{"id":135,"date":"2016-04-29T02:53:53","date_gmt":"2016-04-29T02:53:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontosociology-waymaker\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=135"},"modified":"2020-07-03T22:37:01","modified_gmt":"2020-07-03T22:37:01","slug":"outcome-theories-of-social-deviance","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/chapter\/outcome-theories-of-social-deviance\/","title":{"raw":"Theories of Social Deviance","rendered":"Theories of Social Deviance"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain functionalist views on deviance<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how conflict theorists understand deviance<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe and differentiate between symbolic interactionists' approach to deviance<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Differentiate between functionalist, conflict theorist, and symbolic interactionist explanations for deviance and crime<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nSince the early days of sociology, scholars have developed theories that attempt to explain what deviance and crime mean to society. These theories can be grouped according to the three major sociological paradigms: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory.\u00a0Let's revisit marijuana legalization from a theoretical perspective. How can sociological theories help explain the trends and corresponding human behavior and group patterns we discussed in the first section?\r\n\r\n<img class=\"wp-image-5946 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/26231610\/get-budding-72791-unsplash.jpg\" alt=\"Three jars full of marijuana buds are in the foreground.\" width=\"483\" height=\"322\" \/>\r\n\r\nConflict theorists would focus their attention on power and inequality. Who has the power to criminalize, decriminalize, and legalize marijuana use? How has the\u00a0criminalization of marijuana disproportionately affected minorities and the poor?\r\n\r\nFunctionalist theorists might examine how the legalization of marijuana might benefit state economies and also how this issue has served to increase social solidarity and redefine social norms.\r\n\r\nInteractionist theorists would likely focus on the perceptions of marijuana use and the symbolic nature of the marijuana leaf over time. Labeling is also of interest to interactionists--<em>who\u00a0<\/em>gets labeled (the <em>by<\/em>\u00a0<em>whom<\/em>\u00a0is examined by conflict theorists).\r\n<h2>Functionalism and Deviance<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"350\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204300\/Figure_07_02_01aab.jpg\" alt=\"Protesters are shown here wearing yellow chicken costumers and holding PETA signs that say \u201cI Am Not a Nugget\u201d and \u201cStop McCruelty.\u201d\" width=\"350\" height=\"310\" \/> <strong>Figure 1.\u00a0<\/strong>Functionalists believe that deviance plays an important role in society and can be used to challenge people\u2019s views. Protesters, such as these PETA members, often use this method to draw attention to their cause. (Photo courtesy of David Shankbone\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033061641\">\r\n<h3>Functionalism<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1359230\">Sociologists who follow the functionalist approach are concerned with the way the different elements of a society contribute to the whole. They view deviance as a key component of a functioning society. Social disorganization theory, strain theory, and social control theory represent the main functionalist perspectives on deviance in society.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033179630\">\r\n<h3>\u00c9mile Durkheim: The Essential Nature of Deviance<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2649102\">\u00c9mile Durkheim believed that deviance is a necessary part of a successful society\u00a0and that it serves three functions: 1) it clarifies norms and increases conformity, 2) it\u00a0strengthens social bonds among the people reacting to the deviant, and 3) it can help lead to positive social change and\u00a0challenges to people\u2019s present views (1893).<\/p>\r\n<span style=\"color: #ff9900\"><span style=\"color: #000000\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">For instance,\u00a0segregation laws remained intact for nearly a century in the United States after slavery was abolished. Those who violated these norms reinforced their legitimacy for those in power, which often led to even harsher laws and sanctions, which in turn led to increased conformity or adherence to the norms. Norm violators were often severely punished, even lynched, which led to increased social bonds among racist whites. On the other hand, when norm violations became more widespread and collective, as a result of various historical and cultural factors (i.e.\u00a0war in Vietnam, other social movements, televised police brutality, etc.), this cycle of continued deviance eventually led to social and legal change. A key example of this dynamic is the Civil Rights Movement, which corrected many historical wrongs by continuously challenging the dominant society's values and norms.<\/span> <\/span>\r\n<\/span>\r\n<h3>Social Disorganization Theory<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1303628\">Developed by researchers at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1489642\">social disorganization theory<\/span><\/strong> asserts that crime is most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control.\u00a0<span style=\"color: #333333\">Several sociologists at the time, who viewed the city as a laboratory for study, were dubbed \"The Chicago School.\" These socio<\/span>logists included Robert Park and Ernest Burgess (1916 and 1925) became the first to utilize an ecological approach,\u00a0which examined society much as an ecologist examines an organisms and their environment\u2014by paying attention to the social, institutional, and cultural contexts of people-environment relations. They studied\u00a0deviance by examining rapid changes to the neighborhoods, caused by population increases, immigration, and urbanization in Chicago. P<span style=\"color: #333333\">ark, a journalist and sociologist, suggested a program to increase the number of playgrounds to counteract social disorganization and juvenile delinquency.<\/span><\/p>\r\nProponents of social disorganization theory believe that individuals who grow up in impoverished areas are more likely to participate in deviant or criminal behaviors\u00a0than an individual from a wealthy neighborhood with a good school system and families who are involved positively in the community.\u00a0Social disorganization theory points to broad social factors as the cause of deviance. A person isn\u2019t born a criminal but becomes one over time, often based on factors in his or her social environment.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204302\/Figure_07_02_02a.jpg\" alt=\"A block of run-down, dirty rowhouses lining an abandoned street are shown.\" width=\"300\" height=\"450\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>.\u00a0Camden, New Jersey.\u00a0(Photo courtesy of Apollo 1758\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1648820\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Although this theory sounds like common sense, critics argue that it places blame on the neighborhoods themselves, which opens the door for politicians to point out social issues like drug use, disrupted families, and violence as endemic to low income neighborhoods, thus allowing them to circumvent the larger structural issues that give rise to these predicaments.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333\">Let's examine Camden, New Jersey,\u00a0once one of America's deadliest cities. As a city of 74,000, there were 58 homicide victims in 1995, and 67 in 2012 (a rate of about 87 murders per 100,000 residents), which ranked Camden fifth nationwide. In 2017, there were 22 homicides [footnote]Holder, S. 2018. What happened to crime in Camden? City Lab.[\/footnote].\r\n<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333\">In 2013, the Camden Police Department was disbanded, reimagined, and renamed the Camden County Police Department, with fewer officers, lower pay\u2014and a strategic shift\u00a0toward \u201ccommunity policing\u201d (Holder, 2018). The police chief, who has been on the Camden force for over 25 years, says \"Nothing stops a bullet like a job\" and stresses the importance of increasing access to social services, economic opportunities, and good public schools. In his emphasis on multiple causal factors, he sounds like a functionalist! <\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333\">By strengthening essential social institutions in communities (a macro approach) and working to increase citizen-police relations, that is, how police see themselves and how residents view police (a micro intervention), Camden provides us an example of how sociological theories can help explain deviance but also inform social policy.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1169033105104\">\r\n<h3>Strain Theory\/Anomie Theory of Deviance<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2850722\">In 1938\u00a0Robert Merton expanded on Durkheim\u2019s idea that deviance is an inherent part of a functioning society by developing <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1652132\">strain theory\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1652132\">(also called the <strong>anomie theory of deviance<\/strong>)<\/span>, which notes that access to the means of achieving socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms and accepts these goals or rebels and rejects them. For example, from birth we\u2019re encouraged to achieve the American Dream of financial success. A woman who attends business school, receives her MBA, and goes on to make a million-dollar income as CEO of a company is said to be a success. However, not everyone in our society stands on equal footing. A person may have the socially acceptable goal of financial success but lack a socially acceptable way to reach that goal. Much more common might be the young person who wants financial security and success but attends a failing school and is not able to attend college, does not have connections in business or finance, and might not have any CEOs in their immediate circle. The young person might be attracted to other types of entrepreneurial activities outside of the corporate world that are more accessible, such as selling stolen goods and\/or drugs, gambling, and\/or other types of street-level commerce. Another path might be\u00a0to embezzle from his employer.\u00a0These types of crimes will be discussed later, but this is one example of the contrast between \"crime in the streets\" and \"crime in the suites.\"<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1761134\">Merton defined five ways people respond to this gap between having a socially accepted goal and having no socially accepted way to pursue it.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol id=\"fs-id2670263\">\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333\"><em>Conformity<\/em>: Those who conform choose not to deviate.\u00a0Conformists\u00a0pursue their goals to the extent that they can through socially accepted means.\u00a0This is the most common option.\r\n<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333\"><em>Innovation<\/em>:\u00a0Innovators pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead using criminal or deviant means.<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"color: #333333\"><em>Ritualism<\/em>: People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable ways. These members of society focus on conformity rather than pursuing <\/span>an unrealistic dream.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Retreatism<\/em>: Others retreat and reject society\u2019s goals and means. For example, some beggars and street people have withdrawn from society\u2019s normative goal of financial success.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Rebellion<\/em>: A handful of people rebel and replace a society\u2019s goals and means with their own. Terrorists or freedom fighters look to overthrow a society\u2019s goals through socially unacceptable means.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333\">In Table 1, you can see how conformists accept societal goals and means, while innovators, ritualists, retreatists, and rebels reject either societal goals or societal means, or both.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse;width: 65.7268%;height: 90px\" border=\"1\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;text-align: left\" colspan=\"4\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Table 1.<\/strong> Strain Theory.<strong>\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Societal Goals<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Societal Means <\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Examples<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Conformists <\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Accept<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Accept<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">college students, professionals who strive to do their best and excel at their job<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Innovators<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">drug dealers, embezzlers, gamblers <\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Ritualists <\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Accept<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">workers who \"punch the clock\"<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Retreatists <\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Accept<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">homeless, drug addicted<\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\r\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Rebels <\/strong><\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject\/ Replace<\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject\/ Replace <\/span><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">radicals, revolutionaries, terrorists <\/span><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video to learn about how structural functionalists think about deviance:<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/06IS_X7hWWI[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h3 class=\"title editable block\">Deviant Subcultures<\/h3>\r\nDuring the 1950s, a group of sociologists theorized deviance as subcultural. As you recall from an earlier module about culture, a subculture is a group that operates within larger society but is distinctive in the values and norms that govern membership (formal or informal). A subculture usually exhibits some type of resistance to the existing social structure and\/or social norms. Oftentimes a subcultural group is visibly, aesthetically distinctive (i.e. goths, emo, skaters, etc.).\r\n\r\nMuch of this early research was a response to a growing concern about street gangs in Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, with notorious gangsters like Al Capone in national headlines. In 1927, Frederick Thrasher's\u00a0<em>The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago<\/em> highlighted the geography of gang activity within Chicago and examined the \"Poverty Belt\" as an area within which gang membership would be particularly enticing.\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Deviant subcultures theori<\/span>sts<span style=\"font-size: 1em\">\u00a0also uti<\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><span style=\"color: #ff6600\"><span style=\"color: #373d3f;font-size: 1em\">lized The Chicago School's models and methods to study delinquency.<\/span>\r\n<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\nAlbert K. Cohen (1955) stated that \"the crucial condition for the emergence of new cultural forms is the existence,\u00a0<em>in effective interaction with one another, of a number of actors with similar problems of adjustment<\/em>\" (no emphasis added, pp. 12 and 59). Cohen (1955) observed that a \"sympathetic moral climate\" within which actors' perception of norms and shared norms is a result of the subculture's benefit from those norms, which are a \"repudiation of the middle class standards.\" Walter Miller (1958) broadened Cohen's framework by looking beyond the \"delinquent boys\" and using \"over eight thousand pages of direct and observational data\" in a \"slum\" district of Chicago. He lists the following six \"focal concerns of lower-class culture\": trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and autonomy.\r\n\r\nThis scholarship from the 1950s reflected a growing unrest in post-World War 2 America as the Cold War gained momentum, demonstrating both a fear of ideological dissent from within and a new concern with low income immigrant communities. The work was also implied a gendered exclusionary focus, negating the agency of females as potential deviant actors.\r\n\r\nMarvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti published\u00a0<em>The Subculture of Violence\u00a0<\/em>in 1967, which blended criminology, psychology, and sociology in an attempt to theorize the causes of assault behavior and homicide. They used empirical data which showed violence as being localized among specific groups and said it \"reflects differences in learning about violence as a problem-solving mechanism\" (1967, p. 159). Wolfgang and Ferracuti suggest the value systems in subcultural groups, particularly inner city men, differ from centra<span style=\"color: #0000ff\">l\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><span style=\"color: #ff9900\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span>value systems and result in more violence (1967, 97).\r\n<h3 class=\"title editable block\">Social Control Theory<\/h3>\r\nAnother functionalist theory of deviance is Travis Hirschi's (1969)\u00a0<strong>social control theory<\/strong>. Similar to Comte's original question, \"What holds society together?\" Hirschi asked, \"Why do people adhere to social norms?\" In other words, why <em>aren't\u00a0<\/em>people\u00a0<em>more deviant<\/em>? Building from Durkheim's work on social solidarity, Hirschi looked at bonds to conventional social institutions as reasons people feel connected to society and thereby less likely to be deviant. He identified four types of bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.\r\n\r\nLet's apply these types of bonds to an example. Say a high\u00a0school student is trying to decide whether to skip a class to go to the mall with friends. He or she might consider the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Attachment<\/em>: how their teacher and school administration would think about them if they skipped school and\/or how their parent\/s' opinion would be affected (\"If my parents find out they will be very disappointed\").<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Commitment<\/em>: how much they value their education and what they would miss (\"I like my American history class and would miss the unit on school desegregation\").<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Involvement<\/em>: how much time has been invested in school up until this point (\"Why spoil a \"clean record\" by skipping one class?\").<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Belief<\/em>: how the school's attendance policy reflects societal beliefs about the importance of education (\"I want to go to college and know that attending class will be important to my success and future job prospects\").<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div id=\"barkan-ch07_s02_s01\" class=\"section\">\r\n<div id=\"barkan-ch07_s02_s01_s05\" class=\"section\">\r\n\r\nWe can also imagine more serious forms of deviance and consider how attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief might operate in other scenarios. In what ways can this theory help inform prevention strategies, especially for young people? How can we strengthen attachment and commitment, for example?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Conflict Theory and Deviance<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1133547\"><strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2910344\">Conflict theory<\/span><\/strong> looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime and deviance. Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists don\u2019t see these factors as positive functions of society. They see them as evidence of inequality in the system. They also challenge social disorganization theory and control theory and argue that both ignore racial and socioeconomic issues and oversimplify social trends (Akers, 1991). Conflict theorists also look for answers to the correlation of gender and race with wealth and crime.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033070881\">\r\n<h3>Karl Marx: An Unequal System<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1662230\">Conflict theory was greatly influenced by the work of 19th-century German philosopher, economist, and social scientist Karl Marx. Marx believed that the general population was divided into two groups. He labeled the wealthy, who controlled the means of production and business, the <em>bourgeoisie<\/em>. He labeled the workers who depended on the bourgeoisie for employment and survival the <em>proletariat<\/em>. Marx believed that the bourgeoisie centralized their power and influence through government, laws, and other authority agencies in order to maintain and expand their positions of power in society. Thus, Marx viewed the laws as instruments of oppression for the proletariat that are written and enforced to maintain the economic status quo and to protect the interests of the ruling class.\u00a0Though Marx spoke little of deviance,\u00a0he wrote a great deal about laws and developed a legal theory that\u00a0created the foundation for conflict theorists.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1169033064662\">\r\n<h3>C. Wright Mills: The Power Elite<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1392201\">In his book <em>The Power Elite<\/em> (1956), sociologist C. Wright Mills described the existence of what he dubbed the <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1669547\">power elite<\/span><\/strong>, a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who disproportionately control power and resources. Wealthy executives, politicians, celebrities, and military leaders often have access to national and international power, and in some cases, their decisions affect everyone in society. Because of this, the rules of society are stacked in favor of a privileged few who then manipulate them to maintain their positions. It is these people who decide what is criminal and what is not, and the effects are often felt most by those who have little power. Mills\u2019 theories explain why celebrities such as Chris Brown and Paris Hilton, or once-powerful politicians such as Eliot Spitzer and Tom DeLay, can commit crimes and suffer little or no legal retribution.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1169033061495\">\r\n<h3>Crime, Social Class, and Race<\/h3>\r\nWhile crime is often associated with the underprivileged, crimes committed by the wealthy and powerful remain an under-punished and costly problem within society. The American Sociological Association's 1939 President Edwin Sutherland coined the term \"white-collar crime\" in his address \"White Collar Criminality,\" which was one of the few such addresses to make front-page news.[footnote]Edwin H. Sutherland, ASA Presidents, ASA. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.asanet.org\/edwin-h-sutherland\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.asanet.org\/edwin-h-sutherland<\/a>[\/footnote] He defined the term as\u00a0\"crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation.\" Typically, these are \"nonviolent crimes committed in commercial situations for financial gain\" and\u00a0according to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), white-collar crime is estimated to cost the United States more than $300 billion annually.\u00a0[footnote]\"White-collar crime.\" Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/wex\/white-collar_crime\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/wex\/white-collar_crime<\/a>.[\/footnote] When former advisor and financier Bernie Madoff was arrested in 2008, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission reported that the estimated losses of his financial Ponzi scheme fraud were close to $50 billion (SEC, 2009).\u00a0In contrast,\u00a0property crimes, which include burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson, in 2015 resulted in losses estimated at $14.3 billion (FBI, 2015).\r\n\r\nConflict theorists also quickly point out that \"crime in the suites\" is often committed by white men, whereas \"crime in the streets\" disproportionately affects communities of color as both perpetrators and victims of property crimes. Property crimes have fallen dramatically over the past twenty years (see chart below); it is also important to keep in mind that only 36 percent of property crimes are reported to police[footnote]Gramlich, J. \"Five facts about crime,\" Pew Research Center.(2018)\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2019\/10\/17\/facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2019\/10\/17\/facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/<\/a>[\/footnote] .\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"640\"]<img class=\"attachment-large\" src=\"http:\/\/assets.pewresearch.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/12\/2017\/02\/30142228\/FT_17.02.15_crime_640px.png\" alt=\"An image titled, &quot;Crime rates have fallen since the early 1990s&quot; with a subtitle, &quot;Trends in violent crime and property crime, 1993-2016&quot; is shown depicting 4 different graphs. The first graph is titled &quot;Violent crimes per 100,00 residents (FBI)&quot; and shows a downward trend from 747.1 to 386.3. The second graph is titled &quot;Violent crimes per 1,000 people ages 12+ (BJS) and shows a downward trend from 79.8 to 21.1. The third graph is titled, &quot;Property crimes per 100,000 residents (FBI)&quot; and shows a downward trend from 4,740 to 2,450.7. The fourth graph titled, &quot;Property crimes per 1,000 households (BJS)&quot; shows a downward trend from 351.8 to 119.4. \" width=\"640\" height=\"394\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> Although public perception tends to contradict this data, crime rates have fallen since the early 1990s.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2018\/01\/30\/5-facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u201c5 facts about crime in the U.S..\u201d<\/a>\u00a0Pew Research Center, Washington, D.C. (January 30, 2018).\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2019\/10\/17\/facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/ft_17-02-15_crime_640px\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u201cCrime Rates Have Fallen since the Early 1990s.\u201d<\/a>\u00a0Pew Research Center, Washington, D.C. (February 15, 2017).[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Crack, Cocaine, and Opioids<\/h3>\r\nIn the 1980s, there was a \"crack epidemic\" that swept the country's poorest urban communities. Its pricier counterpart, cocaine, was often the drug of choice for wealthy whites. Most studies show rates of drug use among whites and blacks were similar. From a pharmaceutical standpoint, crack and cocaine are nearly the same in terms of effect.\r\n\r\nIn 1986, federal law mandated that being caught in possession of 50 grams of crack was punishable by a ten-year prison sentence. An equivalent prison sentence for cocaine possession, however, required possession of 5,000 grams. In other words, the sentencing disparity was 1 to 100 (New York Times Editorial Staff, 2011). This inequality in the severity of punishment for crack versus cocaine paralleled the class and race of the respective users.\r\n\r\nA conflict theorist would note that those in society who hold the power make the laws concerning crime that benefit their own interests,\u00a0while the powerless classes who lack the resources to make such decisions suffer the consequences. Thus, since powder cocaine use was associated with wealthy whites, the laws were enacted to be lenient on powder cocaine but extremely punitive toward crack-cocaine.\u00a0The crack-cocaine punishment disparity remained until 2010, when President Obama signed the Fair Sentencing Act, which decreased the disparity to 1 to 18 (The Sentencing Project, 2010).\r\n\r\nToday, we are in the midst of an \"opioid epidemic.\" Unlike the 1980s crack epidemic, the opioid epidemic is considered a public health crisis and has widespread support for prevention and treatment programs. Since disproportionate numbers of drug overdose deaths have been among white Americans, conflict theorists would suggest that those in power are more likely to advocate policy changes to help these drug addicts rather than punish them. Why are whites more likely to overdose? The answer, ironically, might be racism; studies show that doctors are more reluctant to prescribe painkillers to minorities because they mistakenly believe minority patients feel less pain and\/or are more likely to misuse or sell the prescribed drugs[footnote]Lopez, G. (2016). Why are black Americans less affected,\" Vox. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.vox.com\/2016\/1\/25\/10826560\/opioid-epidemic-race-black\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.vox.com\/2016\/1\/25\/10826560\/opioid-epidemic-race-black<\/a> [\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Hx7WLlJzrlw[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033062797\"><section id=\"fs-id1169033061495\">\r\n<h3>Feminist Theory and Deviance<\/h3>\r\nWomen who are regarded as criminally deviant are often seen as being\u00a0<strong>doubly deviant<\/strong>. They have broken the laws but they have also violated gender norms governing appropriate female behavior, whereas men\u2019s criminal behavior is seen as consistent with their ostensibly aggressive, self-assertive character. This double standard also explains the tendency to <em>medicalize<\/em> women\u2019s deviance, to see it as the product of physiological or psychiatric pathology. For example, in the late 19th century, kleptomania was a diagnosis used in legal defenses that linked an extreme desire for department store commodities with various forms of female physiological or psychiatric illness. The fact that \u201cgood\u201d middle- and upper-class women, who were at that time coincidentally beginning to experience the benefits of independence from men, would turn to stealing in department stores to obtain the new feminine consumer items on display there, could not be explained without resorting to diagnosing the activity as an illness of the \u201cweaker\u201d sex (Kramar, 2011).\r\n\r\nFeminist analysis focuses on the way gender inequality influences the opportunities to commit crime and the definition, detection, and prosecution of crime. In part the gender difference revolves around patriarchal attitudes toward women and the disregard for matters considered to be of a private or domestic nature.\r\n\r\nFor example, until 1969, abortion was illegal in Canada, meaning that hundreds of women died or were injured each year when they received illegal abortions (McLaren and McLaren, 1997). It was not until the Canadian Supreme Court ruling in 1988 that struck down the law that it was acknowledged that women are capable of making their own choice, in consultation with a doctor, about the procedure.\u00a0The U.S. Supreme Court in\u00a0<em>Roe v. Wade\u00a0<\/em>(1973) decided in a 7-2 decision that states cannot unduly restrict abortions. Since then, a plethora of restrictions including waiting periods, restrictions on public funding for abortions, mandated counseling, parental involvement for minors, and others have made it exceedingly difficult. The State of Mississippi, for example, has one abortion clinic in the state, whereas California has 152 clinics as of 2014.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2018\/07\/20\/us\/mississippi-abortion-restrictions.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read about other differences between the most restrictive state, Mississippi, and the least restrictive state, California.<\/a>\r\n\r\nAccording to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), an African-American woman is almost five times as likely to have an abortion than a white woman, and a Latina more than twice as likely.[footnote]Dutton, Z. (2014). Abortion's racial gap. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/health\/archive\/2014\/09\/abortions-racial-gap\/380251\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/health\/archive\/2014\/09\/abortions-racial-gap\/380251\/<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033062797\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1169033061495\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Abortion has been declining with approximately\u00a01.1 million abortions performed in 2011, at a rate of 16.9 abortions for every 1,000 women of childbearing age, down from a peak of 29.3 per 1,000 in 1981 (Dutton, 2014). Low-income women in all racial groups are more likely to experience unintended pregnancies, largely due to a lack of health insurance and access to contraception. The most effective and long-term contraception, an intrauterine device or IUD, costs between $500-1000 and office visit fees are in addition to the cost of the IUD itself; community health centers and Medicaid typically do not cover 100% of the costs, but often IUDs are covered by private insurance.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\n<span style=\"color: #333333\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Regulating women's bodies is nothing new, particularly when it comes to minority women in the U.S. White slave owners raped black female slaves with impunity and then increased their \"property\" with the offspring. Nearly one-third of women of child-bearing age in Puerto Rico were sterilized between 1930 and 1970, as funded by the U.S. Department of Health, Welfare, and Funding to mitigate high levels of unemployment and poverty. Although this was \"voluntary,\" women were often pressured to undergo sterilization after giving birth[footnote]Andrews, K. (2017) The dark history of Latina sterilization. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.panoramas.pitt.edu\/health-and-society\/dark-history-forced-sterilization-latina-women\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.panoramas.pitt.edu\/health-and-society\/dark-history-forced-sterilization-latina-women<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\nIn addition to examining the ways in which the state regulates women's bodies, feminist theorists also look at violent crimes against women that are sexual in nature. In the #MeToo era, women from many different groups (i.e. actors, gymnasts, students) have come forward to say that they were sexually harassed and\/or sexually assaulted by a boss or supervisor, a team doctor, a university gynecologist, or other co-workers. The broadcast media and social media have been rife with stories of #MeToo, which feminists are examining from a macrosociological approach (power and structures of power) and a microsociological approach (hashtag movement, personal identification with others who have similar experiences).\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Sexual Assault in Canada:\u00a0 A Case Study<\/h3>\r\nUntil the 1970s, two major types of criminal deviance were largely ignored or were difficult to prosecute as crimes: sexual assault and spousal assault. Through the 1970s, women worked to change the criminal justice system and establish rape crisis\u00a0centers and battered women\u2019s shelters, bringing attention to domestic violence. In 1983 the Criminal Code was amended to replace the crimes of rape and indecent assault with a three-tier structure of sexual assault (ranging from unwanted sexual touching that violates the integrity of the victim to sexual assault with a weapon or threats or causing bodily harm to aggravated sexual assault that results in wounding, maiming, disfiguring, or endangering the life of the victim) (Kong et al., 2003). Johnson (1996) reported that in the mid-1990s, when violence against women began to be surveyed systematically in Canada, 51 percent of Canadian women\u00a0had been subject to at least one sexual or physical assault since the age of 16.\r\n\r\nThe goal of the amendments was to emphasize that sexual assault is an act of violence, not a sexual act. Previously, rape had been defined as an act that involved penetration and was perpetrated against a woman who was not the wife of the accused. This had excluded spousal sexual assault as a crime and had also exposed women to <strong>secondary victimization<\/strong> by the criminal justice system when they tried to bring charges. Secondary victimization occurs when the women\u2019s own sexual history and her willingness to consent are questioned in the process of laying charges and reaching a conviction, which as feminists pointed out, increased victims\u2019 reluctance to press charges.\r\n\r\nIn particular feminists challenged the <strong>twin myths of rape<\/strong> that were often the subtext of criminal justice proceedings presided over largely by men (Kramar, 2011). The first myth is that women are untrustworthy and tend to lie about assault out of malice toward men, as a way of getting back at them for personal grievances. The second myth, is that women will say \u201cno\u201d to sexual relations when they really mean \u201cyes.\u201d Typical of these types of issues was the judge\u2019s comment in a Manitoba Court of Appeals case in which a man pleaded guilty to sexually assaulting his twelve- or thirteen-year-old babysitter:\r\n<blockquote>The girl, of course, could not consent in the legal sense, but nonetheless was a willing participant. She was apparently more sophisticated than many her age and was performing many household tasks including babysitting the accused\u2019s children. The accused and his wife were somewhat estranged (cited in Kramar, 2011).<\/blockquote>\r\nBecause the girl was willing to perform household chores in place of the man\u2019s estranged wife, the judge assumed she was also willing to engage in sexual relations. In order to address this type of issue, feminists successfully pressed the Supreme Court to deliver rulings that restricted a defense attorney\u2019s access to a victim\u2019s medical and counseling records, and rules of evidence were changed to prevent a woman\u2019s past sexual history from being used against her. Consent to sexual intercourse was redefined as what a woman actually says or does, not what the man believes to be signaling consent. Feminists also argued that spousal assault was a key component of patriarchal power. Typically it was hidden in the household and largely regarded as a private, domestic matter in which police were reluctant to get involved.\r\n\r\nInterestingly, women and men report similar rates of spousal violence\u2014in 2009, 6 percent had experienced spousal violence in the previous five years\u2014but women are more likely to experience more severe forms of violence including multiple victimizations and violence leading to physical injury (Sinha, 2013). In order to empower women, feminists pressed lawmakers to develop zero-tolerance policies that would support aggressive policing and prosecution of offenders. These policies oblige police to pursue charges in cases of domestic violence when a complaint is made, whether or not the victim wishes to press charges (Kramar, 2011).\r\n\r\nIn 2009, 84 percent of violent spousal incidents reported by women to police resulted in charges being pursued. However, according to victimization surveys only 30 percent of actual incidents were reported to police. The majority of women who did not report incidents to the police stated that they either dealt with them in another way, felt they were a private matter, or did not think the incidents were important enough to report. A significant proportion, however, did not want anyone to find out (44 percent), did not want their spouse to be arrested (40 percent), or were too afraid of their spouse (19 percent) (Sinha, 2013).\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video to examine how conflict theorists think about deviance:<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/06IS_X7hWWI[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1169033138816\" class=\"section-summary\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id3592067\" class=\"exercise\"><section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1188650\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li id=\"import-auto-id1169033099074\">Pick a famous politician, business leader, or celebrity who has been arrested recently. What crime did he or she allegedly commit? Who was the victim? Explain his or her actions from the point of view of one of the major sociological paradigms. What factors best explain how this person might be punished if convicted of the crime?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In what ways do race and class intersect when theorizing deviance from a conflict perspective?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><\/section><\/section>\r\n<h2>Symbolic Interactionism and Deviance<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Symbolic Interactionism<\/h3>\r\nSymbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach that can be used to explain how societies and\/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional. Labeling theory\u00a0and\u00a0differential association theory\u00a0fall within the realm of symbolic interactionism.\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033069296\">\r\n<h3>Labeling Theory<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2865647\">Although all of us violate norms from time to time, few people would consider themselves deviant. Those who do, however, have often been labeled \u201cdeviant\u201d by society and have gradually come to believe it themselves. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id3054668\">Labeling theory<\/span><\/strong> examines the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society. Thus, what is considered deviant is determined not so much by the behaviors themselves or the people who commit them, but by the reactions of others to these behaviors. As a result, what is considered deviant changes over time and can vary significantly across cultures.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video for an example of how labeling theory is applied in the case of a cancer patient who is interested in using medical marijuana.<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QHSvZZ1pnm0[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n\r\nSociologist Edwin Lemert expanded on the concepts of labeling theory and identified two types of deviance that affect identity formation. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1038620\">Primary deviance<\/span><\/strong> is a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual\u2019s self-image or interactions with others. Speeding is a deviant act, but receiving a speeding ticket generally does not make others view you as a bad person, nor does it alter your own self-concept. Individuals who engage in primary deviance still maintain a feeling of belonging in society and are likely to continue to conform to norms in the future.\r\n\r\nSometimes, in more extreme cases, primary deviance can morph into secondary deviance. <strong>Secondary deviance<\/strong> occurs when a person\u2019s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society. The person may begin to take on and fulfill the role of a \u201cdeviant\u201d as an act of rebellion against the society that has labeled that individual as such. For example, consider a high school student who often cuts class and gets into fights. The student is reprimanded frequently by teachers and school staff, and soon enough, he develops a reputation as a \u201ctroublemaker.\u201d As a result, the student starts acting out even more and breaking more rules; he has adopted the \u201ctroublemaker\u201d label and embraced this deviant identity. Secondary deviance can be so strong that it bestows a <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1773248\">master status<\/span><\/strong> on an individual. A master status is a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual. Some people see themselves primarily as doctors, artists, or grandfathers. Others see themselves as beggars, convicts, or addicts.\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h3 class=\"title editable block\">Differential Association Theory<\/h3>\r\nOne core premise of culture and socialization is that individuals\u00a0<em>learn\u00a0<\/em>the values and norms of a given culture and that this learning process is lifelong. This is particularly helpful when we think about deviance because differential association theorists apply this core premise to deviance.\u00a0How many of you have committed a deviant act with someone else? A sibling? A friend? Consider something like underage drinking, which often occurs with peers and\/or with older siblings. By the time many students arrive on college campuses (still underage), underage drinking has become normalized so that is seems \"everyone\" is doing it.\r\n\r\nIn criminology, <strong>differential association<\/strong> is a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland (1883\u20131950) proposing that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior. Differential association theory is the most talked-about of the learning theories of deviance. This theory focuses on\u00a0<em>how\u00a0<\/em>individuals learn to become criminals, but it does not concern itself with\u00a0<em>why\u00a0<\/em>they become criminals.\r\n\r\nDifferential association predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding. This tendency will be reinforced if social association provides active people in the person\u2019s life. The earlier in life an individual comes under the influence high status people within a group, the more likely the individual is to follow in their footsteps. This does not deny that there may be practical motives for crime. If a person is hungry but has no money, there is a temptation to steal. But the use of \u201cneeds\u201d and \u201cvalues\u201d is equivocal. To some extent, both non-criminal and criminal individuals are motivated by the need for money and social gain.\r\n<h4>Sutherland\u2019s Nine Points<\/h4>\r\nThe principles of Sutherland\u2019s theory of differential association can be summarized into nine key points.\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Criminal behavior is learned.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime (which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple) and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values, since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5476\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"240\"]<img class=\"wp-image-5476 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/19133812\/720px-Criminal_Silhouette_L.svg_-300x250.png\" alt=\"a criminal silhouette icon\" width=\"240\" height=\"200\" \/> <strong>Figure 4.<\/strong> Differential association theory predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding.[\/caption]<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nAn important quality of differential association theory is the frequency and intensity of interaction. The amount of time that a person is exposed to a particular definition and at what point the interaction began are both crucial for explaining criminal activity. The process of learning criminal behavior is really not any different from the process involved in learning any other type of behavior. Sutherland maintains that there is no unique learning process associated with acquiring non-normative ways of behaving.\r\n\r\nOne very unique aspect of this theory is that it works to explain more than just juvenile delinquency and crime committed by lower class individuals. Since crime is understood to be learned behavior, the theory is also applicable to white-collar, corporate, and organized crime.\r\n\r\nOne critique leveled against differential association stems from the idea that people can be independent, rational actors and individually motivated. This notion of one being a criminal based on his or her environment is problematic\u2014the theory does not take into account personality traits that might affect a person\u2019s susceptibility to these environmental influences.\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033056797\"><section id=\"fs-id1169033069296\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>The Right to Vote<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"225\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204305\/Figure_07_02_04a.jpg\" alt=\"A woman is shown voting at a voting booth.\" width=\"225\" height=\"675\" \/> <strong>Figure 5.\u00a0<\/strong>Should a former felony conviction permanently strip a U.S. citizen of the right to vote? (Photo courtesy of Joshin Yamada\/flickr.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2754738\">Before she lost her job as an administrative assistant, Leola Strickland postdated and mailed a handful of checks for amounts ranging from $90 to $500. By the time she was able to find a new job, the checks had bounced, and she was convicted of fraud under Mississippi law. Strickland pleaded guilty to a felony charge and repaid her debts; in return, she was spared from serving prison time.<\/p>\r\n&lt;img class=\"wp-image-3902\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/10144941\/Screen-Shot-2018-09-10-at-9.49.12-AM.png\" alt=\" Cartogram showing mishapen states to show the disproportionate number of persons disenfranchised in each state. The Southern States of Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, and Florida are exceptionally large with rates between 2 to 10%. The Northern states such as Washington, Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, and Wisconsin are shown to have lower rates between <strong>Figure 6. Cartogram of Total Disenfranchisement Rates by State, 2016. <\/strong>This Cartogram adjusts the size of the state to represent the number of persons disenfranchised in each state. You can see the the southeastern states have disproportionately high numbers of disenfranchised voters. Image from\u00a0 \"6 million lost voters\", https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/.\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1461812\">Strickland appeared in court in 2001. More than ten years later, she is still feeling the sting of her sentencing. Why? Because Mississippi is one of twelve states in the United States that bans convicted felons from voting (ProCon, 2011).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2388714\">To Strickland, who said she had always voted, the news came as a great shock. She isn\u2019t alone. As of 2016, an estimated 6.1 million people are disenfranchised due to a felony conviction which equates to approximately 2.5 percent of the total U.S. voting age population or 1 in every 40 adults [footnote]Uggen, C. Larson, R. and S. Shannon. (2016). 6 million lost voters. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/<\/a>[\/footnote]\u00a0These individuals include inmates, parolees, probationers, and even people who have never been jailed, such as Leola Strickland.<\/p>\r\nWhile 1 in 40 voting age adults is disenfranchised, when we begin to break it down by racial and ethnic groups the picture becomes much more stark, as 1 in 13 African Americans are disenfranchised. Since felon disenfranchisement is a state-by-state law, African American disenfranchisement rates in Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia now exceed 20 percent of the adult voting age population (Uggen, Larson, &amp; Shannon, 2016).\r\n\r\n6 Million Lost Voters: State-Level Estimates of Felony Disenfranchisement, 2016 Christopher Uggen, Ryan Larson, and Sarah Shannon October 2016\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3903\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"643\"]<img class=\"wp-image-3903\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/10145015\/Screen-Shot-2018-09-10-at-9.49.56-AM.png\" alt=\"Map of U.S. showing number of disenfranchised African-Americans, shown as a percentage in each state. The southeastern states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and Florida have the most, with 20% + of the population. The northeastern states Maine, Vermont, and Illinois have lower rates of about 0% to 1.9%.\" width=\"643\" height=\"425\" \/> <strong>Figure 7.<\/strong> <strong>African American Felony Disenfranchisement Rates, 2016.<\/strong>\u00a0African American disenfranchisement numbers are high in many states, but in Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, over 20% of the African American voting population is disenfranchised.\u00a0Image from\u00a0 \"6 million lost voters\", https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWith two 21st century elections (2000 and 2016) in which the candidate with the most votes did not win (Al Gore in 2000 and Hillary Clinton in 2016), one of which led to an official recount (2000 Election), there has been increased pressure for states with prohibitive voting measures to examine them. Particularly in the State of Florida, a swing state, in which nearly 1.5 million individuals are currently disenfranchised post-sentence (Uggen, Larson &amp; Shannon, 2016). On January 23, 2018 Floridians for a Fair Democracy garnered 766,200 signatures to get an amendment on the 2018 ballot that would give the ability to vote back to Floridians with felony convictions that have completed their sentences. To see what happened track the results at the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brennancenter.org\/our-work\/research-reports\/voting-rights-restoration-efforts-florida\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brennan Center for Justice<\/a>, which includes state by state updates on disenfranchisement.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id3592067\" class=\"exercise\"><section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1188650\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Is it fair to deny citizens the right to vote? What factors are important? Should this be a federal issue or a state issue? Using your sociological imagination, what other states' rights issues have become federal or constitutional issues and why?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n\r\n<h2>Summary of Theoretical Explanations of Deviance<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033069324\">The three major sociological paradigms offer different explanations for the motivation behind deviance and crime. Functionalists point out that deviance is a social necessity since it reinforces norms by reminding people of the consequences of violating them. Violating norms can open society\u2019s eyes to injustice in the system.<\/p>\r\nConflict theorists argue that crime stems from a system of inequality that keeps those with power at the top and those without power at the bottom.\r\n\r\nSymbolic interactionists focus attention on the socially constructed nature of the labels related to deviance. Crime and deviance are learned from the environment and enforced or discouraged by those around us.\r\n\r\nReview each of the main theories associated with each perspective below.\r\n<table id=\"eip-734\" style=\"height: 201px\" summary=\"Pictured is a chart, separated into three categories, that summarizes the different theories discussed in the chapter. The first category is functionalism theories. The first is Strain Theory, by Robert Merton, which asserts that deviance arises from a lack of ways to reach socially accepted goals by accepted methods. The second is Social Disorganization Theory, by University of Chicago researches, which asserts that deviance arises from weak social ties and a lack of social control; society has lost the ability to enforce norms with some groups. The third is Cultural Deviance Theory, by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, which asserts that deviance arises from conformity to the cultural norms of lower-class society. The second category is Conflict theories. The first is Unequal System, by Karl Marx, which asserts that deviance arises from inequalities in the wealth and power that come from the economic system. The second is Power Elite, by C. Wright Mills, which asserts that deviance arises from the ability of those in power to define deviance in ways that maintain the status quo. The third and last category is Symbolic Interactionism. The first is Labeling Theory, by Edwin Lemert, which asserts that deviance arises from the reactions of others, particularly those in power, who are able to determine labels. The second is Differential Association Theory, by Edwin Sutherlin, which asserts that deviance arises from learning and modeling deviant behavior seen in other people close to the individual. The third and last theory is Control Theory, by Travis Hirschi, which asserts that deviance arises from feelings of disconnection from society.\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\"><strong>Functionalism<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\"><strong>Associated Theorist<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\"><strong>Deviance arises from:<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\">Strain Theory<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\">Robert Merton<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\">A lack of ways to reach socially accepted goals by accepted methods<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 39px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 39px;width: 126.285px\">Social Disorganization Theory<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 39px;width: 140.729px\">University of Chicago researchers<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 39px;width: 527.396px\">Weak social ties and a lack of social control; society has lost the ability to enforce norms with some groups<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 26px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 126.285px\">Social Control Theory<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 140.729px\">Travis Hirschi<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 527.396px\">Deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society; social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\"><strong>Conflict Theory<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\"><strong>Associated Theorist<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\"><strong>Deviance arises from:<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\">Unequal System<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\">Karl Marx<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\">Inequalities in wealth and power that arise from the economic system<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\">Power Elite<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\">C. Wright Mills<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\">Ability of those in power to define deviance in ways that maintain the status quo<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 26px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 126.285px\"><strong>Symbolic Interactionism<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 140.729px\"><strong>Associated Theorist<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 527.396px\"><strong>Deviance arises from:<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\">Labeling Theory<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\">Edwin Lemert<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\">The reactions of others, particularly those in power who are able to determine labels<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 26px\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 126.285px\">Differential Association Theory<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 140.729px\">Edwin Sutherlin<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 527.396px\">Learning and modeling deviant behavior seen in other people close to the individual<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">Watch this video to review some of the major theories covered in this module. You'll examine the symbolic interactionist paradigms of differential association and labeling theory, and also the functionalist paradigm of strain theory.\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/MSucylf4KhY[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id3592067\" class=\"exercise\"><section>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1188650\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li id=\"import-auto-id1169033099074\">Choose a public figure who has effected a major, controversial political and or legal change. To what extant were this person's actions or beliefs considered deviant when they first emerged? How can the process by which they were eventually accepted and became new norms be explained by applying the major sociological paradigms? What norms needed to be re-examined? Which paradigm seems most useful? Why?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]conflict theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]deviant subcultures theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]several theories that posit poverty and other community conditions give rise to certain subcultures through which adolescents acquire values that promote deviant behavior[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]differential association theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]doubly deviant:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a term used to refer to females who have broken the law and gender norms about appropriate female behavior[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]labeling theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the idea that the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society affects how a person self-identifies and behaves; related to self-fulfilling prophecy[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]master status:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]power elite:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]primary deviance:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual\u2019s self-image or interactions with others[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]secondary deviance:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]deviance that occurs when a person\u2019s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]secondary victimization:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]occurs when the women\u2019s own sexual history and her willingness to consent are questioned in the process of laying charges and reaching a conviction[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]social control theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]social disorganization theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]strain theory:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable\u00a0means to reach those goals[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]twin myths of rape:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the first myth is that women are untrustworthy and tend to lie about assault out of malice toward men, as a way of getting back at them for personal grievances and the second myth is that women will say \u201cno\u201d to sexual relations when they really mean \u201cyes\u201d[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain functionalist views on deviance<\/li>\n<li>Explain how conflict theorists understand deviance<\/li>\n<li>Describe and differentiate between symbolic interactionists&#8217; approach to deviance<\/li>\n<li>Differentiate between functionalist, conflict theorist, and symbolic interactionist explanations for deviance and crime<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Since the early days of sociology, scholars have developed theories that attempt to explain what deviance and crime mean to society. These theories can be grouped according to the three major sociological paradigms: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory.\u00a0Let&#8217;s revisit marijuana legalization from a theoretical perspective. How can sociological theories help explain the trends and corresponding human behavior and group patterns we discussed in the first section?<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-5946 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/26231610\/get-budding-72791-unsplash.jpg\" alt=\"Three jars full of marijuana buds are in the foreground.\" width=\"483\" height=\"322\" \/><\/p>\n<p>Conflict theorists would focus their attention on power and inequality. Who has the power to criminalize, decriminalize, and legalize marijuana use? How has the\u00a0criminalization of marijuana disproportionately affected minorities and the poor?<\/p>\n<p>Functionalist theorists might examine how the legalization of marijuana might benefit state economies and also how this issue has served to increase social solidarity and redefine social norms.<\/p>\n<p>Interactionist theorists would likely focus on the perceptions of marijuana use and the symbolic nature of the marijuana leaf over time. Labeling is also of interest to interactionists&#8211;<em>who\u00a0<\/em>gets labeled (the <em>by<\/em>\u00a0<em>whom<\/em>\u00a0is examined by conflict theorists).<\/p>\n<h2>Functionalism and Deviance<\/h2>\n<div style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204300\/Figure_07_02_01aab.jpg\" alt=\"Protesters are shown here wearing yellow chicken costumers and holding PETA signs that say \u201cI Am Not a Nugget\u201d and \u201cStop McCruelty.\u201d\" width=\"350\" height=\"310\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1.\u00a0<\/strong>Functionalists believe that deviance plays an important role in society and can be used to challenge people\u2019s views. Protesters, such as these PETA members, often use this method to draw attention to their cause. (Photo courtesy of David Shankbone\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033061641\">\n<h3>Functionalism<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1359230\">Sociologists who follow the functionalist approach are concerned with the way the different elements of a society contribute to the whole. They view deviance as a key component of a functioning society. Social disorganization theory, strain theory, and social control theory represent the main functionalist perspectives on deviance in society.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033179630\">\n<h3>\u00c9mile Durkheim: The Essential Nature of Deviance<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2649102\">\u00c9mile Durkheim believed that deviance is a necessary part of a successful society\u00a0and that it serves three functions: 1) it clarifies norms and increases conformity, 2) it\u00a0strengthens social bonds among the people reacting to the deviant, and 3) it can help lead to positive social change and\u00a0challenges to people\u2019s present views (1893).<\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #ff9900\"><span style=\"color: #000000\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">For instance,\u00a0segregation laws remained intact for nearly a century in the United States after slavery was abolished. Those who violated these norms reinforced their legitimacy for those in power, which often led to even harsher laws and sanctions, which in turn led to increased conformity or adherence to the norms. Norm violators were often severely punished, even lynched, which led to increased social bonds among racist whites. On the other hand, when norm violations became more widespread and collective, as a result of various historical and cultural factors (i.e.\u00a0war in Vietnam, other social movements, televised police brutality, etc.), this cycle of continued deviance eventually led to social and legal change. A key example of this dynamic is the Civil Rights Movement, which corrected many historical wrongs by continuously challenging the dominant society&#8217;s values and norms.<\/span> <\/span><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<h3>Social Disorganization Theory<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1303628\">Developed by researchers at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1489642\">social disorganization theory<\/span><\/strong> asserts that crime is most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control.\u00a0<span style=\"color: #333333\">Several sociologists at the time, who viewed the city as a laboratory for study, were dubbed &#8220;The Chicago School.&#8221; These socio<\/span>logists included Robert Park and Ernest Burgess (1916 and 1925) became the first to utilize an ecological approach,\u00a0which examined society much as an ecologist examines an organisms and their environment\u2014by paying attention to the social, institutional, and cultural contexts of people-environment relations. They studied\u00a0deviance by examining rapid changes to the neighborhoods, caused by population increases, immigration, and urbanization in Chicago. P<span style=\"color: #333333\">ark, a journalist and sociologist, suggested a program to increase the number of playgrounds to counteract social disorganization and juvenile delinquency.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Proponents of social disorganization theory believe that individuals who grow up in impoverished areas are more likely to participate in deviant or criminal behaviors\u00a0than an individual from a wealthy neighborhood with a good school system and families who are involved positively in the community.\u00a0Social disorganization theory points to broad social factors as the cause of deviance. A person isn\u2019t born a criminal but becomes one over time, often based on factors in his or her social environment.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204302\/Figure_07_02_02a.jpg\" alt=\"A block of run-down, dirty rowhouses lining an abandoned street are shown.\" width=\"300\" height=\"450\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>.\u00a0Camden, New Jersey.\u00a0(Photo courtesy of Apollo 1758\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1648820\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Although this theory sounds like common sense, critics argue that it places blame on the neighborhoods themselves, which opens the door for politicians to point out social issues like drug use, disrupted families, and violence as endemic to low income neighborhoods, thus allowing them to circumvent the larger structural issues that give rise to these predicaments.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333\">Let&#8217;s examine Camden, New Jersey,\u00a0once one of America&#8217;s deadliest cities. As a city of 74,000, there were 58 homicide victims in 1995, and 67 in 2012 (a rate of about 87 murders per 100,000 residents), which ranked Camden fifth nationwide. In 2017, there were 22 homicides <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Holder, S. 2018. What happened to crime in Camden? City Lab.\" id=\"return-footnote-135-1\" href=\"#footnote-135-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333\">In 2013, the Camden Police Department was disbanded, reimagined, and renamed the Camden County Police Department, with fewer officers, lower pay\u2014and a strategic shift\u00a0toward \u201ccommunity policing\u201d (Holder, 2018). The police chief, who has been on the Camden force for over 25 years, says &#8220;Nothing stops a bullet like a job&#8221; and stresses the importance of increasing access to social services, economic opportunities, and good public schools. In his emphasis on multiple causal factors, he sounds like a functionalist! <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333\">By strengthening essential social institutions in communities (a macro approach) and working to increase citizen-police relations, that is, how police see themselves and how residents view police (a micro intervention), Camden provides us an example of how sociological theories can help explain deviance but also inform social policy.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033105104\">\n<h3>Strain Theory\/Anomie Theory of Deviance<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2850722\">In 1938\u00a0Robert Merton expanded on Durkheim\u2019s idea that deviance is an inherent part of a functioning society by developing <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1652132\">strain theory\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1652132\">(also called the <strong>anomie theory of deviance<\/strong>)<\/span>, which notes that access to the means of achieving socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms and accepts these goals or rebels and rejects them. For example, from birth we\u2019re encouraged to achieve the American Dream of financial success. A woman who attends business school, receives her MBA, and goes on to make a million-dollar income as CEO of a company is said to be a success. However, not everyone in our society stands on equal footing. A person may have the socially acceptable goal of financial success but lack a socially acceptable way to reach that goal. Much more common might be the young person who wants financial security and success but attends a failing school and is not able to attend college, does not have connections in business or finance, and might not have any CEOs in their immediate circle. The young person might be attracted to other types of entrepreneurial activities outside of the corporate world that are more accessible, such as selling stolen goods and\/or drugs, gambling, and\/or other types of street-level commerce. Another path might be\u00a0to embezzle from his employer.\u00a0These types of crimes will be discussed later, but this is one example of the contrast between &#8220;crime in the streets&#8221; and &#8220;crime in the suites.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1761134\">Merton defined five ways people respond to this gap between having a socially accepted goal and having no socially accepted way to pursue it.<\/p>\n<ol id=\"fs-id2670263\">\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333\"><em>Conformity<\/em>: Those who conform choose not to deviate.\u00a0Conformists\u00a0pursue their goals to the extent that they can through socially accepted means.\u00a0This is the most common option.<br \/>\n<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333\"><em>Innovation<\/em>:\u00a0Innovators pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead using criminal or deviant means.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"color: #333333\"><em>Ritualism<\/em>: People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable ways. These members of society focus on conformity rather than pursuing <\/span>an unrealistic dream.<\/li>\n<li><em>Retreatism<\/em>: Others retreat and reject society\u2019s goals and means. For example, some beggars and street people have withdrawn from society\u2019s normative goal of financial success.<\/li>\n<li><em>Rebellion<\/em>: A handful of people rebel and replace a society\u2019s goals and means with their own. Terrorists or freedom fighters look to overthrow a society\u2019s goals through socially unacceptable means.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333\">In Table 1, you can see how conformists accept societal goals and means, while innovators, ritualists, retreatists, and rebels reject either societal goals or societal means, or both.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<table style=\"border-collapse: collapse;width: 65.7268%;height: 90px\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;text-align: left\" colspan=\"4\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Table 1.<\/strong> Strain Theory.<strong><br \/>\n<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Societal Goals<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Societal Means <\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Examples<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Conformists <\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Accept<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Accept<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">college students, professionals who strive to do their best and excel at their job<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Innovators<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">drug dealers, embezzlers, gamblers <\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Ritualists <\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Accept<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">workers who &#8220;punch the clock&#8221;<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Retreatists <\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Accept<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">homeless, drug addicted<\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px\">\n<td style=\"width: 12.7973%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\"><strong>Rebels <\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 10.8932%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject\/ Replace<\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 6.63855%;height: 15px;text-align: left\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Reject\/ Replace <\/span><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 48.076%;text-align: left;height: 15px\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">radicals, revolutionaries, terrorists <\/span><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video to learn about how structural functionalists think about deviance:<\/strong><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Theory &amp; Deviance: Crash Course Sociology #19\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/06IS_X7hWWI?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<h3 class=\"title editable block\">Deviant Subcultures<\/h3>\n<p>During the 1950s, a group of sociologists theorized deviance as subcultural. As you recall from an earlier module about culture, a subculture is a group that operates within larger society but is distinctive in the values and norms that govern membership (formal or informal). A subculture usually exhibits some type of resistance to the existing social structure and\/or social norms. Oftentimes a subcultural group is visibly, aesthetically distinctive (i.e. goths, emo, skaters, etc.).<\/p>\n<p>Much of this early research was a response to a growing concern about street gangs in Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, with notorious gangsters like Al Capone in national headlines. In 1927, Frederick Thrasher&#8217;s\u00a0<em>The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago<\/em> highlighted the geography of gang activity within Chicago and examined the &#8220;Poverty Belt&#8221; as an area within which gang membership would be particularly enticing.\u00a0<span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Deviant subcultures theori<\/span>sts<span style=\"font-size: 1em\">\u00a0also uti<\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><span style=\"color: #ff6600\"><span style=\"color: #373d3f;font-size: 1em\">lized The Chicago School&#8217;s models and methods to study delinquency.<\/span><br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Albert K. Cohen (1955) stated that &#8220;the crucial condition for the emergence of new cultural forms is the existence,\u00a0<em>in effective interaction with one another, of a number of actors with similar problems of adjustment<\/em>&#8221; (no emphasis added, pp. 12 and 59). Cohen (1955) observed that a &#8220;sympathetic moral climate&#8221; within which actors&#8217; perception of norms and shared norms is a result of the subculture&#8217;s benefit from those norms, which are a &#8220;repudiation of the middle class standards.&#8221; Walter Miller (1958) broadened Cohen&#8217;s framework by looking beyond the &#8220;delinquent boys&#8221; and using &#8220;over eight thousand pages of direct and observational data&#8221; in a &#8220;slum&#8221; district of Chicago. He lists the following six &#8220;focal concerns of lower-class culture&#8221;: trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and autonomy.<\/p>\n<p>This scholarship from the 1950s reflected a growing unrest in post-World War 2 America as the Cold War gained momentum, demonstrating both a fear of ideological dissent from within and a new concern with low income immigrant communities. The work was also implied a gendered exclusionary focus, negating the agency of females as potential deviant actors.<\/p>\n<p>Marvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti published\u00a0<em>The Subculture of Violence\u00a0<\/em>in 1967, which blended criminology, psychology, and sociology in an attempt to theorize the causes of assault behavior and homicide. They used empirical data which showed violence as being localized among specific groups and said it &#8220;reflects differences in learning about violence as a problem-solving mechanism&#8221; (1967, p. 159). Wolfgang and Ferracuti suggest the value systems in subcultural groups, particularly inner city men, differ from centra<span style=\"color: #0000ff\">l\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"color: #0000ff\"><span style=\"color: #ff9900\">\u00a0<\/span><\/span>value systems and result in more violence (1967, 97).<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"title editable block\">Social Control Theory<\/h3>\n<p>Another functionalist theory of deviance is Travis Hirschi&#8217;s (1969)\u00a0<strong>social control theory<\/strong>. Similar to Comte&#8217;s original question, &#8220;What holds society together?&#8221; Hirschi asked, &#8220;Why do people adhere to social norms?&#8221; In other words, why <em>aren&#8217;t\u00a0<\/em>people\u00a0<em>more deviant<\/em>? Building from Durkheim&#8217;s work on social solidarity, Hirschi looked at bonds to conventional social institutions as reasons people feel connected to society and thereby less likely to be deviant. He identified four types of bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.<\/p>\n<p>Let&#8217;s apply these types of bonds to an example. Say a high\u00a0school student is trying to decide whether to skip a class to go to the mall with friends. He or she might consider the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Attachment<\/em>: how their teacher and school administration would think about them if they skipped school and\/or how their parent\/s&#8217; opinion would be affected (&#8220;If my parents find out they will be very disappointed&#8221;).<\/li>\n<li><em>Commitment<\/em>: how much they value their education and what they would miss (&#8220;I like my American history class and would miss the unit on school desegregation&#8221;).<\/li>\n<li><em>Involvement<\/em>: how much time has been invested in school up until this point (&#8220;Why spoil a &#8220;clean record&#8221; by skipping one class?&#8221;).<\/li>\n<li><em>Belief<\/em>: how the school&#8217;s attendance policy reflects societal beliefs about the importance of education (&#8220;I want to go to college and know that attending class will be important to my success and future job prospects&#8221;).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div id=\"barkan-ch07_s02_s01\" class=\"section\">\n<div id=\"barkan-ch07_s02_s01_s05\" class=\"section\">\n<p>We can also imagine more serious forms of deviance and consider how attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief might operate in other scenarios. In what ways can this theory help inform prevention strategies, especially for young people? How can we strengthen attachment and commitment, for example?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Conflict Theory and Deviance<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1133547\"><strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2910344\">Conflict theory<\/span><\/strong> looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime and deviance. Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists don\u2019t see these factors as positive functions of society. They see them as evidence of inequality in the system. They also challenge social disorganization theory and control theory and argue that both ignore racial and socioeconomic issues and oversimplify social trends (Akers, 1991). Conflict theorists also look for answers to the correlation of gender and race with wealth and crime.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033070881\">\n<h3>Karl Marx: An Unequal System<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1662230\">Conflict theory was greatly influenced by the work of 19th-century German philosopher, economist, and social scientist Karl Marx. Marx believed that the general population was divided into two groups. He labeled the wealthy, who controlled the means of production and business, the <em>bourgeoisie<\/em>. He labeled the workers who depended on the bourgeoisie for employment and survival the <em>proletariat<\/em>. Marx believed that the bourgeoisie centralized their power and influence through government, laws, and other authority agencies in order to maintain and expand their positions of power in society. Thus, Marx viewed the laws as instruments of oppression for the proletariat that are written and enforced to maintain the economic status quo and to protect the interests of the ruling class.\u00a0Though Marx spoke little of deviance,\u00a0he wrote a great deal about laws and developed a legal theory that\u00a0created the foundation for conflict theorists.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033064662\">\n<h3>C. Wright Mills: The Power Elite<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1392201\">In his book <em>The Power Elite<\/em> (1956), sociologist C. Wright Mills described the existence of what he dubbed the <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1669547\">power elite<\/span><\/strong>, a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who disproportionately control power and resources. Wealthy executives, politicians, celebrities, and military leaders often have access to national and international power, and in some cases, their decisions affect everyone in society. Because of this, the rules of society are stacked in favor of a privileged few who then manipulate them to maintain their positions. It is these people who decide what is criminal and what is not, and the effects are often felt most by those who have little power. Mills\u2019 theories explain why celebrities such as Chris Brown and Paris Hilton, or once-powerful politicians such as Eliot Spitzer and Tom DeLay, can commit crimes and suffer little or no legal retribution.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033061495\">\n<h3>Crime, Social Class, and Race<\/h3>\n<p>While crime is often associated with the underprivileged, crimes committed by the wealthy and powerful remain an under-punished and costly problem within society. The American Sociological Association&#8217;s 1939 President Edwin Sutherland coined the term &#8220;white-collar crime&#8221; in his address &#8220;White Collar Criminality,&#8221; which was one of the few such addresses to make front-page news.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Edwin H. Sutherland, ASA Presidents, ASA. http:\/\/www.asanet.org\/edwin-h-sutherland\" id=\"return-footnote-135-2\" href=\"#footnote-135-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> He defined the term as\u00a0&#8220;crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation.&#8221; Typically, these are &#8220;nonviolent crimes committed in commercial situations for financial gain&#8221; and\u00a0according to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), white-collar crime is estimated to cost the United States more than $300 billion annually.\u00a0<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;White-collar crime.&quot; Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/wex\/white-collar_crime.\" id=\"return-footnote-135-3\" href=\"#footnote-135-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> When former advisor and financier Bernie Madoff was arrested in 2008, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission reported that the estimated losses of his financial Ponzi scheme fraud were close to $50 billion (SEC, 2009).\u00a0In contrast,\u00a0property crimes, which include burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson, in 2015 resulted in losses estimated at $14.3 billion (FBI, 2015).<\/p>\n<p>Conflict theorists also quickly point out that &#8220;crime in the suites&#8221; is often committed by white men, whereas &#8220;crime in the streets&#8221; disproportionately affects communities of color as both perpetrators and victims of property crimes. Property crimes have fallen dramatically over the past twenty years (see chart below); it is also important to keep in mind that only 36 percent of property crimes are reported to police<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Gramlich, J. &quot;Five facts about crime,&quot; Pew Research Center.(2018)\u00a0https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2019\/10\/17\/facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/\" id=\"return-footnote-135-4\" href=\"#footnote-135-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> .<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 650px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"attachment-large\" src=\"http:\/\/assets.pewresearch.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/12\/2017\/02\/30142228\/FT_17.02.15_crime_640px.png\" alt=\"An image titled, &quot;Crime rates have fallen since the early 1990s&quot; with a subtitle, &quot;Trends in violent crime and property crime, 1993-2016&quot; is shown depicting 4 different graphs. The first graph is titled &quot;Violent crimes per 100,00 residents (FBI)&quot; and shows a downward trend from 747.1 to 386.3. The second graph is titled &quot;Violent crimes per 1,000 people ages 12+ (BJS) and shows a downward trend from 79.8 to 21.1. The third graph is titled, &quot;Property crimes per 100,000 residents (FBI)&quot; and shows a downward trend from 4,740 to 2,450.7. The fourth graph titled, &quot;Property crimes per 1,000 households (BJS)&quot; shows a downward trend from 351.8 to 119.4.\" width=\"640\" height=\"394\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.<\/strong> Although public perception tends to contradict this data, crime rates have fallen since the early 1990s.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2018\/01\/30\/5-facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u201c5 facts about crime in the U.S..\u201d<\/a>\u00a0Pew Research Center, Washington, D.C. (January 30, 2018).\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2019\/10\/17\/facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/ft_17-02-15_crime_640px\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u201cCrime Rates Have Fallen since the Early 1990s.\u201d<\/a>\u00a0Pew Research Center, Washington, D.C. (February 15, 2017).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Crack, Cocaine, and Opioids<\/h3>\n<p>In the 1980s, there was a &#8220;crack epidemic&#8221; that swept the country&#8217;s poorest urban communities. Its pricier counterpart, cocaine, was often the drug of choice for wealthy whites. Most studies show rates of drug use among whites and blacks were similar. From a pharmaceutical standpoint, crack and cocaine are nearly the same in terms of effect.<\/p>\n<p>In 1986, federal law mandated that being caught in possession of 50 grams of crack was punishable by a ten-year prison sentence. An equivalent prison sentence for cocaine possession, however, required possession of 5,000 grams. In other words, the sentencing disparity was 1 to 100 (New York Times Editorial Staff, 2011). This inequality in the severity of punishment for crack versus cocaine paralleled the class and race of the respective users.<\/p>\n<p>A conflict theorist would note that those in society who hold the power make the laws concerning crime that benefit their own interests,\u00a0while the powerless classes who lack the resources to make such decisions suffer the consequences. Thus, since powder cocaine use was associated with wealthy whites, the laws were enacted to be lenient on powder cocaine but extremely punitive toward crack-cocaine.\u00a0The crack-cocaine punishment disparity remained until 2010, when President Obama signed the Fair Sentencing Act, which decreased the disparity to 1 to 18 (The Sentencing Project, 2010).<\/p>\n<p>Today, we are in the midst of an &#8220;opioid epidemic.&#8221; Unlike the 1980s crack epidemic, the opioid epidemic is considered a public health crisis and has widespread support for prevention and treatment programs. Since disproportionate numbers of drug overdose deaths have been among white Americans, conflict theorists would suggest that those in power are more likely to advocate policy changes to help these drug addicts rather than punish them. Why are whites more likely to overdose? The answer, ironically, might be racism; studies show that doctors are more reluctant to prescribe painkillers to minorities because they mistakenly believe minority patients feel less pain and\/or are more likely to misuse or sell the prescribed drugs<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Lopez, G. (2016). Why are black Americans less affected,&quot; Vox. https:\/\/www.vox.com\/2016\/1\/25\/10826560\/opioid-epidemic-race-black\" id=\"return-footnote-135-5\" href=\"#footnote-135-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Painkillers now kill more Americans than any illegal drug\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Hx7WLlJzrlw?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033062797\">\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033061495\">\n<h3>Feminist Theory and Deviance<\/h3>\n<p>Women who are regarded as criminally deviant are often seen as being\u00a0<strong>doubly deviant<\/strong>. They have broken the laws but they have also violated gender norms governing appropriate female behavior, whereas men\u2019s criminal behavior is seen as consistent with their ostensibly aggressive, self-assertive character. This double standard also explains the tendency to <em>medicalize<\/em> women\u2019s deviance, to see it as the product of physiological or psychiatric pathology. For example, in the late 19th century, kleptomania was a diagnosis used in legal defenses that linked an extreme desire for department store commodities with various forms of female physiological or psychiatric illness. The fact that \u201cgood\u201d middle- and upper-class women, who were at that time coincidentally beginning to experience the benefits of independence from men, would turn to stealing in department stores to obtain the new feminine consumer items on display there, could not be explained without resorting to diagnosing the activity as an illness of the \u201cweaker\u201d sex (Kramar, 2011).<\/p>\n<p>Feminist analysis focuses on the way gender inequality influences the opportunities to commit crime and the definition, detection, and prosecution of crime. In part the gender difference revolves around patriarchal attitudes toward women and the disregard for matters considered to be of a private or domestic nature.<\/p>\n<p>For example, until 1969, abortion was illegal in Canada, meaning that hundreds of women died or were injured each year when they received illegal abortions (McLaren and McLaren, 1997). It was not until the Canadian Supreme Court ruling in 1988 that struck down the law that it was acknowledged that women are capable of making their own choice, in consultation with a doctor, about the procedure.\u00a0The U.S. Supreme Court in\u00a0<em>Roe v. Wade\u00a0<\/em>(1973) decided in a 7-2 decision that states cannot unduly restrict abortions. Since then, a plethora of restrictions including waiting periods, restrictions on public funding for abortions, mandated counseling, parental involvement for minors, and others have made it exceedingly difficult. The State of Mississippi, for example, has one abortion clinic in the state, whereas California has 152 clinics as of 2014.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2018\/07\/20\/us\/mississippi-abortion-restrictions.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read about other differences between the most restrictive state, Mississippi, and the least restrictive state, California.<\/a><\/p>\n<p>According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), an African-American woman is almost five times as likely to have an abortion than a white woman, and a Latina more than twice as likely.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Dutton, Z. (2014). Abortion's racial gap. https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/health\/archive\/2014\/09\/abortions-racial-gap\/380251\/\" id=\"return-footnote-135-6\" href=\"#footnote-135-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033062797\">\n<p id=\"fs-id1169033061495\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Abortion has been declining with approximately\u00a01.1 million abortions performed in 2011, at a rate of 16.9 abortions for every 1,000 women of childbearing age, down from a peak of 29.3 per 1,000 in 1981 (Dutton, 2014). Low-income women in all racial groups are more likely to experience unintended pregnancies, largely due to a lack of health insurance and access to contraception. The most effective and long-term contraception, an intrauterine device or IUD, costs between $500-1000 and office visit fees are in addition to the cost of the IUD itself; community health centers and Medicaid typically do not cover 100% of the costs, but often IUDs are covered by private insurance.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"color: #333333\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Regulating women&#8217;s bodies is nothing new, particularly when it comes to minority women in the U.S. White slave owners raped black female slaves with impunity and then increased their &#8220;property&#8221; with the offspring. Nearly one-third of women of child-bearing age in Puerto Rico were sterilized between 1930 and 1970, as funded by the U.S. Department of Health, Welfare, and Funding to mitigate high levels of unemployment and poverty. Although this was &#8220;voluntary,&#8221; women were often pressured to undergo sterilization after giving birth<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Andrews, K. (2017) The dark history of Latina sterilization. https:\/\/www.panoramas.pitt.edu\/health-and-society\/dark-history-forced-sterilization-latina-women.\" id=\"return-footnote-135-7\" href=\"#footnote-135-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p>In addition to examining the ways in which the state regulates women&#8217;s bodies, feminist theorists also look at violent crimes against women that are sexual in nature. In the #MeToo era, women from many different groups (i.e. actors, gymnasts, students) have come forward to say that they were sexually harassed and\/or sexually assaulted by a boss or supervisor, a team doctor, a university gynecologist, or other co-workers. The broadcast media and social media have been rife with stories of #MeToo, which feminists are examining from a macrosociological approach (power and structures of power) and a microsociological approach (hashtag movement, personal identification with others who have similar experiences).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Sexual Assault in Canada:\u00a0 A Case Study<\/h3>\n<p>Until the 1970s, two major types of criminal deviance were largely ignored or were difficult to prosecute as crimes: sexual assault and spousal assault. Through the 1970s, women worked to change the criminal justice system and establish rape crisis\u00a0centers and battered women\u2019s shelters, bringing attention to domestic violence. In 1983 the Criminal Code was amended to replace the crimes of rape and indecent assault with a three-tier structure of sexual assault (ranging from unwanted sexual touching that violates the integrity of the victim to sexual assault with a weapon or threats or causing bodily harm to aggravated sexual assault that results in wounding, maiming, disfiguring, or endangering the life of the victim) (Kong et al., 2003). Johnson (1996) reported that in the mid-1990s, when violence against women began to be surveyed systematically in Canada, 51 percent of Canadian women\u00a0had been subject to at least one sexual or physical assault since the age of 16.<\/p>\n<p>The goal of the amendments was to emphasize that sexual assault is an act of violence, not a sexual act. Previously, rape had been defined as an act that involved penetration and was perpetrated against a woman who was not the wife of the accused. This had excluded spousal sexual assault as a crime and had also exposed women to <strong>secondary victimization<\/strong> by the criminal justice system when they tried to bring charges. Secondary victimization occurs when the women\u2019s own sexual history and her willingness to consent are questioned in the process of laying charges and reaching a conviction, which as feminists pointed out, increased victims\u2019 reluctance to press charges.<\/p>\n<p>In particular feminists challenged the <strong>twin myths of rape<\/strong> that were often the subtext of criminal justice proceedings presided over largely by men (Kramar, 2011). The first myth is that women are untrustworthy and tend to lie about assault out of malice toward men, as a way of getting back at them for personal grievances. The second myth, is that women will say \u201cno\u201d to sexual relations when they really mean \u201cyes.\u201d Typical of these types of issues was the judge\u2019s comment in a Manitoba Court of Appeals case in which a man pleaded guilty to sexually assaulting his twelve- or thirteen-year-old babysitter:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>The girl, of course, could not consent in the legal sense, but nonetheless was a willing participant. She was apparently more sophisticated than many her age and was performing many household tasks including babysitting the accused\u2019s children. The accused and his wife were somewhat estranged (cited in Kramar, 2011).<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Because the girl was willing to perform household chores in place of the man\u2019s estranged wife, the judge assumed she was also willing to engage in sexual relations. In order to address this type of issue, feminists successfully pressed the Supreme Court to deliver rulings that restricted a defense attorney\u2019s access to a victim\u2019s medical and counseling records, and rules of evidence were changed to prevent a woman\u2019s past sexual history from being used against her. Consent to sexual intercourse was redefined as what a woman actually says or does, not what the man believes to be signaling consent. Feminists also argued that spousal assault was a key component of patriarchal power. Typically it was hidden in the household and largely regarded as a private, domestic matter in which police were reluctant to get involved.<\/p>\n<p>Interestingly, women and men report similar rates of spousal violence\u2014in 2009, 6 percent had experienced spousal violence in the previous five years\u2014but women are more likely to experience more severe forms of violence including multiple victimizations and violence leading to physical injury (Sinha, 2013). In order to empower women, feminists pressed lawmakers to develop zero-tolerance policies that would support aggressive policing and prosecution of offenders. These policies oblige police to pursue charges in cases of domestic violence when a complaint is made, whether or not the victim wishes to press charges (Kramar, 2011).<\/p>\n<p>In 2009, 84 percent of violent spousal incidents reported by women to police resulted in charges being pursued. However, according to victimization surveys only 30 percent of actual incidents were reported to police. The majority of women who did not report incidents to the police stated that they either dealt with them in another way, felt they were a private matter, or did not think the incidents were important enough to report. A significant proportion, however, did not want anyone to find out (44 percent), did not want their spouse to be arrested (40 percent), or were too afraid of their spouse (19 percent) (Sinha, 2013).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video to examine how conflict theorists think about deviance:<\/strong><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Theory &amp; Deviance: Crash Course Sociology #19\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/06IS_X7hWWI?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033138816\" class=\"section-summary\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-id3592067\" class=\"exercise\">\n<section>\n<div id=\"fs-id1188650\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169033099074\">Pick a famous politician, business leader, or celebrity who has been arrested recently. What crime did he or she allegedly commit? Who was the victim? Explain his or her actions from the point of view of one of the major sociological paradigms. What factors best explain how this person might be punished if convicted of the crime?<\/li>\n<li>In what ways do race and class intersect when theorizing deviance from a conflict perspective?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<h2>Symbolic Interactionism and Deviance<\/h2>\n<h3>Symbolic Interactionism<\/h3>\n<p>Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical approach that can be used to explain how societies and\/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional. Labeling theory\u00a0and\u00a0differential association theory\u00a0fall within the realm of symbolic interactionism.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033069296\">\n<h3>Labeling Theory<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2865647\">Although all of us violate norms from time to time, few people would consider themselves deviant. Those who do, however, have often been labeled \u201cdeviant\u201d by society and have gradually come to believe it themselves. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id3054668\">Labeling theory<\/span><\/strong> examines the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society. Thus, what is considered deviant is determined not so much by the behaviors themselves or the people who commit them, but by the reactions of others to these behaviors. As a result, what is considered deviant changes over time and can vary significantly across cultures.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video for an example of how labeling theory is applied in the case of a cancer patient who is interested in using medical marijuana.<\/strong><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"Labeling theory\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/QHSvZZ1pnm0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>Sociologist Edwin Lemert expanded on the concepts of labeling theory and identified two types of deviance that affect identity formation. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1038620\">Primary deviance<\/span><\/strong> is a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual\u2019s self-image or interactions with others. Speeding is a deviant act, but receiving a speeding ticket generally does not make others view you as a bad person, nor does it alter your own self-concept. Individuals who engage in primary deviance still maintain a feeling of belonging in society and are likely to continue to conform to norms in the future.<\/p>\n<p>Sometimes, in more extreme cases, primary deviance can morph into secondary deviance. <strong>Secondary deviance<\/strong> occurs when a person\u2019s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society. The person may begin to take on and fulfill the role of a \u201cdeviant\u201d as an act of rebellion against the society that has labeled that individual as such. For example, consider a high school student who often cuts class and gets into fights. The student is reprimanded frequently by teachers and school staff, and soon enough, he develops a reputation as a \u201ctroublemaker.\u201d As a result, the student starts acting out even more and breaking more rules; he has adopted the \u201ctroublemaker\u201d label and embraced this deviant identity. Secondary deviance can be so strong that it bestows a <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1773248\">master status<\/span><\/strong> on an individual. A master status is a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual. Some people see themselves primarily as doctors, artists, or grandfathers. Others see themselves as beggars, convicts, or addicts.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<h3 class=\"title editable block\">Differential Association Theory<\/h3>\n<p>One core premise of culture and socialization is that individuals\u00a0<em>learn\u00a0<\/em>the values and norms of a given culture and that this learning process is lifelong. This is particularly helpful when we think about deviance because differential association theorists apply this core premise to deviance.\u00a0How many of you have committed a deviant act with someone else? A sibling? A friend? Consider something like underage drinking, which often occurs with peers and\/or with older siblings. By the time many students arrive on college campuses (still underage), underage drinking has become normalized so that is seems &#8220;everyone&#8221; is doing it.<\/p>\n<p>In criminology, <strong>differential association<\/strong> is a theory developed by Edwin Sutherland (1883\u20131950) proposing that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior. Differential association theory is the most talked-about of the learning theories of deviance. This theory focuses on\u00a0<em>how\u00a0<\/em>individuals learn to become criminals, but it does not concern itself with\u00a0<em>why\u00a0<\/em>they become criminals.<\/p>\n<p>Differential association predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding. This tendency will be reinforced if social association provides active people in the person\u2019s life. The earlier in life an individual comes under the influence high status people within a group, the more likely the individual is to follow in their footsteps. This does not deny that there may be practical motives for crime. If a person is hungry but has no money, there is a temptation to steal. But the use of \u201cneeds\u201d and \u201cvalues\u201d is equivocal. To some extent, both non-criminal and criminal individuals are motivated by the need for money and social gain.<\/p>\n<h4>Sutherland\u2019s Nine Points<\/h4>\n<p>The principles of Sutherland\u2019s theory of differential association can be summarized into nine key points.<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Criminal behavior is learned.<\/li>\n<li>Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.<\/li>\n<li>The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.<\/li>\n<li>When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes techniques of committing the crime (which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple) and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.<\/li>\n<li>The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.<\/li>\n<li>A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law.<\/li>\n<li>Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.<\/li>\n<li>The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.<\/li>\n<li>While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values, since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs and values.\n<div id=\"attachment_5476\" style=\"width: 250px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5476\" class=\"wp-image-5476\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/19133812\/720px-Criminal_Silhouette_L.svg_-300x250.png\" alt=\"a criminal silhouette icon\" width=\"240\" height=\"200\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5476\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4.<\/strong> Differential association theory predicts that an individual will choose the criminal path when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>An important quality of differential association theory is the frequency and intensity of interaction. The amount of time that a person is exposed to a particular definition and at what point the interaction began are both crucial for explaining criminal activity. The process of learning criminal behavior is really not any different from the process involved in learning any other type of behavior. Sutherland maintains that there is no unique learning process associated with acquiring non-normative ways of behaving.<\/p>\n<p>One very unique aspect of this theory is that it works to explain more than just juvenile delinquency and crime committed by lower class individuals. Since crime is understood to be learned behavior, the theory is also applicable to white-collar, corporate, and organized crime.<\/p>\n<p>One critique leveled against differential association stems from the idea that people can be independent, rational actors and individually motivated. This notion of one being a criminal based on his or her environment is problematic\u2014the theory does not take into account personality traits that might affect a person\u2019s susceptibility to these environmental influences.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033056797\">\n<section id=\"fs-id1169033069296\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>The Right to Vote<\/h3>\n<div style=\"width: 235px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204305\/Figure_07_02_04a.jpg\" alt=\"A woman is shown voting at a voting booth.\" width=\"225\" height=\"675\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5.\u00a0<\/strong>Should a former felony conviction permanently strip a U.S. citizen of the right to vote? (Photo courtesy of Joshin Yamada\/flickr.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2754738\">Before she lost her job as an administrative assistant, Leola Strickland postdated and mailed a handful of checks for amounts ranging from $90 to $500. By the time she was able to find a new job, the checks had bounced, and she was convicted of fraud under Mississippi law. Strickland pleaded guilty to a felony charge and repaid her debts; in return, she was spared from serving prison time.<\/p>\n<p>&lt;img class=&#8221;wp-image-3902&#8243; src=&#8221;https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/10144941\/Screen-Shot-2018-09-10-at-9.49.12-AM.png&#8221; alt=&#8221; Cartogram showing mishapen states to show the disproportionate number of persons disenfranchised in each state. The Southern States of Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, and Florida are exceptionally large with rates between 2 to 10%. The Northern states such as Washington, Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, and Wisconsin are shown to have lower rates between <strong>Figure 6. Cartogram of Total Disenfranchisement Rates by State, 2016. <\/strong>This Cartogram adjusts the size of the state to represent the number of persons disenfranchised in each state. You can see the the southeastern states have disproportionately high numbers of disenfranchised voters. Image from\u00a0 &#8220;6 million lost voters&#8221;, https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1461812\">Strickland appeared in court in 2001. More than ten years later, she is still feeling the sting of her sentencing. Why? Because Mississippi is one of twelve states in the United States that bans convicted felons from voting (ProCon, 2011).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2388714\">To Strickland, who said she had always voted, the news came as a great shock. She isn\u2019t alone. As of 2016, an estimated 6.1 million people are disenfranchised due to a felony conviction which equates to approximately 2.5 percent of the total U.S. voting age population or 1 in every 40 adults <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Uggen, C. Larson, R. and S. Shannon. (2016). 6 million lost voters. https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/\" id=\"return-footnote-135-8\" href=\"#footnote-135-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0These individuals include inmates, parolees, probationers, and even people who have never been jailed, such as Leola Strickland.<\/p>\n<p>While 1 in 40 voting age adults is disenfranchised, when we begin to break it down by racial and ethnic groups the picture becomes much more stark, as 1 in 13 African Americans are disenfranchised. Since felon disenfranchisement is a state-by-state law, African American disenfranchisement rates in Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia now exceed 20 percent of the adult voting age population (Uggen, Larson, &amp; Shannon, 2016).<\/p>\n<p>6 Million Lost Voters: State-Level Estimates of Felony Disenfranchisement, 2016 Christopher Uggen, Ryan Larson, and Sarah Shannon October 2016<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_3903\" style=\"width: 653px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3903\" class=\"wp-image-3903\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/10145015\/Screen-Shot-2018-09-10-at-9.49.56-AM.png\" alt=\"Map of U.S. showing number of disenfranchised African-Americans, shown as a percentage in each state. The southeastern states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and Florida have the most, with 20% + of the population. The northeastern states Maine, Vermont, and Illinois have lower rates of about 0% to 1.9%.\" width=\"643\" height=\"425\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3903\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 7.<\/strong> <strong>African American Felony Disenfranchisement Rates, 2016.<\/strong>\u00a0African American disenfranchisement numbers are high in many states, but in Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia, over 20% of the African American voting population is disenfranchised.\u00a0Image from\u00a0 &#8220;6 million lost voters&#8221;, https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>With two 21st century elections (2000 and 2016) in which the candidate with the most votes did not win (Al Gore in 2000 and Hillary Clinton in 2016), one of which led to an official recount (2000 Election), there has been increased pressure for states with prohibitive voting measures to examine them. Particularly in the State of Florida, a swing state, in which nearly 1.5 million individuals are currently disenfranchised post-sentence (Uggen, Larson &amp; Shannon, 2016). On January 23, 2018 Floridians for a Fair Democracy garnered 766,200 signatures to get an amendment on the 2018 ballot that would give the ability to vote back to Floridians with felony convictions that have completed their sentences. To see what happened track the results at the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.brennancenter.org\/our-work\/research-reports\/voting-rights-restoration-efforts-florida\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Brennan Center for Justice<\/a>, which includes state by state updates on disenfranchisement.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-id3592067\" class=\"exercise\">\n<section>\n<div id=\"fs-id1188650\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li>Is it fair to deny citizens the right to vote? What factors are important? Should this be a federal issue or a state issue? Using your sociological imagination, what other states&#8217; rights issues have become federal or constitutional issues and why?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<h2>Summary of Theoretical Explanations of Deviance<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033069324\">The three major sociological paradigms offer different explanations for the motivation behind deviance and crime. Functionalists point out that deviance is a social necessity since it reinforces norms by reminding people of the consequences of violating them. Violating norms can open society\u2019s eyes to injustice in the system.<\/p>\n<p>Conflict theorists argue that crime stems from a system of inequality that keeps those with power at the top and those without power at the bottom.<\/p>\n<p>Symbolic interactionists focus attention on the socially constructed nature of the labels related to deviance. Crime and deviance are learned from the environment and enforced or discouraged by those around us.<\/p>\n<p>Review each of the main theories associated with each perspective below.<\/p>\n<table id=\"eip-734\" style=\"height: 201px\" summary=\"Pictured is a chart, separated into three categories, that summarizes the different theories discussed in the chapter. The first category is functionalism theories. The first is Strain Theory, by Robert Merton, which asserts that deviance arises from a lack of ways to reach socially accepted goals by accepted methods. The second is Social Disorganization Theory, by University of Chicago researches, which asserts that deviance arises from weak social ties and a lack of social control; society has lost the ability to enforce norms with some groups. The third is Cultural Deviance Theory, by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, which asserts that deviance arises from conformity to the cultural norms of lower-class society. The second category is Conflict theories. The first is Unequal System, by Karl Marx, which asserts that deviance arises from inequalities in the wealth and power that come from the economic system. The second is Power Elite, by C. Wright Mills, which asserts that deviance arises from the ability of those in power to define deviance in ways that maintain the status quo. The third and last category is Symbolic Interactionism. The first is Labeling Theory, by Edwin Lemert, which asserts that deviance arises from the reactions of others, particularly those in power, who are able to determine labels. The second is Differential Association Theory, by Edwin Sutherlin, which asserts that deviance arises from learning and modeling deviant behavior seen in other people close to the individual. The third and last theory is Control Theory, by Travis Hirschi, which asserts that deviance arises from feelings of disconnection from society.\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\"><strong>Functionalism<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\"><strong>Associated Theorist<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\"><strong>Deviance arises from:<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\">Strain Theory<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\">Robert Merton<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\">A lack of ways to reach socially accepted goals by accepted methods<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 39px\">\n<td style=\"height: 39px;width: 126.285px\">Social Disorganization Theory<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 39px;width: 140.729px\">University of Chicago researchers<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 39px;width: 527.396px\">Weak social ties and a lack of social control; society has lost the ability to enforce norms with some groups<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 26px\">\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 126.285px\">Social Control Theory<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 140.729px\">Travis Hirschi<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 527.396px\">Deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society; social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\"><strong>Conflict Theory<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\"><strong>Associated Theorist<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\"><strong>Deviance arises from:<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\">Unequal System<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\">Karl Marx<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\">Inequalities in wealth and power that arise from the economic system<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\">Power Elite<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\">C. Wright Mills<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\">Ability of those in power to define deviance in ways that maintain the status quo<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 26px\">\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 126.285px\"><strong>Symbolic Interactionism<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 140.729px\"><strong>Associated Theorist<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 527.396px\"><strong>Deviance arises from:<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 12px\">\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 126.285px\">Labeling Theory<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 140.729px\">Edwin Lemert<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 12px;width: 527.396px\">The reactions of others, particularly those in power who are able to determine labels<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 26px\">\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 126.285px\">Differential Association Theory<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 140.729px\">Edwin Sutherlin<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 26px;width: 527.396px\">Learning and modeling deviant behavior seen in other people close to the individual<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\">Watch this video to review some of the major theories covered in this module. You&#8217;ll examine the symbolic interactionist paradigms of differential association and labeling theory, and also the functionalist paradigm of strain theory.<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-5\" title=\"Perspectives on deviance: Differential association, labeling theory, and strain theory\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/MSucylf4KhY?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-id3592067\" class=\"exercise\">\n<section>\n<div id=\"fs-id1188650\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169033099074\">Choose a public figure who has effected a major, controversial political and or legal change. To what extant were this person&#8217;s actions or beliefs considered deviant when they first emerged? How can the process by which they were eventually accepted and became new norms be explained by applying the major sociological paradigms? What norms needed to be re-examined? Which paradigm seems most useful? Why?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>conflict theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance<\/dd>\n<dt>deviant subcultures theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>several theories that posit poverty and other community conditions give rise to certain subcultures through which adolescents acquire values that promote deviant behavior<\/dd>\n<dt>differential association theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance<\/dd>\n<dt>doubly deviant:<\/dt>\n<dd>a term used to refer to females who have broken the law and gender norms about appropriate female behavior<\/dd>\n<dt>labeling theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>the idea that the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society affects how a person self-identifies and behaves; related to self-fulfilling prophecy<\/dd>\n<dt>master status:<\/dt>\n<dd>a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual<\/dd>\n<dt>power elite:<\/dt>\n<dd>a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources<\/dd>\n<dt>primary deviance:<\/dt>\n<dd>a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual\u2019s self-image or interactions with others<\/dd>\n<dt>secondary deviance:<\/dt>\n<dd>deviance that occurs when a person\u2019s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society<\/dd>\n<dt>secondary victimization:<\/dt>\n<dd>occurs when the women\u2019s own sexual history and her willingness to consent are questioned in the process of laying charges and reaching a conviction<\/dd>\n<dt>social control theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society<\/dd>\n<dt>social disorganization theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control<\/dd>\n<dt>strain theory:<\/dt>\n<dd>a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable\u00a0means to reach those goals<\/dd>\n<dt>twin myths of rape:<\/dt>\n<dd>the first myth is that women are untrustworthy and tend to lie about assault out of malice toward men, as a way of getting back at them for personal grievances and the second myth is that women will say \u201cno\u201d to sexual relations when they really mean \u201cyes\u201d<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-135\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Theories of Social Deviance. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sarah Hoiland and Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sarah Hoiland and Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Family dinner. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: skeeze. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: pixabay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/family-eating-at-the-table-dining-619142\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/family-eating-at-the-table-dining-619142\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction and objectives, modified from Introduction to Sociology 2e. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><li><strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Get Budding. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Unsplash. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/photos\/Bu6BSErSL_M\">https:\/\/unsplash.com\/photos\/Bu6BSErSL_M<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: https:\/\/unsplash.com\/license<\/li><li>Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:OY7OWJCz@6\/Theoretical-Perspectives-on-Deviance\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:OY7OWJCz@6\/Theoretical-Perspectives-on-Deviance<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><li>William Little. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: BC Open Textbooks. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/introductiontosociology\/chapter\/chapter7-deviance-crime-and-social-control\/\">https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/introductiontosociology\/chapter\/chapter7-deviance-crime-and-social-control\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Introduction to Sociology. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Criminal Silhouette. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Criminal_Silhouette_L.svg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Criminal_Silhouette_L.svg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Theory &amp; Deviance: Crash Course Sociology #19. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CrashCourse. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=06IS_X7hWWI&#038;index=20&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=06IS_X7hWWI&#038;index=20&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Pew Research Data, 5 facts about crime in the U.S.. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: John Gramlich. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Pew Research Center. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2018\/01\/30\/5-facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/\">http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2018\/01\/30\/5-facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li><li>labeling theory video. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sociology Live!. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QHSvZZ1pnm0\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QHSvZZ1pnm0<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>6 million lost voters images. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Uggen, C. Larson, R. and S. Shannon. (2016). . <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\">https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Sentencing Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>All Rights Reserved<\/em><\/li><li>Perspectives on Deviance: Differential Association, Labeling Theory, and Strain Theory. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Jeffrey Walsh. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Khan Academy. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=MSucylf4KhY\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=MSucylf4KhY<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-135-1\">Holder, S. 2018. What happened to crime in Camden? City Lab. <a href=\"#return-footnote-135-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-135-2\">Edwin H. Sutherland, ASA Presidents, ASA. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.asanet.org\/edwin-h-sutherland\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/www.asanet.org\/edwin-h-sutherland<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-135-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-135-3\">\"White-collar crime.\" Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/wex\/white-collar_crime\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/wex\/white-collar_crime<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-135-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-135-4\">Gramlich, J. \"Five facts about crime,\" Pew Research Center.(2018)\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2019\/10\/17\/facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2019\/10\/17\/facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-135-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-135-5\">Lopez, G. (2016). Why are black Americans less affected,\" Vox. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.vox.com\/2016\/1\/25\/10826560\/opioid-epidemic-race-black\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.vox.com\/2016\/1\/25\/10826560\/opioid-epidemic-race-black<\/a>  <a href=\"#return-footnote-135-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-135-6\">Dutton, Z. (2014). Abortion's racial gap. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/health\/archive\/2014\/09\/abortions-racial-gap\/380251\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/health\/archive\/2014\/09\/abortions-racial-gap\/380251\/<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-135-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-135-7\">Andrews, K. (2017) The dark history of Latina sterilization. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.panoramas.pitt.edu\/health-and-society\/dark-history-forced-sterilization-latina-women\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.panoramas.pitt.edu\/health-and-society\/dark-history-forced-sterilization-latina-women<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-135-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-135-8\">Uggen, C. Larson, R. and S. Shannon. (2016). 6 million lost voters. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.sentencingproject.org\/publications\/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016\/<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-135-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Theories of Social Deviance\",\"author\":\"Sarah Hoiland and Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Introduction and objectives, modified from Introduction to Sociology 2e\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d\/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"\",\"author\":\"Get Budding\",\"organization\":\"Unsplash\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/photos\/Bu6BSErSL_M\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/license\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:OY7OWJCz@6\/Theoretical-Perspectives-on-Deviance\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Theory & Deviance: Crash Course Sociology #19\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"CrashCourse\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=06IS_X7hWWI&index=20&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Sarah Hoiland and Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Family dinner\",\"author\":\"skeeze\",\"organization\":\"pixabay\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/family-eating-at-the-table-dining-619142\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"William Little\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"BC Open Textbooks\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/introductiontosociology\/chapter\/chapter7-deviance-crime-and-social-control\/\",\"project\":\"Introduction to Sociology\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Pew Research Data, 5 facts about crime in the U.S.\",\"author\":\"John Gramlich\",\"organization\":\"Pew Research Center\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2018\/01\/30\/5-facts-about-crime-in-the-u-s\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"labeling theory video\",\"author\":\"Sociology Live!\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QHSvZZ1pnm0\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"6 million lost voters images\",\"author\":\"Uggen, C. 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