{"id":466,"date":"2020-03-24T16:57:02","date_gmt":"2020-03-24T16:57:02","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtocollegereadingandwriting\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=466"},"modified":"2020-06-30T14:50:03","modified_gmt":"2020-06-30T14:50:03","slug":"analyzing-arguments","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtocollegereadingandwriting\/chapter\/analyzing-arguments\/","title":{"raw":"Analyzing Arguments\/Logical Fallacies","rendered":"Analyzing Arguments\/Logical Fallacies"},"content":{"raw":"<img class=\"size-medium wp-image-790 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4969\/2020\/04\/07152902\/12-300x212.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"212\" \/>\r\n\r\nWhen you read a text whose purpose is to persuade or argue a point, you need to analyze that text to see whether the argument is logical. Logical arguments need to be reasonable; supported with appropriate, relevant evidence from valid sources; and based on acceptable assumptions. Knowing a bit about logical arguments will help you analyze a text intended to persuade, as well as write your own persuasive, logical arguments.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2>Logical Argument Basics<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Main Idea, Content, Warrant<\/h3>\r\nThe claim is the author's main argument\u2014what the author wants you to do, think, or believe by the time you finish reading the text.\u00a0 The content is the evidence which provides the support and reasoning upon which the claim is built. The underlying assumption, the way the author uses the evidence to support the claim, often called the warrant.\u00a0 These three parts of a logical argument all need to be believable and coordinated for the argument to be valid. <sup>[1]<\/sup>\r\n\r\nFor example, the author's main idea or claim may be this: <em>Decreasing carbon dioxide emissions from car exhaust, manufacturing processes, fertilizers, and landfills, while slowing deforestation, may help slow the process of global warming.\u00a0\u00a0<\/em>For this claim, the underlying assumption is that global warming is something that should be slowed.\u00a0 To support this claim and link the evidence with the claim, the author included the following types of content as evidence:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Facts that show the linkage between increased carbon dioxide levels and warmer temperatures<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Statistics about temperature increases and their effects, and future projections based on current statistics<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Studies done showing that fuel emission laws enacted in a certain location cut down on carbon dioxide levels<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Citation of recognized experts in the field<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Testimony of those involved first-hand with the issue<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn this example, all of the argument parts coordinate with one another.\u00a0 The evidence seems appropriate, and is especially strong if it comes from valid sources such as scientific studies published in peer-reviewed journals.\u00a0 The underlying assumption is supported by the evidence.\u00a0 As a reader analyzing the text, you could conclude that this is a logical argument.\r\n\r\nOn the other hand, the author's argument may be this: <em>Good nutrition should be taught in school rather than at home<\/em>.\u00a0 For this claim, the underlying assumption might be that parents are not as good at teaching their children as trained teachers, or it might be that schools have more teaching resources than parents.\u00a0 To support this claim and link the evidence with the claim, the author included the following types of content as evidence:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>interviews with teachers<\/li>\r\n \t<li>interviews with school administrators<\/li>\r\n \t<li>statistics from studies done over time, showing that elementary school children who received lessons on good nutrition maintained good eating habits into adulthood more than those did not receive formal lessons<\/li>\r\n \t<li>personal interviews<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn this example, it appears that the first warrant was in effect, based on the way the author linked claim and evidence.\u00a0 You might question the underlying assumption in the warrant, as many readers may not accept this belief.\u00a0 As an analytical reader whose purpose is to evaluate the text, you also might question the type of support.\u00a0 Teachers, school administrators, and people who were interviewed might be biased.\u00a0 Statistics on the effectiveness of teaching about nutrition in school do not track a comparative group of children who were taught at home, so the conclusions of the studies in this case might not fully relate to the argument.\u00a0 As a reader analyzing this text, you could conclude that the author's argument is not logical.\r\n\r\nAs you analyze an argument, try to isolate, identify, and investigate these three aspects of argument\u2014main idea, content, warrant\u2014to evaluate the quality of the text.\r\n<h3>Ethos, Pathos, Logos<\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption aligncenter wp-image-230\"><img class=\"wp-image-230 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/106\/2016\/05\/16193141\/Ethos-Pathos-Logos.jpg\" alt=\"Central circle reads &quot;Persuasion.&quot; Three circles connect out from it: 1-&quot;Ethos \/ trust \/ authority.&quot; 2 - &quot;Pathos \/ emotion \/ beliefs.&quot; 3 -&quot;Logos \/ logic \/ reasoning.&quot;\" width=\"306\" height=\"244\" \/><\/div>\r\n<span class=\"s1\">Another complementary way to analyze an argument and evaluate a text is to investigate the three main types of appeals authors use to support\u00a0their claim.\u00a0These types of appeals are traditionally referred to by their Greek names:\u00a0<strong>logos<\/strong> (appeal to logic), <strong>pathos<\/strong> (appeal to emotion), and <strong>ethos<\/strong> (appeal to authority).\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\nLogical appeals may include facts, case studies, statistics, experiments, and expert testimony.\u00a0 Authoritative appeals may include citations of recognized experts and testimony of those involved first-hand in the issue.\u00a0 Emotional appeals may include personal anecdotes, stories, impact studies, and first-hand testimony.\u00a0 Many logical arguments rely on some combination of these three types of appeals.\u00a0 However, an argument may not be logical if a certain type of appeal does not coordinate with the claim, and\/or if an author relies too heavily on emotional appeal, for example, to the exclusion of factual support.\r\n\r\nThe two videos below discuss how to apply these concepts to analyze an argument and thus evaluate a text.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=pP8dWURrEF0\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=jVf_iJpSIrM\r\n<h2>Logical Fallacies<\/h2>\r\n<div id=\"post-1903\" class=\"standard post-1903 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\r\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\r\n<div id=\"post-466\" class=\"standard post-466 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\r\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\r\n\r\nWhen you analyze a text\u2019s arguments in order to evaluate the quality of that text, you also need to determine whether the content contains errors in logic.\u00a0 Errors in logic, called logical fallacies, weaken the argument and thus the validity of the text.\u00a0\u00a0<span class=\"s1\">When readers spot questionable reasoning or unfair attempts at audience manipulation, more than their evaluation of the author\u2019s argument (<i>logos<\/i>) may be compromised.\u00a0 Their evaluation of the credibility of the speaker (<i>ethos<\/i>), and perhaps their ability to connect with that speaker on the level of shared values (<i>pathos<\/i>), also may be compromised.\r\n<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption size-medium wp-image-1163 alignright\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-1163 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4969\/2020\/03\/20183514\/33-300x212.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"212\" \/><\/div>\r\n<h2>Types &amp; Examples of Logical Fallacies<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Classifying fallacies as errors of ethos, logos, or pathos may help you both recognize and understand them.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Fallacies of ethos relate to credibility.\u00a0 These fallacies may unfairly build up the credibility of the author (or his allies) or unfairly attack the credibility of the author\u2019s opponent (or her allies).<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Fallacies of logos\u00a0give an unfair advantage to the claims of the speaker or writer or an unfair disadvantage to his opponent\u2019s claims.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Fallacies of pathos rely excessively upon emotional appeals, attaching positive associations to the author\u2019s argument and negative ones to his opponent\u2019s position.<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>fallacies that misuse appeals to ethos<\/h3>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Ad hominem<\/b>: attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself.<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cOf course that doctor advocates vaccination\u2014he probably owns stock in a pharmaceutical company.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>False authority<\/b>: relying on claims of expertise when the claimed expert (a) lacks adequate background\/credentials in the relevant field, (b) departs in major ways from the consensus in the field, or (c) is biased, e.g., has a financial stake in the outcome.<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cDr. X is an engineer, and\u00a0<b><i>he<\/i><\/b>\u00a0doesn\u2019t believe in global warming.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Guilt by association\/Plain Folk<\/b>: linking the person making an argument to an unpopular person or group, or linking the person making the argument to ordinary people.<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cMy opponent is a card-carrying member of the ACLU.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cWho would you vote for\u2014someone raised in a working-class neighborhood who has the support of Joe the Plumber or some elitist whose daddy sent him to a fancy school?\u201d<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Name-calling\/Poisoning the well<\/b>: labeling an opponent with words that have negative connotations in an effort to undermine the opponent\u2019s credibility; undermining an opponent\u2019s credibility before offering that person\u2019s ideas.\r\n<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u00a0\u201cThese rabble-rousers are nothing but feminazis.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cThe prosecution is going to bring up a series or so-called experts who are getting a lot of money to testify here today.\u201d<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>fallacies that misuse appeals to logos<\/h3>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Hasty generalization:<\/b> jumping to conclusions based upon an unrepresentative sample or insufficient evidence.<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example: <\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201c10 of the last 14 National Spelling Bee Champions have been Indian American. Indian Americans must all be great spellers!\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Begging the question: <\/b>circular argument because the premise is the same as the claim that you are trying to prove.<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cThis legislation is sinful because it is the wrong thing to do.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>False dilemma: <\/b>misuse of the either\/or argument; presenting only two options when other choices exist<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cEither we pass this ordinance or there will be rioting in the streets.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Post hoc ergo propter hoc\/Slippery Slope: <\/b>Post hoc is a Latin phrase meaning \u201cafter this, therefore because of this\u201d; assumes that a first event causes a second event without evidence to show that cause. Slippery slope asserts that one thing will inevitably lead to another without offering adequate support.\r\n<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cMy child was diagnosed with autism after receiving vaccinations.\u00a0 That is proof that vaccines are to blame.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cWe can\u2019t legalize marijuana; if we do, then the next thing you know people will be strung out on heroin.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Non-sequitur: <\/b>Latin for \u201cdoes not follow\u201d; the conclusion is not valid because a premise is untrue (or missing) or because the relationship between premises does not support the deduction stated in the claim.<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example (untrue premise):<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cIf she is a Radford student, she is a member of a sorority. She is a Radford student.\u00a0 Therefore she is a member of a sorority.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Smoke screen<\/b>: avoiding the real issue or a tough question by introducing an unrelated topic as a distraction; sometimes called a <b>red herring<\/b>.<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cMy opponent says I am weak on crime, but I have been one of the most reliable participants in city council meetings.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>fallacies that misuse appeals to pathos<\/h3>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Appeal to fear, guilt, or pity: <\/b>using scare tactics to exaggerating possible dangers, evoking an emotional reaction and disregarding the issue at hand.<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cWithout this additional insurance, you could find yourself broke and homeless.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cI know I missed assignments, but if you fail me, I will lose my financial aid and have to drop out.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Appeal to popularity (bandwagon):<\/b> urging a reader to follow a course of action because \u201ceveryone does it.\u201d<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cNine out of ten shoppers have switched to Blindingly-Bright-Smile Toothpaste.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span class=\"s1\"><b>Appeal to tradition:\u00a0<\/b>people have been done it a certain way for a long time; assumes that what has been customary in past is correct and proper.<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cWe always organize our annual meetings in this way; therefore, we should stick with the same organization for the upcoming year.\u201d\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<b>Emotionally <\/b><span class=\"s1\"><b>Loaded Language: <\/b>using slanted or biased language<\/span>\r\n<p class=\"p4\"><span class=\"s1\">Example: <\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cOnly someone out of touch with reality in the 21st century doesn\u2019t do online banking.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe number and array of logical fallacies can be daunting. The main thing to remember is to look at the way in which an author states and supports the argument in a text.\u00a0 If there are a number of errors in reasoning, the text itself may not be valid for your purposes.\r\n<h2>Questions to Analyze the Logic of a Text\u2019s Argument<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption wp-image-323 alignright\"><img class=\"wp-image-323 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/107\/2016\/06\/12202220\/4557131838_e482a77b84_z.jpg\" alt=\"Image titled Logical Fallacies: Argument from Authority. Two men in business suits stand outside; the one on the left holds a briefcase and a chihuahua. Dialogue bubbles: Holding this Chihuahua will prevent me from getting the flu. \/ That seems unlikely. Why would you believe that? \/ It's true! My neighbour told me. His uncle is a homeopathic doctor with four university degrees!\" width=\"353\" height=\"578\" \/><\/div>\r\n<ul class=\"ul2\">\r\n \t<li><span class=\"s1\">Is the claim believable?\u00a0 <\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"s1\">Is the underlying assumption (warrant) acceptable? <\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span class=\"s1\">Is the supporting evidence relevant, sufficient, and accurate?\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><span class=\"s1\">Has the author cited sources or in some way made it possible for the reader to access evidence used?\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><span class=\"s1\">Are there different opinions and perspectives included, especially when there are multiple opinions on an issue?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\">Does the author <span class=\"s1\"> avoid selective use of evidence or other types of manipulation of data?<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><span class=\"s1\">Does the offer evidence respectfully, using unbiased language? <\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"li2\"><span class=\"s1\">Is there an over-reliance on emotional appeals?<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">The most general structure of Argument from Authority runs something like the following: Person A claims that Person A is a respected scientist or other authority; therefore, the claim they make is true.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"post-466\" class=\"standard post-466 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\r\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>try it<\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\">\r\n\r\nBased on your reading of \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtocollegereadingandwriting\/chapter\/article-3\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Forget Shorter Showers<\/a>\u201d by Derrick Jensen, answer the following questions intended to help you analyze the argument.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Identify one logical fallacy in each of the first three paragraphs and in the next-to-last paragraph.\u00a0 You do not have to name the fallacies by their formal names; just identify the errors in reasoning in your own words.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"1\"] Logical Fallacies\u00a0 [\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"1\"]\r\n\r\n<strong>Paragraph 1<\/strong>\r\n\r\nemotionally charged language \/ appeal to fear - The phrase \"would any sane person\" misuses an appeal to pathos, since it over-relies on emotion and on creating fear in the reader.\r\n\r\nad hominem - The phrase \"would any sane person\" also misuses an appeal to ethos, since it attacks &lt;em&gt;people&lt;\/em&gt; who believe a certain way, rather than showing the logical error in the belief itself.\r\n\r\nsmoke screen - There's a misuse of an appeal to logos in this paragraph, because bringing in the images of dumpster diving to stop Hitler, etc., could derail the reader from the point.\r\n\r\n<strong>Paragraph 2<\/strong>\r\n\r\nhasty generalization - The statistics provided at the end of the paragraph are not based on enough evidence; we'd need to know the source of the statistical information\r\n\r\n<strong>Paragraph 3<\/strong>\r\n\r\nhasty generalization - Again, the statistics provided are not based on enough evidence; we'd need to know the source of the statistical information.\r\n\r\npost hoc and appeal to fear - The sentence that people are dying because water is being stolen is a misuse of an appeal to logos and pathos.\u00a0 It does not follow that all people are dying because water is being stolen.\r\n\r\n<strong>Next-to-last paragraph<\/strong>\r\n\r\nslippery slope - It does not follow that death is the end point of seeing the uselessness of simple living as a political act.\r\n\r\n[\/hidden-answer]\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Identify one overall logical fallacy in the whole argument of this text.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[reveal-answer q=\"2\"] Logical Fallacy [\/reveal-answer]\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"2\"]\r\n\r\nOne main logical fallacy is false dilemma, a misuse of an appeal to logos.\u00a0 The author sets up an either\/or situation: either we take assertive action to fight against the industrial economy's drain of our resources, or we're pretty much doomed to deal with ever-diminishing resources.\u00a0 There may be other options, some of which the author explains and rejects.\r\n\r\n<strong>A question for you to consider:<\/strong> Even though the logic in this text is not totally sound, according to a careful analysis in terms of traditional logic, the author provides thought-provoking ideas.\u00a0 Do you think he could have achieved the same effect with stricter attention to logic?\r\n\r\n[\/hidden-answer]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-790 alignleft\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4969\/2020\/04\/07152902\/12-300x212.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"212\" \/><\/p>\n<p>When you read a text whose purpose is to persuade or argue a point, you need to analyze that text to see whether the argument is logical. Logical arguments need to be reasonable; supported with appropriate, relevant evidence from valid sources; and based on acceptable assumptions. Knowing a bit about logical arguments will help you analyze a text intended to persuade, as well as write your own persuasive, logical arguments.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Logical Argument Basics<\/h2>\n<h3>Main Idea, Content, Warrant<\/h3>\n<p>The claim is the author&#8217;s main argument\u2014what the author wants you to do, think, or believe by the time you finish reading the text.\u00a0 The content is the evidence which provides the support and reasoning upon which the claim is built. The underlying assumption, the way the author uses the evidence to support the claim, often called the warrant.\u00a0 These three parts of a logical argument all need to be believable and coordinated for the argument to be valid. <sup>[1]<\/sup><\/p>\n<p>For example, the author&#8217;s main idea or claim may be this: <em>Decreasing carbon dioxide emissions from car exhaust, manufacturing processes, fertilizers, and landfills, while slowing deforestation, may help slow the process of global warming.\u00a0\u00a0<\/em>For this claim, the underlying assumption is that global warming is something that should be slowed.\u00a0 To support this claim and link the evidence with the claim, the author included the following types of content as evidence:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Facts that show the linkage between increased carbon dioxide levels and warmer temperatures<\/li>\n<li>Statistics about temperature increases and their effects, and future projections based on current statistics<\/li>\n<li>Studies done showing that fuel emission laws enacted in a certain location cut down on carbon dioxide levels<\/li>\n<li>Citation of recognized experts in the field<\/li>\n<li>Testimony of those involved first-hand with the issue<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In this example, all of the argument parts coordinate with one another.\u00a0 The evidence seems appropriate, and is especially strong if it comes from valid sources such as scientific studies published in peer-reviewed journals.\u00a0 The underlying assumption is supported by the evidence.\u00a0 As a reader analyzing the text, you could conclude that this is a logical argument.<\/p>\n<p>On the other hand, the author&#8217;s argument may be this: <em>Good nutrition should be taught in school rather than at home<\/em>.\u00a0 For this claim, the underlying assumption might be that parents are not as good at teaching their children as trained teachers, or it might be that schools have more teaching resources than parents.\u00a0 To support this claim and link the evidence with the claim, the author included the following types of content as evidence:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>interviews with teachers<\/li>\n<li>interviews with school administrators<\/li>\n<li>statistics from studies done over time, showing that elementary school children who received lessons on good nutrition maintained good eating habits into adulthood more than those did not receive formal lessons<\/li>\n<li>personal interviews<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In this example, it appears that the first warrant was in effect, based on the way the author linked claim and evidence.\u00a0 You might question the underlying assumption in the warrant, as many readers may not accept this belief.\u00a0 As an analytical reader whose purpose is to evaluate the text, you also might question the type of support.\u00a0 Teachers, school administrators, and people who were interviewed might be biased.\u00a0 Statistics on the effectiveness of teaching about nutrition in school do not track a comparative group of children who were taught at home, so the conclusions of the studies in this case might not fully relate to the argument.\u00a0 As a reader analyzing this text, you could conclude that the author&#8217;s argument is not logical.<\/p>\n<p>As you analyze an argument, try to isolate, identify, and investigate these three aspects of argument\u2014main idea, content, warrant\u2014to evaluate the quality of the text.<\/p>\n<h3>Ethos, Pathos, Logos<\/h3>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption aligncenter wp-image-230\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-230 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/106\/2016\/05\/16193141\/Ethos-Pathos-Logos.jpg\" alt=\"Central circle reads &quot;Persuasion.&quot; Three circles connect out from it: 1-&quot;Ethos \/ trust \/ authority.&quot; 2 - &quot;Pathos \/ emotion \/ beliefs.&quot; 3 -&quot;Logos \/ logic \/ reasoning.&quot;\" width=\"306\" height=\"244\" \/><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"s1\">Another complementary way to analyze an argument and evaluate a text is to investigate the three main types of appeals authors use to support\u00a0their claim.\u00a0These types of appeals are traditionally referred to by their Greek names:\u00a0<strong>logos<\/strong> (appeal to logic), <strong>pathos<\/strong> (appeal to emotion), and <strong>ethos<\/strong> (appeal to authority).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Logical appeals may include facts, case studies, statistics, experiments, and expert testimony.\u00a0 Authoritative appeals may include citations of recognized experts and testimony of those involved first-hand in the issue.\u00a0 Emotional appeals may include personal anecdotes, stories, impact studies, and first-hand testimony.\u00a0 Many logical arguments rely on some combination of these three types of appeals.\u00a0 However, an argument may not be logical if a certain type of appeal does not coordinate with the claim, and\/or if an author relies too heavily on emotional appeal, for example, to the exclusion of factual support.<\/p>\n<p>The two videos below discuss how to apply these concepts to analyze an argument and thus evaluate a text.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Analyzing the argument - Part 1 of 2\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/pP8dWURrEF0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Analyzing the Argument - Part 2 of 2 (Evaluating the Evidence)\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/jVf_iJpSIrM?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2>Logical Fallacies<\/h2>\n<div id=\"post-1903\" class=\"standard post-1903 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\n<div id=\"post-466\" class=\"standard post-466 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\n<p>When you analyze a text\u2019s arguments in order to evaluate the quality of that text, you also need to determine whether the content contains errors in logic.\u00a0 Errors in logic, called logical fallacies, weaken the argument and thus the validity of the text.\u00a0\u00a0<span class=\"s1\">When readers spot questionable reasoning or unfair attempts at audience manipulation, more than their evaluation of the author\u2019s argument (<i>logos<\/i>) may be compromised.\u00a0 Their evaluation of the credibility of the speaker (<i>ethos<\/i>), and perhaps their ability to connect with that speaker on the level of shared values (<i>pathos<\/i>), also may be compromised.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption size-medium wp-image-1163 alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1163 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4969\/2020\/03\/20183514\/33-300x212.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"212\" \/><\/div>\n<h2>Types &amp; Examples of Logical Fallacies<\/h2>\n<p class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Classifying fallacies as errors of ethos, logos, or pathos may help you both recognize and understand them.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Fallacies of ethos relate to credibility.\u00a0 These fallacies may unfairly build up the credibility of the author (or his allies) or unfairly attack the credibility of the author\u2019s opponent (or her allies).<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Fallacies of logos\u00a0give an unfair advantage to the claims of the speaker or writer or an unfair disadvantage to his opponent\u2019s claims.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Fallacies of pathos rely excessively upon emotional appeals, attaching positive associations to the author\u2019s argument and negative ones to his opponent\u2019s position.<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>fallacies that misuse appeals to ethos<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Ad hominem<\/b>: attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cOf course that doctor advocates vaccination\u2014he probably owns stock in a pharmaceutical company.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>False authority<\/b>: relying on claims of expertise when the claimed expert (a) lacks adequate background\/credentials in the relevant field, (b) departs in major ways from the consensus in the field, or (c) is biased, e.g., has a financial stake in the outcome.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cDr. X is an engineer, and\u00a0<b><i>he<\/i><\/b>\u00a0doesn\u2019t believe in global warming.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Guilt by association\/Plain Folk<\/b>: linking the person making an argument to an unpopular person or group, or linking the person making the argument to ordinary people.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cMy opponent is a card-carrying member of the ACLU.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cWho would you vote for\u2014someone raised in a working-class neighborhood who has the support of Joe the Plumber or some elitist whose daddy sent him to a fancy school?\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Name-calling\/Poisoning the well<\/b>: labeling an opponent with words that have negative connotations in an effort to undermine the opponent\u2019s credibility; undermining an opponent\u2019s credibility before offering that person\u2019s ideas.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u00a0\u201cThese rabble-rousers are nothing but feminazis.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cThe prosecution is going to bring up a series or so-called experts who are getting a lot of money to testify here today.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>fallacies that misuse appeals to logos<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Hasty generalization:<\/b> jumping to conclusions based upon an unrepresentative sample or insufficient evidence.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example: <\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201c10 of the last 14 National Spelling Bee Champions have been Indian American. Indian Americans must all be great spellers!\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Begging the question: <\/b>circular argument because the premise is the same as the claim that you are trying to prove.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cThis legislation is sinful because it is the wrong thing to do.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>False dilemma: <\/b>misuse of the either\/or argument; presenting only two options when other choices exist<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cEither we pass this ordinance or there will be rioting in the streets.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Post hoc ergo propter hoc\/Slippery Slope: <\/b>Post hoc is a Latin phrase meaning \u201cafter this, therefore because of this\u201d; assumes that a first event causes a second event without evidence to show that cause. Slippery slope asserts that one thing will inevitably lead to another without offering adequate support.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cMy child was diagnosed with autism after receiving vaccinations.\u00a0 That is proof that vaccines are to blame.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cWe can\u2019t legalize marijuana; if we do, then the next thing you know people will be strung out on heroin.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Non-sequitur: <\/b>Latin for \u201cdoes not follow\u201d; the conclusion is not valid because a premise is untrue (or missing) or because the relationship between premises does not support the deduction stated in the claim.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example (untrue premise):<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cIf she is a Radford student, she is a member of a sorority. She is a Radford student.\u00a0 Therefore she is a member of a sorority.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Smoke screen<\/b>: avoiding the real issue or a tough question by introducing an unrelated topic as a distraction; sometimes called a <b>red herring<\/b>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cMy opponent says I am weak on crime, but I have been one of the most reliable participants in city council meetings.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>fallacies that misuse appeals to pathos<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Appeal to fear, guilt, or pity: <\/b>using scare tactics to exaggerating possible dangers, evoking an emotional reaction and disregarding the issue at hand.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cWithout this additional insurance, you could find yourself broke and homeless.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cI know I missed assignments, but if you fail me, I will lose my financial aid and have to drop out.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Appeal to popularity (bandwagon):<\/b> urging a reader to follow a course of action because \u201ceveryone does it.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cNine out of ten shoppers have switched to Blindingly-Bright-Smile Toothpaste.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span class=\"s1\"><b>Appeal to tradition:\u00a0<\/b>people have been done it a certain way for a long time; assumes that what has been customary in past is correct and proper.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s3\">Example:\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cWe always organize our annual meetings in this way; therefore, we should stick with the same organization for the upcoming year.\u201d<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><b>Emotionally <\/b><span class=\"s1\"><b>Loaded Language: <\/b>using slanted or biased language<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p4\"><span class=\"s1\">Example: <\/span><span class=\"s1\">\u201cOnly someone out of touch with reality in the 21st century doesn\u2019t do online banking.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The number and array of logical fallacies can be daunting. The main thing to remember is to look at the way in which an author states and supports the argument in a text.\u00a0 If there are a number of errors in reasoning, the text itself may not be valid for your purposes.<\/p>\n<h2>Questions to Analyze the Logic of a Text\u2019s Argument<\/h2>\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption wp-image-323 alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-323 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/107\/2016\/06\/12202220\/4557131838_e482a77b84_z.jpg\" alt=\"Image titled Logical Fallacies: Argument from Authority. Two men in business suits stand outside; the one on the left holds a briefcase and a chihuahua. Dialogue bubbles: Holding this Chihuahua will prevent me from getting the flu. \/ That seems unlikely. Why would you believe that? \/ It's true! My neighbour told me. His uncle is a homeopathic doctor with four university degrees!\" width=\"353\" height=\"578\" \/><\/div>\n<ul class=\"ul2\">\n<li><span class=\"s1\">Is the claim believable?\u00a0 <\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"s1\">Is the underlying assumption (warrant) acceptable? <\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"s1\">Is the supporting evidence relevant, sufficient, and accurate?<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><span class=\"s1\">Has the author cited sources or in some way made it possible for the reader to access evidence used?<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><span class=\"s1\">Are there different opinions and perspectives included, especially when there are multiple opinions on an issue?<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\">Does the author <span class=\"s1\"> avoid selective use of evidence or other types of manipulation of data?<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><span class=\"s1\">Does the offer evidence respectfully, using unbiased language? <\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"li2\"><span class=\"s1\">Is there an over-reliance on emotional appeals?<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">The most general structure of Argument from Authority runs something like the following: Person A claims that Person A is a respected scientist or other authority; therefore, the claim they make is true.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"post-466\" class=\"standard post-466 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>try it<\/h3>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\">\n<p>Based on your reading of \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtocollegereadingandwriting\/chapter\/article-3\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Forget Shorter Showers<\/a>\u201d by Derrick Jensen, answer the following questions intended to help you analyze the argument.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Identify one logical fallacy in each of the first three paragraphs and in the next-to-last paragraph.\u00a0 You do not have to name the fallacies by their formal names; just identify the errors in reasoning in your own words.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q1\"> Logical Fallacies\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q1\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<p><strong>Paragraph 1<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>emotionally charged language \/ appeal to fear &#8211; The phrase &#8220;would any sane person&#8221; misuses an appeal to pathos, since it over-relies on emotion and on creating fear in the reader.<\/p>\n<p>ad hominem &#8211; The phrase &#8220;would any sane person&#8221; also misuses an appeal to ethos, since it attacks &lt;em&gt;people&lt;\/em&gt; who believe a certain way, rather than showing the logical error in the belief itself.<\/p>\n<p>smoke screen &#8211; There&#8217;s a misuse of an appeal to logos in this paragraph, because bringing in the images of dumpster diving to stop Hitler, etc., could derail the reader from the point.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Paragraph 2<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>hasty generalization &#8211; The statistics provided at the end of the paragraph are not based on enough evidence; we&#8217;d need to know the source of the statistical information<\/p>\n<p><strong>Paragraph 3<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>hasty generalization &#8211; Again, the statistics provided are not based on enough evidence; we&#8217;d need to know the source of the statistical information.<\/p>\n<p>post hoc and appeal to fear &#8211; The sentence that people are dying because water is being stolen is a misuse of an appeal to logos and pathos.\u00a0 It does not follow that all people are dying because water is being stolen.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Next-to-last paragraph<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>slippery slope &#8211; It does not follow that death is the end point of seeing the uselessness of simple living as a political act.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<ul>\n<li>Identify one overall logical fallacy in the whole argument of this text.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><span class=\"show-answer collapsed\" style=\"cursor: pointer\" data-target=\"q2\"> Logical Fallacy <\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"q2\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<p>One main logical fallacy is false dilemma, a misuse of an appeal to logos.\u00a0 The author sets up an either\/or situation: either we take assertive action to fight against the industrial economy&#8217;s drain of our resources, or we&#8217;re pretty much doomed to deal with ever-diminishing resources.\u00a0 There may be other options, some of which the author explains and rejects.<\/p>\n<p><strong>A question for you to consider:<\/strong> Even though the logic in this text is not totally sound, according to a careful analysis in terms of traditional logic, the author provides thought-provoking ideas.\u00a0 Do you think he could have achieved the same effect with stricter attention to logic?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-466\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Analyzing Arguments\/Logical Fallacies includes material adapted from English Composition 1; attribution below. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Susan Oaks. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Introduction to College Reading &amp; Writing. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>pages on Introduction to Supporting Claims, Supporting Claims, Evaluating Appeals to Ethos, Logos, and Pathos. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomposition1\/\">https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wm-englishcomposition1\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: English Composition 1. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>image of a human head drawn as a graphic, with a person&#039;s hand and finger pointing to a spot in the brain. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Gerd Altmann. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pixabay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/illustrations\/brain-turn-on-education-read-book-770044\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/illustrations\/brain-turn-on-education-read-book-770044\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>video Analyzing the Argument: Premises and Conclusions (Part 1). <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Marc Franco. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Snap Language. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=jVf_iJpSIrM\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=jVf_iJpSIrM<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: YouTube video<\/li><li>video Analyzing the Argument: The Evidence (Part 2). <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Marc Franco. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Snap Language. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=jVf_iJpSIrM\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=jVf_iJpSIrM<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: YouTube video<\/li><li>image of finger pointing to the word Error. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Gerd Altmann. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pixabay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/illustrations\/error-www-internet-calculator-101409\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/illustrations\/error-www-internet-calculator-101409\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":81366,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Analyzing Arguments\/Logical Fallacies includes material adapted from English Composition 1; 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