendering Archeology: Women and Prehistory\u00a0<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1991);\u00a0<\/span>Shirley Strum and Linda Fedigan\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Primate Encounters: Models of Science, Gender and Society<\/span><\/em>. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Meredith F. Small,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>What\u2019s Love Got to Do with It? The Evolution of Human Mating<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(New York: Doubleday, 1995);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Nancy Makepeace Tanner,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>On Becoming Human<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)<\/span>. For a readable short article, see Meredith Small, \u201cWhat\u2019s Love Got to Do with It,\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Discover Magazine<\/em>,\u00a0<\/span>June 1991, 46\u201351. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-49\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 49\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-50\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Irven DeVore, ed.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Primate Behavior<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-50\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 50\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-51\">Ibid. Also, for primate politics in particular, see Sarah B.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Hrdy,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Woman That Never Evolved<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999 [1981]). See also Hrdy\u2019s website\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.citrona.com\/hrdy.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.citrona.com\/hrdy.html<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-51\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 51\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-52\">Thelma Rowell.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Social Behaviour of Monkeys<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York: Penguin Books, 1972). For an excellent online article on Rowell\u2019s work with additional references, read Vinciane Despret, \u201cCulture and Gender Do Not Dissolve into How Scientists \u2018Read\u2019 Nature: Thelma Rowell\u2019s Heterodoxy.\u201d In\u00a0<span class=\"Emphasis _idGenCharOverride-2\"><em>Rebels of Life. Iconoclastic Biologists in the Twentieth Century, edited by<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>O. Hartman and M. Friedrich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 340\u2013355.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.vincianedespret.be\/2010\/04\/culture-and-gender-do-not-dissolve-into-how-scientists-read-nature-thelma-rowells-heterodoxy\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.vincianedespret.be\/2010\/04\/culture-and-gender-do-not-dissolve-into-how-scientists-read-nature-thelma-rowells-heterodoxy\/<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-52\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 52\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-53\"><\/span>See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Man the Hunter<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-53\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 53\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-54\">See Estioko-Griffin, Agnes A. Daughters of the Forest.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Natural History<\/span><\/em>\u00a095(5):36\u201343 (May 1986). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-54\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 54\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-55\"><\/span>Richard B.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Lee,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>The !Kung San. Men, Women and Work in a Foraging Society<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-55\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 55\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-56\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">A World Full of Women<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">,\u00a0<\/span>26. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-56\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 56\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-57\">Susan\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Seymour, \u201cMultiple Caretaking of Infants and Young Children: An Area in Critical Need of a Feminist Psychological Anthropology,\u201d<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">\u00a0<em>Ethos<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a032 no. (2004): 538\u2013556.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-57\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 57\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-58\">Serena Nanda and Richard L. Warms,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cultural Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2006), 274. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-58\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 58\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-59\"><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ester Boserup,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women\u2019s Role in Economic Development<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: St. Martin\u2019s Press, 1970);<\/span>\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Barbara D. Miller,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Cultural Anthropology<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Pearson\/Allyn and Bacon, 2012).<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-59\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 59\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-60\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Mauma Downie and Christina Gladwin,<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Florida Farm Wives: They Help the Family Farm Survive<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Gainesville: Food and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida, 1981).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-60\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 60\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-61\">Judith K.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Brown, \u201cA Note on the Division of Labor by Sex,\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">American Anthropologist<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>\u00a0<\/em>72 (1970):1073\u201378.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-61\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 61\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-62\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">See\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.momsrising.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.momsrising.org<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0for some contemporary examples of the challenges and obstacles workplaces pose for working mothers, as well as efforts to advocate for improved accommodation of parenting and working.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-62\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 62\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-63\">See reviews in Naomi\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Quinn, \u201c<\/span>Anthropological Studies of Women\u2019s Status,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a06 (1977): 181\u2013225; Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">,\u00a0<\/span><em>\u201c<\/em>Anthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987<em>\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-17\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span>\u00a01<\/em>7 (1988):461\u201395. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-63\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 63\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-64\">Michelle Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Woman, Culture and Society<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-64\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 64\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-65\"><\/span>Rayna Rapp Reiter, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Toward an Anthropology of Women<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Karen\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Sacks,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Sisters and Wives. The Past and Future of Sexual Equality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1979)<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-65\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 65\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-66\">Peggy\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Sanday,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-66\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 66\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-67\">For an alternative ethnographic, research based video see\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>N!ai: The Story of a !Kung Woman<\/em>.\u00a0<\/span>1980. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-67\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 67\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-68\"><\/span>Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0<em>\u201c<\/em>Anthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-17\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a017 (1988), 462.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-68\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 68\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-69\">Ibid. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-69\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 69\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-70\">See for example,<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0Evelyn Blackwood.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Webs of Power. Women, Kin, and Community in a Sumatran Village<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. 2000); Marcia Inhorn,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Infertility and Patriarchy: The Cultural Politics of Gender and Family Life in Egypt<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Thomas Buckley and Alma Gottlieb, ed. Blood Magic.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Anthropology of Menstruation.<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988);\u00a0<\/span>Marcia Inhorn, and Frank Van Balen, eds.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Infertility around the Globe: New Thinking on Childlessness, Gender and Reproductive Technologies<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-70\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 70\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-71\">Johnnetta Cole, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">All American Women: Lines That Divide, Ties That Bind<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York:Free Press, 1986).Louise Lamphere, Helena Ragone and Patricia Zavella, eds.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Situated Lives: Gender and Culture in Everyday Life<\/span>.<\/em> (New York: Routledge, 1997). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-71\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 71\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-72\">See for example, Faye\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ginsburg.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Contested Lives: The Abortion Debate in an American Community<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Dorothy Holland and Margaret Eisenhart.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Educated in Romance.<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Chicago: University of Chicago, 1990); Peggy Sanday,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Fraternity Gang Rape: Sex, Brotherhood, and Privilege on Campus<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">. (New York: New York University Press, 2007).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-72\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 72\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-73\">Peggy Sanday, \u201cThe Socio-cultural Context of Rape: A Cross-cultural Study\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Journal of Social Issues<\/span><\/em>\u00a037 no. 5 (1981): 5\u201327. See also Conrad<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0Kottak,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Cultural Anthropology. Appreciating Cultural Diversity<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>\u00a0<\/em>(New York: McGraw Hill, 2013)<\/span>; Veena Das, Violence, Gender and Subjectivity,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Reviews of Anthropology<\/span>\u00a0<\/em>37 (2008):283\u2013299;\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Tulsi Patel, ed.<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Sex-Selective Abortion in India. Gender, Society and New Reproductive Technologies<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New Delhi, India: Sage Publications, 2007).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-73\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 73\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-74\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Eleanor Leacock and Helen I. Safa, eds.,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women\u2019s Work: Development and the Division of Labor by Gender<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(South Hadley, MA: Bergin &amp; Garvey, 1986)<\/span>; Nandini Gunewardena and Ann Kingsolver, eds.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>The Gender of Globalization: Women Navigating Cultural and Economic Marginalities<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press, 2008); Kay B.<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Warren and Susan C. Bourque, \u201cWomen, Technology, and Development Ideologies. Frameworks and Findings,\u201d in Sandra Morgen, ed.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Critical Reviews for Research and Teaching<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association Publication, 1989), 382\u2013410<\/span>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-74\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 74\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-75\">Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and Susan Seymour, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Women, Education and Family Structure in India<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Boulder: Westview Press, 1994). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-75\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 75\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-76\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ellen Lewin,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Lesbian Mothers: Accounts of Gender in American Culture<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1993).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-76\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 76\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-77\">See<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0Joan Gero and Margaret Conkey, ed.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Engendering Archeology. Women and Prehistory<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); Sarah M.<\/span>\u00a0Nelson,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Worlds of Gender. The Archeology of Women\u2019s Lives Around the Globe<\/span>.<\/em> (Lanham, MD: Altamira, 2007). See also earlier volumes.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Rosemary A. Joyce,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Ancient Bodies, Ancient Lives: Sex, Gender and Archeology<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Thames and Hudson, 2008); Barbara Voss, \u201cSexuality Studies in Archeology,\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>\u00a037<\/em> (2008): 317\u2013336.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-77\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 77\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-78\">The following analysis was developed by Mukhopadhyay in scholarly papers and in lecture notes. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-78\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 78\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-79\">Mary E. Hegland,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Days of Revolution: Political Unrest in an Iranian Village<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-79\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 79\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-80\">This analysis was developed by Mukhopadhyay in scholarly papers and in lecture notes. An example of this pattern from Iran is Mary E. Hegland,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Days of Revolution<\/span><\/em>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-80\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 80\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-81\">Conrad\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Kottak,<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Cultural Anthropology. Appreciating Cultural Diversity<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">.<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">15th ed<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>.<\/em> (McGraw Hill, 2013).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-81\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 81\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-82\">E.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Friedl,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women and Men: An Anthropologist\u2019s View<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">;<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0C. Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0<\/span><em>\u201cAnthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: 1977\u20131987.\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-17\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span>\u00a017 (1988): 461\u2013495.<\/em> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-82\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 82\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-83\">One 1970s male pilot, when asked about why there were no women pilots, said, without thinking, \u201cBecause women aren\u2019t strong enough to fly the plane!\u201d He then realized what he\u2019d said and laughed. From Mukhopadhyay, field notes, 1980. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-83\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 83\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-84\">Ann Stoler, \u201cMaking Empire Respectable. The Politics of Race and Sexual Morality in Twentieth-century Colonial Cultures,\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Situated Lives. Gender and Culture in Everyday Life<\/span><\/em>, ed. Louise Lamphere, H. Ragone, and P. Zavella, 373\u2013399 (New York: Routledge, 1997). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-84\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 84\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-85\">Peggy Sanday,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Women at the Center: Life in a Modern Matriarchy<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Cornell: Cornell University Press, 2002). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-85\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 85\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-86\"><\/span>Mukhopadhyay, lecture notes, Gender and Culture.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-86\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 86\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-87\">See for instance Annette B. Weiner,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Trobrianders of Papua New Guinea<\/span><\/em>;<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>A World Full of Women;<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Carolyn B. Brettell and Carolyn F. Sargent, eds.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Gender in Cross-Cultural Perspective.<\/span><\/em>\u00a0 <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-87\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 87\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-88\">Kirsten Marie Ernst,<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>\u201cRios, Pontes E Overdrives:\u201d Northeastern Regionalism in a Globalized Brazil<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); John Collins, \u201c\u2018BUT WHAT IF I SHOULD NEED TO DEFECATE IN YOUR NEIGHBORHOOD, MADAME?\u2019: Empire, Redemption, and the \u2018Tradition of the Oppressed\u2019 in a Brazilian World Heritage Site,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cultural Anthropology<\/span>\u00a023<\/em> no. 2 (2012): 279\u2013328; Jan Rocha, \u201cAnalysis: Brazil\u2019s \u2018Racial Democracy\u2019\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">BBC News<\/span><\/em>, April 19, 2000; Allan Charles Dawson, \u201cFood and Spirits: Religion, Gender, and Identity in the \u2018African\u2019 Cuisine of Northeast Brazil,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">African and Black Diaspora<\/span>\u00a05<\/em> (2012): 243\u2013263; Alan P Marcus, \u201cSex, Color and Geography: Racialized Relations in Brazil and Its Predicaments\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Annals of the Association of American Geographers<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>103(5): 1282\u20131299. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-88\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 88\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-89\">Ruth Landes,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The<\/span>\u00a0<\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>City of Women<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(New York: The MacMillan Company, 1947), 2, 6\u201313, 61\u201364, 92, 106. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-89\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 89\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-90\"><\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">E. Franklin Frazier<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cThe Negro Family in Bahia, Brazil\u201d\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">American <em>Sociological Review<\/em><\/span><em><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a07<\/span><\/em>\u00a0no.\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">4<\/span>\u00a0(1942)<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">: 476\u2013477<\/span>;\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">E. Franklin Frazier<\/span>,\u00a0<em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">The Negro Family in the United States<\/span><\/em><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a0(Chicago: University of Chicago,<\/span>\u00a01939),<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a01<\/span>25.\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">For the opposing view<\/span>, see\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Mark Alan Healey<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201c\u2018The Sweet Matriarchy of Bahia\u2019: Ruth Landes\u2019 Ethnography of Race and Gender<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201d\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">Disposition:<\/span>\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\"><em>The Cultural Practice of Latinamericanism II<\/em>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">23<\/span>\u00a0no. 50 (1998)<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">: 101<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-90\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 90\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-91\">See\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Melville J. Herskovits<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cThe Negro in Bahia, Brazil: A Problem in Method\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">American Sociological Review<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a08<\/span><\/em>\u00a0no. 4 (1943)<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">: 395\u2013396<\/span>; Edison Carneiro, \u201cLetters from Edison Carneiro to Ruth Landes: Dating from September 28, 1938 to March 14, 1946\u201d (Washington, DC: Box 2 Ruth Landes Papers, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, 1938); Ruth Landes,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>The City of Women<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(New York: MacMillan Company, 1947). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-91\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 91\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-92\">Ruth\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Landes<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cFetish Worship in Brazil\u201d<\/span>\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Journal of American Folklore<\/span>\u00a053<\/em> no. 210(1940):\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">261<\/span>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-92\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 92\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-93\"><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Ruth Landes<\/span>,\u00a0<em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">The City of Women<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">New York: MacMillan Company,\u00a0<\/span>1947),\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">31\u201332, 37<\/span>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-93\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 93\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-94\"><\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Ruth Landes<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cNegro Slavery and Female Status\u201d<\/span>\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">African Affairs<\/span><\/em>\u00a052 no. 206 (1953):<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a055<\/span>. Also,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Ruth Landes<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cA Cult Matriarchate and Male Homosexuality\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology<\/span><\/em><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a035<\/span>\u00a0no. 3 (1940)<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">: 38<\/span>6\u2013387, 393\u2013394; Ru<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">th Landes<\/span>, \u201c<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">Negro Slavery and Female Status,\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">African Affairs<\/span><\/em><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a052<\/span>\u00a0no.\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">206 (1953<\/span>)<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">: 55\u201357<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-11\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-94\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 94\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-95\"><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">J<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a0Lorand Matory<\/span>,\u00a0<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u201cGendered Agendas: The Secrets Scholars Keep about Yor\u00f9b\u00e1-Atlantic Religion,\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-5\">Gender &amp; History<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference\">\u00a015<\/span><\/em>\u00a0no. 3 (2003)<span class=\"Endnote-reference\">:\u00a0<\/span>413 <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-95\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 95\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-96\">Cheryl Sterling, \u201cWomen-Space, Power, and the Sacred in Afro-Brazilian Culture,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Global South<\/span><\/em>\u00a04 no. 1 (2010): 71\u201393. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-96\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 96\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-97\">There is a huge body of research on these (and other) topics that we simply have not been able to cover in one chapter of a book. We hope the material and references we have provided will give readers a starting point for further investigation! <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-97\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 97\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-98\"><\/span>Many gender studies scholars have moved away from labeling people \u201cbiologically female\u201d or \u201cbiologically male,\u201d shifting instead to terms like \u201cassigned female at birth\u201d and \u201cassigned male at birth.\u201d Terms that foreground assignment help recognize the fluidity of gender identity and the existence of intersex people who do not fit neatly into those categories.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-98\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 98\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-99\">Carol C. Mukhopadhyay, \u201cA Feminist Cognitive Anthropology: The Case of Women and Mathematics\u201d <em>Ethos<\/em> 32 no. 4 (2004): 458\u2013492. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-99\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 99\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-100\">David Valentine,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Imagining Transgender: An Ethnography of a Category\u00a0<\/span><\/em>(Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007). See also Jessi Hempel, \u201cMy Brother\u2019s Pregnancy and the Making of a New American Family\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">TIME<\/span><\/em>\u00a0September 2016.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/time.com\/4475634\/trans-man-pregnancy-evan.\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/time.com\/4475634\/trans-man-pregnancy-evan.\/<\/span><\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-100\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 100\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-101\">\u00a0Gary G. Gates, \u201cHow Many People are Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender?\u201d University of California, Los Angeles: Williams Institute, 2011.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/research\/census-lgbt-demographics-studies\/how-many-people-are-lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender.\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/research\/census-lgbt-demographics-studies\/how-many-people-are-lesbian-gay-bisexual-and-transgender.\/<\/span><\/a>\u00a0 <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-101\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 101\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-102\">David Carter,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Stonewall: The Riots that Sparked a Gay Revolution<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(St. Martin\u2019s Griffin, 2010); Eric Marcus,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Making Gay History: The Half-Century Fight for Lesbian and Gay Equal Rights<\/span><\/em><span xml:lang=\"ar-SA\">\u00a0(<\/span>New York: Harper Collins, 2002).\u00a0 <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-102\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 102\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-103\">Jafari Sinclaire Allen, \u201c\u2018In the Life\u2019 In Diaspora: Autonomy \/ Desire \/ Community,\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Routledge Handbook of Sexuality, Health and Rights<\/span>,<\/em> ed. Peter Aggleton and Richard Parker (New York: Routledge, 2010), 459.\u00a0 <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-103\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 103\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-104\">\u00a0Kristen Schilt and Laurel Westbrook, \u201cDoing Gender, Doing Heteronormativity: \u2018Gender Normals,\u2019 Transgender People, and the Social Maintenance of Heterosexuality\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Gender and Society<\/span><\/em>\u00a023 no. 4 (2009): 440\u2013464. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-104\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 104\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-105\">Justin McCarthy, \u201cSame-Sex Marriage Support Reaches New High at 55%.\u201d Gallup.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.gallup.com\/poll\/169640\/sex-marriage-support-reaches-new-high.aspx\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.gallup.com\/poll\/169640\/sex-marriage-support-reaches-new-high.aspx<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-105\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 105\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-106\">Ellen Lewin and William Leap,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Out in Theory: The Emergence of Lesbian and Gay Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002); William Leap and Ellen Lewin,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Out in the Field: Reflections of Lesbian and Gay Anthropologist<\/em>\u00a0<\/span>(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-106\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 106\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-107\"><\/span>Jessica Johnson, \u201cThe Citizen-Soldier: Masculinity, War, and Sacrifice at an Emerging Church in Seattle, Washington.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Political and Legal Anthropology Review<\/span><\/em>\u00a033 no. 2 (2010): 326\u2013351.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-107\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 107\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-108\">Tamara Metz,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Untying the Knot: Marriage, the State, and the Case for Their Divorce<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-108\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 108\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-109\">Miriam Smith, \u201cGender Politics and the Same-Sex Marriage Debate in the United States,\u201d Social Politics 17 no. 1 (2010): 1\u201328. Quote is on p.1 <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-109\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 109\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-110\">\u00a0Luke Malone, \u201cHere Are The 32 States Where You Can Be Fired For Being LGBT,\u201d Vocativ.com, February 12, 2015.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.vocativ.com\/culture\/lgbt\/lgbt-rights-kansas\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.vocativ.com\/culture\/lgbt\/lgbt-rights-kansas\/<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-110\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 110\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-111\"><\/span>The Williams Institute. 2012. \u201cAmerica\u2019s Shame: 40% of Homeless Youth are LGBT Kids.\u201d San Diego Gay and Lesbian News, 13 July.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/americas-shame-40-of-homeless-youth-are-lgbt-kids\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/americas-shame-40-of-homeless-youth-are-lgbt-kids\/<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-111\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 111\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-112\"><em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Fire<\/span><\/em>, film by Mira Nair. 1996.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=i2yW8BtM8sw\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=i2yW8BtM8sw<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-112\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 112\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-113\">Don Kulick, \u201cThe Gender of Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-17\">American Anthropologist<\/span>\u00a099 no. 3 (1997): 574\u2013585.<\/em> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-113\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 113\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-114\">Evelyn Blackwood, \u201cTombois in West Sumatra: Constructing Masculinity and Erotic Desire,\u201d in <em>Feminist Anthropology: A Reader<\/em>, ed. Ellen Lewin, 411\u2013434 (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-114\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 114\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-115\">Ara Wilson, <em>The Intimate Economies of Bangkok: Tomboys, Tycoons, and Avon Ladies in the Global City<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-115\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 115\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-116\">Lucetta Yip Lo Kam, <em>Shanghai Lalas: Female Tongzhi Communities and Politics in Urban China<\/em>. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2012). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-116\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 116\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-117\"> Ibid. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-117\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 117\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-118\">See Agatha M. Beins and Judith L. Kennedy, <em>Women\u2019s Studies for the Future: Foundations, Interrogations, Politics<\/em> (Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005); Florence Howe and Mari Jo Buhl, <em>The Politics of Women\u2019s Studies: Testimony from the 30 Founding Mothers<\/em> (New York: The Feminist Press, 2000); Marilyn J. Boxer and Caroline Stimpson, <em>When Women Ask the Questions: Creating Women\u2019s Studies in America<\/em> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); Susan Shaw and Janet Lee, <em>Women\u2019s Voices, Feminist Visions<\/em> (New York: McGraw Hill, 2014). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-118\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 118\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-119\">Rachel Adams and Michael Savan, <em>The Masculinity Studies Reader<\/em> (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002); Judith Keagan Gardiner, <em>Masculinity Studies and Feminist Theory<\/em> (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Matthew C. Gutmann, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d <em>Annual Review of Anthropology<\/em> 26 no. 1 (2007): 385\u2013409. There were a number of earlier explorations of masculinity, several focused on African-American males. See for example Michelle Wallace, <em>Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman<\/em> (New York: Warner Books, 1980). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-119\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 119\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-120\">See especially numerous films available through Media Education Foundation and Women Make Movies. See also Susan Bordo, <em>The Male Body: A New Look at Men in Public and in Private<\/em> (New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 1999); Rebecca Solnit, <em>Men Explain Things to Me<\/em> (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2014). Also, Jackson Katz\u2019 film <em>Tough Guise 2: Violence, Media, and the Crisis in Masculinity<\/em> (2013) and the website www.jacksonkatz.com\/ have other books, articles, and workshops on gender violence prevention. See also Michael Kimmel, <em>Guyland: The Perilous World Where Boys Become Men<\/em> (New York: Harper Perennial, 2009). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-120\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 120\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-121\">Thomas Grego, <em>Mehinaku: The Drama of Daily Life in a Brazilian Indian Village<\/em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977). See also Paula Brown and Georgeda Buchbinder, <em>Man and Woman in the New Guinea Highlands<\/em> (Washington DC: American Anthropological Association, 1976); Gilbert Herdt, <em>Guardians of the Flutes<\/em> (film); Stanley Brandeis, <em>Metaphors of Masculinity: Sex and Status in Andalusian Folklore<\/em> (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980); Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, <em>Sexual Meanings<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); David Gilmore, <em>Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity<\/em> (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-121\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 121\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-122\">See article by Matthew C. Guttman, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d <em>Annual Review of Anthropology<\/em> 26 (2007): 385\u2013409. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-122\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 122\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-123\">See several excellent videos through Media Education Foundation including <em>Dreamworlds 3, Killing Us Softly 4<\/em>, The Purity Myth as well as those addressing masculinity such as <em>Tough Guise 2, Joystick Warriors, and Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes<\/em>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-123\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 123\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-124\">Philippe Bourgois and Jeffrey Schonberg, <em>Righteous Dopefiend<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009); Seth M. Holmes, <em>Fresh Fruit, Broken Bodies: Migrant Farmworkers in the United States<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013); Mary H. Moran, \u201cWarriors or Soldiers? Masculinity and Ritual Transvestism in the Liberian Civil War,\u201d in<em> Situated Lives<\/em>, ed. Louise Lamphere, Helena Ragone, and Patricia Zavella, 440\u2013450. New York: Routledge, 1997); Kimberly Theidon, \u201cReconstructing Masculinities: The Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colombia,\u201d in <em>The Gender, Culture, and Power Reader<\/em>, ed. Dorothy Hodgson, 420\u2013429 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Casey High, \u201cWarriors, Hunters, and Bruce Lee: Gendered Agency and the Transformation of Amazonian Masculinity\u201d <em>American Ethnologist<\/em> 37 no. 4 (2010): 753\u2013770. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-124\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 124\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-125\">James W. Messerschmidt, <em>Masculinities in the Making: From the Local to the Global<\/em> (Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield, 2015). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-125\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 125\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-126\">Liu Shao-hua, <em>Passage to Manhood: Youth, Masculinity, and Migration in Southwest China<\/em> (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-126\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 126\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-127\">See Marcia C. Inhorn, <em>The New Arab Man: Emergent Masculinities, Technologies, and Islam in the Middle East<\/em> (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Marcia C. Inhorn, Wendy Chavkin, and Jose-Alberto Navarro, <em>Globalized Fatherhood<\/em>. New York: Berghahn. For discussion of Japan, see Mark J. McLelland. 2005. \u201cSalarymen Doing Queer: Gay Men and the Heterosexual Public Sphere in Japan,\u201d in <em>Genders, Transgenders and Sexualities in Japan<\/em>, edited by M. J. McLelland and R. Dasgupta, 96\u2013110 (New York: Routledge, 2014). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-127\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 127\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-128\">Dipanita Nath, \u201cMardistan: Four Men Talk about Masculinity in Harjant Gill\u2019s Film,\u201d <em>The Indian Express,<\/em> August 25, 2014. http:\/\/indianexpress.com\/article\/cities\/delhi\/be-a-super-man.\/ The film is available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=tSrGuXTEHsk. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-128\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 128\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":311,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology\",\"author\":\"Edited by Nina Brown, Laura Tubelle de Gonzalez, and Thomas McIlwraith\",\"organization\":\"American Anthropological Association\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"added content & made edits\",\"author\":\"Nadine Fernandez\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-307","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":765,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/307","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/311"}],"version-history":[{"count":45,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/307\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":983,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/307\/revisions\/983"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/765"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/307\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=307"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=307"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=307"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-culturalanthropology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=307"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}