{"id":211,"date":"2016-05-01T01:01:59","date_gmt":"2016-05-01T01:01:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontosociology-waymaker\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=211"},"modified":"2020-07-03T22:54:54","modified_gmt":"2020-07-03T22:54:54","slug":"gender","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/chapter\/gender\/","title":{"raw":"Gender","rendered":"Gender"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define and differentiate between sex and gender<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss what is meant by gender identity; differentiate between cisgender,\u00a0transgender,\u00a0binary, and non-binary gender identities<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the influence of socialization on gender roles in the United States<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain and give examples of sexism<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe terms \u201csex\u201d and \u201cgender\u201d refer to two different identifiers. Sex denotes biological characteristics differentiating males and females, while gender denotes social and cultural characteristics of masculine and feminine behavior. As you'll read in this section, sex and gender are not always synchronous.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5989\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"494\"]<img class=\"wp-image-5989\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/27193754\/28005690402_d0b5cc7ccf_o.jpg\" alt=\"Shown here is a gender-reveal cake that reads &quot;He or she...cut to see!&quot;. \" width=\"494\" height=\"371\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Some parents will host a gender reveal party when the learn the sex of their baby. Sometimes they use cakes dyed with pink or blue food coloring to announce they are having a girl or boy when they cut the cake and reveal the inside color. These gender reveal parties often conflate the baby's sex with the baby's gender in a way that doesn't account for transgender, genderqueer, or other gender non-confirming experiences. (Photo courtesy of Jim\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nYou'll also read more about gender, and the ways that children become aware of gender roles in their earliest years. Children come to understand and perform these gender roles through socialization, which occurs through\u00a0the following four major agents of socialization: family, education, peer groups, and mass media. These roles are reflected in our culture and result in the differentiation of males and females.\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Consider the following segment from <em>Ellen<\/em>\u00a0to examine how gender stereotyping is utilized in advertising<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=eCyw3prIWhc[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n<h2>Sex and Gender<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"156\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204421\/Figure_12_01_01a.jpg\" alt=\"A man and woman are shown walking in the wind, man in front of woman.\" width=\"156\" height=\"104\" \/> <strong>Figure 2. <\/strong>Sex describes the physical differences between males and females, while gender is a concept describing a person's internal perception about their sex. (Photo courtesy of FaceMePLS\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSociologists and most other social scientists view\u00a0sex and gender as conceptually distinct. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1520798\">Sex<\/span><\/strong> refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex characteristics (organs, chromosomes, and hormones) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2021309\">Gender<\/span><\/strong> is a person\u2019s deeply held internal perception of their behavior and attitudes as related to social expectations and accompanying physiological aspects of sex.\u00a0A person\u2019s sex, as determined by his or her biology, does not always correspond with his or her gender. Therefore, the terms <em>sex<\/em> and <em>gender<\/em> are not interchangeable.\r\n<h3>Sex<\/h3>\r\nA baby boy who is born with male genitalia will be identified as male. Since the term\u00a0<em>sex<\/em>\u00a0refers to biological or physical distinctions, characteristics of sex do not vary significantly between different human societies.\u00a0Males have a penis, testes, and XY chromosomes. During puberty, most males will experience changes in testicle, scrotum, and penis size and color, as well as voice dropping, and underarm, leg, and facial hair growth.\u00a0Generally, persons of the female sex\u00a0have a vagina, ovaries, and XX chromosomes. During puberty, most females will menstruate, develop breasts that can lactate, and grow vaginal, underarm, and leg hair.\u00a0Both sexes might experience increased sweating, acne, and mood changes, among other biological changes, during puberty.\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2080336\">Males typically have XY sex chromosomes, and females XX. These chromosomes trigger the development of the sex steroids, of which testosterone is found in higher levels in males and estradiol in higher levels in females.\u00a0As you read in the opening example about Caster Semenya, some females have naturally occurring high levels of testosterone, which becomes an issue for elite athletes when milliseconds matter because increased testosterone levels can be attributed to performance boosts of 10 to 13 percent.[footnote]Block, M. 2016. \"The sensitive question of intersex athletes. NPR. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetorch\/2016\/08\/16\/490236620\/south-african-star-raises-sensitive-questions-about-intersex-athletes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetorch\/2016\/08\/16\/490236620\/south-african-star-raises-sensitive-questions-about-intersex-athletes<\/a>. [\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<strong>Intersex\u00a0<\/strong>refers to a combination of primary sex characteristics, an umbrella term that can describe any individual who doesn't fit binary sexual distinctions. It can also be referred to as Differences of Sexual Development (DSD). Intersex or DSD individuals were once called hermaphrodites, a term that is no longer used. According to the Human Rights Watch, approximately 1.7 percent of babies are born with chromosomes, gonads, internal or external sex organs that are atypical. Some of these are apparent at birth and others do not show themselves until puberty, and irreversible surgeries can cause infertility, pain, loss of sensation, and, more importantly, can take away an individual's choice when they are performed on children.[footnote]\"U.S.: Harmful surgery on intersex children,\" 2017. Human Rights Watch. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2017\/07\/25\/us-harmful-surgery-intersex-children\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2017\/07\/25\/us-harmful-surgery-intersex-children<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nRead and watch this\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/feature\/nbc-out\/you-can-t-undo-surgery-more-parents-intersex-babies-are-n923271\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NBC story about Ori, an intersex child<\/a>, and how they (the neutral pronoun for Ori) feel about cosmetic surgery.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Gender<\/h3>\r\nGender is deeply cultural. Like race, it is a social construction with real consequences, particularly for those who do not conform to gender binaries.\u00a0In order to describe gender as a concept, we need to expand the language we use to describe gender beyond \"masculine\" or \"feminine.\"\u00a0<strong>Gender identity<\/strong>, or the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be woman, man, or genderqueer. <strong>C<\/strong><strong>isgender\u00a0<\/strong>is an umbrella terms used to describe\u00a0people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex, while <strong>transgender\u00a0<\/strong>is a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex. <strong>Gender<\/strong><strong> expression<\/strong>, or how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and interactions) can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum.\r\n<h3>Gender Identity<\/h3>\r\n<section id=\"h21201_03\">Although gender has traditionally been considered in binary terms (male or female), increasingly gender is being seen as a spectrum; however, our vocabulary is still limited in terms of the ways in which we describe gender identity.\u00a0<\/section><section>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4696\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"277\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4696\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/12143255\/5387638645_10c3fa400a_o-526x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Identity spectrum showing a continuum between female and male for sex, another continuum for gender identity between woman and man, a continuum for gender expression, and another continuum for sexual orientation.\" width=\"277\" height=\"539\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. This identity spectrum shows the fluidity between sex, gender identity, gender expression, and sexual orientation.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/section><section>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2368079\">Individuals who identify with the role that is the different from their biological sex are called <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1873139\">transgender<\/span><\/strong>. Transgender is not synonymous with sexuality, a distinction that will be made in this module.\u00a0Approximately 1.4 million U.S. adults or .6 percent of the population are transgender according to a 2016 report.[footnote]Flores, A., J. Herman, G. Gates, and T. N.T. Brown. \"How many adults identify as transgender.\" The Williams Institute.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/How-Many-Adults-Identify-as-Transgender-in-the-United-States.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/How-Many-Adults-Identify-as-Transgender-in-the-United-States.pdf<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2864557\">Transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy\u2014so that their physical being is better aligned with gender identity\u2014are often called <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1254695\">transsexual<\/span><\/strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1254695\"> (transexual man or transexual woman), although some find this term outdated and prefer the term transgender<\/span>. They may also be known as male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM). Not all transgender individuals choose to alter their bodies; many will maintain their original anatomy but may present themselves to society as another gender. This is typically done by adopting the dress, hairstyle, mannerisms, or other characteristic typically assigned to another gender. It is important to note that people who cross-dress, or wear clothing that is traditionally assigned to a gender different are not the same as those identifying as trans.\u00a0Cross-dressing is typically a form of self-expression, entertainment, or personal style, and it is not necessarily an expression against one\u2019s assigned gender (APA, 2008).<\/p>\r\nSome people choose not to adhere to conventional expressions of masculinity or femininity and are considered gender non-conforming. Non-binary and genderqueer are other terms used by individuals who feel that their gender identity and\/or gender expression fall outside the categories of man and woman.[footnote]GLAAD Media Reference Guide - Transgender. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.glaad.org\/reference\/transgender\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.glaad.org\/reference\/transgender<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nAfter years of controversy over the treatment of sex and gender in the <em>American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders<\/em> (Drescher, 2010), the most recent edition, DSM-5, responds to allegations that the term \u201cgender identity disorder\u201d is stigmatizing by replacing it with \u201c<strong>gender dysphoria<\/strong>.\u201d Gender identity disorder as a diagnostic category stigmatized the patient by implying there was something \u201cdisordered\u201d about them. Gender dysphoria, on the other hand, removes some of that stigma by taking the word \"disorder\" out while maintaining a category that will protect patient access to care, including hormone therapy and gender reassignment surgery. In the DSM-5, Gender dysphoria is a condition of people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. For a person to be diagnosed with gender dysphoria, there must be a marked difference between the individual\u2019s expressed\/experienced gender and the gender others would assign him or her, and it must continue for at least six months. In children, the desire to be of the other gender must be present and verbalized. This diagnosis is now a separate category from sexual dysfunction and paraphilia, another important part of removing stigma from the diagnosis (APA, 2013).\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2317293\">Changing the clinical description may contribute to a larger acceptance of transgender people in society. A 2017 poll showed that 54 percent of Americans believe gender is determined by sex at birth and 32 percent say society as \"gone too far\" in accepting transgender people; views are sharply divided along political and religious lines.[footnote]Salam, M. \"For transgender Americans, the political gets even more personal\" (2018). The New York Times. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/10\/26\/us\/transgender-lgbt-rights-trump.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/10\/26\/us\/transgender-lgbt-rights-trump.html<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\nStudies show that people who identify as transgender are twice as likely to experience assault or discrimination as non-transgender individuals, and they are also one and a half times more likely to experience intimidation (Giovanniello, 2013; National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs, 2010). Trans women of color are most likely be to victims of abuse. A practice called \"deadnaming\" by the American Civil Liberties Union, whereby trans people who are murdered are referred to by their birth name and gender, is a discriminatory tool that effectively erases a person's trans identity, and also prevents investigations into their deaths and knowledge of their deaths.[footnote]Strangio, C. 2018. \"Deadly violence against transgender people.\" ACLU. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/blog\/lgbt-rights\/criminal-justice-reform-lgbt-people\/deadly-violence-against-transgender-people-rise\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/blog\/lgbt-rights\/criminal-justice-reform-lgbt-people\/deadly-violence-against-transgender-people-rise<\/a>.[\/footnote] Organizations such as the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs and Global Action for Trans Equality work to prevent, respond to, and end all types of violence against transgender, transsexual, and homosexual individuals.\u00a0\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2018\/06\/11\/us\/sproj-iyw-anti-violence-project-transgender-violence\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read about organizations educating the public about gender identity and\u00a0empowering transgender and transsexual individuals<\/a>. These organizations hope that\u00a0 educating the public will help lead to the end of this violence.\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h3>Gender Expression<\/h3>\r\nU.S. society allows for some level of flexibility when it comes to acting out gender roles or gender expression. To a certain extent, men can assume some feminine roles and women can assume some masculine roles without interfering with their gender identity.\u00a0Males who work as teachers, nurses, and social workers, traditionally female-dominated occupations, often adopt norms that are traditionally feminine.\u00a0Many women in the U.S. workforce who are in male-dominated occupations must take on more traditionally masculine forms of dress (i.e., fire department or police department or military) and often adopt a set of behaviors that fit that job requirements that are traditionally masculine. In most cases, the gender identity remains cisgender although the gender expression might be more fluid.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_4697\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"223\"]<img class=\"wp-image-4697\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/12150042\/377px-We-Wa_a_Zuni_berdache_full_length_portrait_-_NARA_-_523798-189x300.jpg\" alt=\"Black and white photo of a Native American Zuni man dressed in tribal attire that would typically be worn by a female..\" width=\"223\" height=\"354\" \/> <strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. A portrait of We-Wa, a Zuni berdache, taken sometime in the late 1800s.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe dichotomous view of gender (the notion that someone is either male or female) is specific to certain cultures and is not universal. In some cultures gender is viewed as being fluid. In the past, some anthropologists used the term <em>berdache<\/em> to refer to individuals who occasionally or permanently dressed and lived as a different gender. The practice has been noted among certain Native American tribes (Jacobs, Thomas, and Lang, 1997). The more current term used by indigenous people in the United States is \"Two-Spirit\" (Estrada, 2011). Also, in this regard, some of these indigenous groups believe\u00a0that there are\u00a0at least four genders.\u00a0In some tribes, Two-Spirits hold positions of higher social status because of they were believed to possess supernatural powers. In general, Native American groups viewed sex and gender as a spectrum as opposed to the binary view held by European colonists.\r\n\r\nSamoan culture accepts what Samoans refer to as a \u201cthird gender.\u201d <em>Fa\u2019afafine<\/em>, which translates as \u201cthe way of the woman,\u201d is a term used to describe individuals who are born biologically male but embody both masculine and feminine traits. Fa\u2019afafines are considered an important part of Samoan culture. Individuals from other cultures may mislabel them as homosexuals because fa\u2019afafines have a varied sexual life that may include men and women (Poasa, 1992).\u00a0As we will see in this module, the tendency to label one's sexuality because of sex and gender can lead to many misconceptions and inaccurate labels.\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Sex, Gender, and the Legal System<\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"note sociology-policy-debate\">\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2363950\">The terms <em>sex<\/em> and <em>gender<\/em> have not always been differentiated in the English language. It was not until the 1950s that U.S. and British psychologists and other professionals working with intersex and transsexual patients formally began distinguishing between sex and gender. Since then, psychological and physiological professionals have increasingly used the term gender (Moi, 2005). By the end of the twenty-first century, expanding the proper usage of the term <em>gender<\/em> to everyday language became more challenging\u2014particularly where legal language is concerned. In an effort to clarify usage of the terms <em>sex<\/em> and <em>gender<\/em>, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonio Scalia wrote in a 1994 briefing, \u201cThe word gender has acquired the new and useful connotation of cultural or attitudinal characteristics (as opposed to physical characteristics) distinctive to the sexes. That is to say, gender is to sex as feminine is to female and masculine is to male\u201d (<em>J.E.B. v. Alabama<\/em>, 144 S. Ct. 1436 [1994]).<\/p>\r\nSupreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg had a different take, however. Viewing the words as synonymous, she freely swapped them in her briefings so as to avoid having the word \u201csex\u201d pop up too often. It is thought that her secretary supported this practice by suggestions to Ginsberg that \u201cthose nine men\u201d (the other Supreme Court justices), \u201chear that word and their first association is not the way you want them to be thinking\u201d (Case, 1995). This anecdote reveals that both sex and gender are actually socially defined variables whose definitions change over time.\r\n\r\nIn 2018, thirteen state attorneys general and governors of three other states filed amicus briefs asked the Supreme Court to overturn a federal appeals court's ruling protecting transgender people from employment discrimination by Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which prohibits sex discrimination in employment. This would also go against three dozen federal appeals court decisions protecting the rights of transgender people in the workplace.[footnote]\"16 states ask supreme court to limit transgender\" (2018). <a href=\"https:\/\/transequality.org\/press\/releases\/16-states-ask-supreme-court-to-limit-transgender-legal-protections\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/transequality.org\/press\/releases\/16-states-ask-supreme-court-to-limit-transgender-legal-protections<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nThe hit series\u00a0<em>Orange is the New Black\u00a0<\/em>(2013-present) has brought issues of trans people in the U.S. prison system into everyday life. Award-winning actor Laverne Cox, a trans advocate and the first openly transgender person to be nominated for an Emmy Award for acting, through the character of Sophia Burset, has brought issues of trans women into millions of households. Recently, the U.S. Department of Justice revised its guidelines for federal prisons eliminating \"will recommend housing by gender identity when appropriate\" with \"will use biological sex as the initial determination\" for facility assignment for transgender inmates\" [footnote]Gathright, J. 2018. \"The guidelines for protection of transgender prisoners just got rewritten.\" NPR. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2018\/05\/12\/610692321\/the-guidelines-for-protection-of-transgender-prisoners-just-got-rewritten\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2018\/05\/12\/610692321\/the-guidelines-for-protection-of-transgender-prisoners-just-got-rewritten<\/a>.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch the first half of this video to review the differences between sex and gender.<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Kqt-_ILgv5c[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"sh12_01\" class=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div id=\"sh1201_ex1\" class=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"sh_prob01\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"sh1201_ex1\" class=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"sh_prob01\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Why do you think many doctors and parents have opted for cosmetic surgery for intersex children? What are the ethical implications of irreversible surgery?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What do you think are some of the concerns for non-binary individuals in the workplace, in the military, in schools, in prisons?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In what ways does gender identity and gender expression become politicized?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2>Gender and Socialization<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"200\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204429\/Figure_12_02_01a.jpg\" alt=\"Woman in 1950s or 1960s dress placing coffee on buffet table in a formally set dining room.\" width=\"200\" height=\"495\" \/> <strong>Figure 5.\u00a0<\/strong>Traditional images of U.S. gender roles reinforce the idea that women should be subordinate to men. (Photo courtesy of Sport Suburban\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<section id=\"h21202_01\">\r\n<h3>Gender Roles<\/h3>\r\nAs we grow, we learn how to behave from those around us. In this socialization process, children are introduced to certain roles that are typically linked to their biological sex. The term <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2265759\">gender role<\/span><\/strong> refers to society\u2019s concept of how\u00a0people\u00a0are expected to look and behave based on socially created norms for masculinity and femininity.\u00a0In U.S. culture, masculine roles are usually associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles are usually associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination.\r\n\r\nGender role socialization begins at birth and continues throughout the life course.\u00a0Our society is quick to outfit male infants in blue and girls in pink, even applying these color-coded gender labels while a baby is in the womb.\u00a0This color differentiation is quite new\u2014prior to the 1940s, boys wore pink and girls wore blue. In the 19th century and early 20th century, boys and girls wore dresses (mostly white) until the age of 6 or 7, which was also time for the first haircut.[footnote]Maglaty, J. 2011. \"When did girls first start wearing pink?\" The Smithsonian. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/arts-culture\/when-did-girls-start-wearing-pink-1370097\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/arts-culture\/when-did-girls-start-wearing-pink-1370097\/<\/a>. [\/footnote]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"200\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204425\/CNX_Soc2e_Figure_12_01_004.jpg\" alt=\"This image is of a kneeling man with a small child holding a mitt who is learning to play baseball.\" width=\"200\" height=\"318\" \/> <strong>Figure 6.\u00a0<\/strong>Fathers tend to be more involved when their sons engage in gender-appropriate activities such as sports. (Photo courtesy of Shawn Lea\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1737544\">Thus, gender, like race is a social construction with very real consequences.\u00a0The drive to adhere to masculine and feminine gender roles continues later in life. Men tend to outnumber women in professions such as law enforcement, the military, and politics. Women tend to outnumber men in care-related occupations such as childcare, healthcare (even though the term \u201cdoctor\u201d still conjures the image of a man), and social work. These occupational roles are examples of typical U.S. male and female behavior, derived from our culture\u2019s traditions. Adherence to them demonstrates fulfillment of social expectations but not necessarily personal preference (Diamond, 2002).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Gender and Socialization<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1684978\">The phrase \u201cboys will be boys\u201d is often used to justify behavior such as pushing, shoving, or other forms of aggression from young boys. The phrase implies that such behavior is unchangeable and something that is part of a boy\u2019s nature. Aggressive behavior, when it does not inflict significant harm, is often accepted from boys and men because it is congruent with the cultural script for masculinity. The \u201cscript\u201d written by society is in some ways similar to a script written by a playwright. Just as a playwright expects actors to adhere to a prescribed script, society expects women and men to behave according to the expectations of their respective gender roles.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"h31202_01\">\r\n<h3>Socialization<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2617082\">Children learn at a young age that there are distinct expectations for boys and girls. Cross-cultural studies reveal that children are aware of gender roles by age two or three. At four or five, most children are firmly entrenched in culturally appropriate gender roles (Kane, 1996). Children acquire these roles through socialization, a process in which people learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal values, beliefs, and attitudes.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"250\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204430\/Figure_12_02_02a.jpg\" alt=\"A woman riding a pink motorcycle is shown here.\" width=\"250\" height=\"399\" \/> <strong>Figure 7.\u00a0<\/strong>Although our society may have a stereotype that associates motorcycles with men, female bikers demonstrate that a woman\u2019s place extends far beyond the kitchen in the modern United States. (Photo courtesy of Robert Couse-Baker\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nFor example, society often views riding a motorcycle as a masculine activity and, therefore, considers it to be part of the male gender role. Attitudes such as this are typically based on stereotypes, which are oversimplified notions about members of a group. Gender stereotyping involves overgeneralizing about the attitudes, traits, or behavior patterns of women or men. For example, women may be thought of as too timid or weak to ride a motorcycle.\r\n\r\nMimicking the actions of significant others is the first step in the development of a separate sense of self (Mead, 1934). Recall that according to Mead's theory of development, children up to the age of two are in the preparatory stage, in which they copy actions of those around them, then the play stage (between 2-6) when they play pretend and have a difficult time following established rules, and then the game stage (ages seven and up), when they can play by a set of rules and understand different roles.\r\n\r\nLike adults, children become agents who actively facilitate and apply normative gender expectations to those around them. When children do not conform to the appropriate gender role, they may face negative sanctions such as being criticized or marginalized by their peers. Though many of these sanctions are informal, they can be quite severe. For example, a girl who wishes to take karate class instead of dance lessons may be called a \u201ctomboy,\u201d and face difficulty gaining acceptance from both male and female peer groups (Ready, 2001). Boys, especially, are subject to intense ridicule for gender nonconformity (Coltrane and Adams, 2004; Kimmel, 2000).\r\n\r\nOne way children learn gender roles is through play. Parents typically supply boys with trucks, toy guns, and superhero paraphernalia, which are active toys that promote motor skills, aggression, and solitary play. Daughters are often given dolls and dress-up apparel that foster nurturing, social proximity, and role play. Studies have shown that children will most likely choose to play with \u201cgender appropriate\u201d toys (or same-gender toys) even when cross-gender toys are available, because parents give children positive feedback (in the form of praise, involvement, and physical closeness) for gender normative behavior (Caldera, Huston, and O\u2019Brien, 1998). Charles Cooley's concept of the looking-glass self applies to gender socialization because it is through this interactive, interpretive process with the social world that individuals develop a sense of gender identity.\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2011383\">Gender socialization occurs through four major agents of socialization: family, schools, peer groups, and mass media. Each agent reinforces gender roles by creating and maintaining normative expectations for gender-specific behavior. Exposure also occurs through secondary agents such as religion and the workplace. Repeated exposure to these agents over time leads men and women into a false sense that they are acting naturally rather than following a socially constructed role.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1301053\">Family is the first agent of socialization. There is considerable evidence that parents socialize sons and daughters differently. Generally speaking, girls are given more latitude to step outside of their prescribed gender role (Coltrane and Adams, 2004; Kimmel, 2000; Raffaelli and Ontai, 2004). However, differential socialization typically results in greater privileges afforded to sons. For instance, boys are allowed more autonomy and independence at an earlier age than daughters. They may be given fewer restrictions on appropriate clothing, dating habits, or curfew. Sons are also often free from performing domestic duties such as cleaning or cooking and other household tasks that are considered feminine. Daughters are limited by their expectation to be passive and nurturing, generally obedient, and to assume domestic responsibilities.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2660068\">Even when parents set gender equality as a goal, there may be underlying indications of inequality. For example, boys may be asked to take out the garbage or perform other tasks that require strength or toughness, while girls may be asked to fold laundry or perform duties that require neatness and care. It has been found that fathers are firmer in their expectations for gender conformity than are mothers, and their expectations are stronger for sons than they are for daughters (Kimmel, 2000). This is true in many types of activities, including preference for toys, play styles, discipline, chores, and personal achievements. As a result, boys tend to be particularly attuned to their father\u2019s disapproval when engaging in an activity that might be considered feminine, like dancing or singing (Coltraine and Adams, 2008). Parental socialization and normative expectations also vary along lines of social class, race, and ethnicity. African American families, for instance, are more likely than Caucasians to model an egalitarian role structure for their children (Staples and Johnson, 2004).<\/p>\r\nThe reinforcement of gender roles and stereotypes continues once a child reaches school age. Until very recently, schools were rather explicit in their efforts to stratify boys and girls. The first step toward stratification was segregation. Girls were encouraged to take home economics or humanities courses and boys to take math and science. Studies suggest that gender socialization still occurs in schools today, perhaps in less obvious forms (Lips, 2004). Teachers may not even realize they are acting in ways that reproduce gender differentiated behavior patterns. Yet any time they ask students to arrange their seats or line up according to gender, teachers may be asserting that boys and girls should be treated differently (Thorne, 1993).\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2868948\">Schools subtly convey messages to girls indicating that they are less intelligent or less important than boys. For example, in a study of teacher responses to male and female students, data indicated that teachers praised male students far more than female students. Teachers interrupted girls more often and gave boys more opportunities to expand on their ideas (Sadker and Sadker, 1994). Further, in social as well as academic situations, teachers have traditionally treated boys and girls in opposite ways, reinforcing a sense of competition rather than collaboration (Thorne, 1993). Boys are also permitted a greater degree of freedom to break rules or commit minor acts of deviance, whereas girls are expected to follow rules carefully and adopt an obedient role (Ready, 2001).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1763733\">Mass media serves as another significant agent of gender socialization. In television and movies, women tend to have less significant roles and are often portrayed as wives or mothers. When women are given a lead role, it often falls into one of two extremes: a wholesome, saint-like figure or a malevolent, hypersexual figure (Etaugh and Bridges, 2003). Gender inequalities are also pervasive in children\u2019s movies (Smith, 2008). Research indicates that in the ten top-grossing G-rated movies released between 1991 and 2013, nine out of ten characters were male (Smith, 2008).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2195594\">Television commercials and other forms of advertising also reinforce inequality and gender-based stereotypes. Women are almost exclusively present in ads promoting cooking, cleaning, or childcare-related products (Davis, 1993). Think about the last time you saw a man star in a dishwasher or laundry detergent commercial. In general, women are underrepresented in roles that involve leadership, intelligence, or a balanced psyche. Of particular concern is the depiction of women in ways that are dehumanizing, especially in music videos. Even in mainstream advertising, however, themes intermingling violence and sexuality are quite common (Kilbourne, 2000).<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch the following video to think more about the social construct of gender.<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/gkilQ87UUj8[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2681129\">Watch <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Yb1_4FPtzrI&amp;index=33&amp;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this CrashCourse video<\/a> to learn more about gender stratification.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Sexism<\/h3>\r\nGender stereotypes form the basis of sexism. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1332231\">Sexism<\/span><\/strong> refers to prejudiced beliefs that value one sex over another. Like racism, sexism has been a part of U.S. culture for centuries. Here is a brief timeline of \"firsts\" in the United States:\r\n<ul id=\"import-auto-id1738674\">\r\n \t<li>Before 1809\u2014Women could not execute a will<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Before 1840\u2014Women were not allowed to own or control property<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Before 1920\u2014Women were not permitted to vote<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Before 1963\u2014Employers could legally pay a woman less than a man for the same work<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Before 1973\u2014Women did not have the right to a safe and legal abortion<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Before 1981\u2014No woman had served on the U.S. Supreme Court<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Before 2009\u2014No African American woman had been CEO of a U.S. Fortune 500 corporation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Before 2016\u2014No Latina had served as a U.S. Senator<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Before 2017\u2014No openly transgender person had been elected in a state legislature<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nWhile it is illegal in the United States when practiced as overt discrimination, unequal treatment of women continues to pervade social life. It should be noted that discrimination based on sex occurs at both the micro- and macro-levels. Many sociologists focus on discrimination that is built into the social structure; this type of discrimination is known as institutional discrimination (Pincus, 2008).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204432\/Figure_12_02_04a.jpg\" alt=\"A woman is shown kneeling on a bathroom floor scrubbing a toilet.\" width=\"300\" height=\"411\" \/> <strong>Figure 8.\u00a0<\/strong>In some cultures, women do all of the household chores with no help from men, as doing housework is a sign of weakness, considered by society as a feminine trait. (Photo courtesy of Evil Erin\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLike racism, sexism has very real consequences. Stereotypes about females, such as being \"too soft\" to make financial decisions about things like wills or property, have morphed into a lack of female leadership in Fortune 500 Companies (only 24 were headed up by women in 2018!). We also see gender discrepancies in politics and in legal matters, as the laws regarding women's reproductive health are made by a largely male legislative body at both the state and federal levels.\r\n\r\nOne of the most tangible effects of sexism is the gender wage gap.\u00a0Despite making up half (49.8 percent) of payroll employment, men disproportionately outnumber women in authoritative, powerful, and, therefore, high-earning jobs (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Even when a woman\u2019s employment status is equal to a man\u2019s, she will generally make only 77 cents for every dollar made by her male counterpart (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Women in the paid labor force also still do the majority of the unpaid work at home. On an average day, 84 percent of women (compared to 67 percent of men) undertake household management activities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). This double duty keeps working women in a subordinate role within the family structure (Hochschild and Machung, 1989).\r\n<h3>Global Sexism<\/h3>\r\nGender stratification through the division of labor is not exclusive to the United States. According to George Murdock\u2019s classic work, <em>Outline of World Cultures<\/em> (1954), all societies classify work by gender. When a pattern appears in all societies, it is called a cultural universal. While the phenomenon of assigning work by gender is universal, its specifics are not. The same task is not assigned to either men or women worldwide. But the way each task\u2019s associated gender is valued is notable. In Murdock\u2019s examination of the division of labor among 324 societies around the world, he found that in nearly all cases the jobs assigned to men were given greater prestige (Murdock and White, 1968). Even if the job types were very similar and the differences slight, men\u2019s work was still considered more vital.\r\n\r\nIn parts of the world where women are strongly undervalued, young girls may not be given the same access to nutrition, healthcare, and education as boys. Further, they will grow up believing they deserve to be treated differently from boys (Thorne, 1993; UNICEF, 2011).\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video for a brief overview of gender inequality and why it should be eradicated all over the world:<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=4viXOGvvu0Y[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"h21202_01\"><\/section><section id=\"h21202_01\"><section id=\"h31202_02\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"sh1202_ex1\" class=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"sh1202_prob01\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>In what way do parents treat sons and daughters differently? How do sons and daughters typically respond to this treatment?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How is children\u2019s play influenced by gender roles? Think back to your childhood. How \u201cgendered\u201d were the toys and activities available to you? Do you remember gender expectations being conveyed through the approval or disapproval of your playtime choice?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What can be done to lessen the sexism in the workplace? How does it\u00a0harm\u00a0society?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fresearch1202\" class=\"further-research\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]cisgender:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]an umbrella term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex[\/glossary-definition]\r\n<p class=\"p1\">[glossary-term]gender:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female[\/glossary-definition]<\/p>\r\n[glossary-term]gender dysphoria:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces \"gender identity disorder\"[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]gender expression:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and\u00a0interactions) can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]gender identity:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be woman, man, or genderqueer[\/glossary-definition]\r\n<p class=\"p1\">[glossary-term]gender role:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]society\u2019s concept of how genders should behave[\/glossary-definition]<\/p>\r\n[glossary-term]intersex:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]refers to a combination of primary sex characteristics[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]sex:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females[\/glossary-definition]\r\n<p class=\"p1\">[glossary-term]sexism:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another[\/glossary-definition]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">[glossary-term]transgender:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex[\/glossary-definition]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">[glossary-term]transsexuals:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy[\/glossary-definition]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p1\">[\/glossary-page]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Define and differentiate between sex and gender<\/li>\n<li>Discuss what is meant by gender identity; differentiate between cisgender,\u00a0transgender,\u00a0binary, and non-binary gender identities<\/li>\n<li>Explain the influence of socialization on gender roles in the United States<\/li>\n<li>Explain and give examples of sexism<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>The terms \u201csex\u201d and \u201cgender\u201d refer to two different identifiers. Sex denotes biological characteristics differentiating males and females, while gender denotes social and cultural characteristics of masculine and feminine behavior. As you&#8217;ll read in this section, sex and gender are not always synchronous.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_5989\" style=\"width: 504px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5989\" class=\"wp-image-5989\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/27193754\/28005690402_d0b5cc7ccf_o.jpg\" alt=\"Shown here is a gender-reveal cake that reads &quot;He or she...cut to see!&quot;.\" width=\"494\" height=\"371\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-5989\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Some parents will host a gender reveal party when the learn the sex of their baby. Sometimes they use cakes dyed with pink or blue food coloring to announce they are having a girl or boy when they cut the cake and reveal the inside color. These gender reveal parties often conflate the baby&#8217;s sex with the baby&#8217;s gender in a way that doesn&#8217;t account for transgender, genderqueer, or other gender non-confirming experiences. (Photo courtesy of Jim\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>You&#8217;ll also read more about gender, and the ways that children become aware of gender roles in their earliest years. Children come to understand and perform these gender roles through socialization, which occurs through\u00a0the following four major agents of socialization: family, education, peer groups, and mass media. These roles are reflected in our culture and result in the differentiation of males and females.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Consider the following segment from <em>Ellen<\/em>\u00a0to examine how gender stereotyping is utilized in advertising<\/strong><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Bic Pens for Women\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/eCyw3prIWhc?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2>Sex and Gender<\/h2>\n<div style=\"width: 166px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204421\/Figure_12_01_01a.jpg\" alt=\"A man and woman are shown walking in the wind, man in front of woman.\" width=\"156\" height=\"104\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2. <\/strong>Sex describes the physical differences between males and females, while gender is a concept describing a person&#8217;s internal perception about their sex. (Photo courtesy of FaceMePLS\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Sociologists and most other social scientists view\u00a0sex and gender as conceptually distinct. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1520798\">Sex<\/span><\/strong> refers to physical or physiological differences between males and females, including both primary sex characteristics (organs, chromosomes, and hormones) and secondary characteristics such as height and muscularity. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2021309\">Gender<\/span><\/strong> is a person\u2019s deeply held internal perception of their behavior and attitudes as related to social expectations and accompanying physiological aspects of sex.\u00a0A person\u2019s sex, as determined by his or her biology, does not always correspond with his or her gender. Therefore, the terms <em>sex<\/em> and <em>gender<\/em> are not interchangeable.<\/p>\n<h3>Sex<\/h3>\n<p>A baby boy who is born with male genitalia will be identified as male. Since the term\u00a0<em>sex<\/em>\u00a0refers to biological or physical distinctions, characteristics of sex do not vary significantly between different human societies.\u00a0Males have a penis, testes, and XY chromosomes. During puberty, most males will experience changes in testicle, scrotum, and penis size and color, as well as voice dropping, and underarm, leg, and facial hair growth.\u00a0Generally, persons of the female sex\u00a0have a vagina, ovaries, and XX chromosomes. During puberty, most females will menstruate, develop breasts that can lactate, and grow vaginal, underarm, and leg hair.\u00a0Both sexes might experience increased sweating, acne, and mood changes, among other biological changes, during puberty.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2080336\">Males typically have XY sex chromosomes, and females XX. These chromosomes trigger the development of the sex steroids, of which testosterone is found in higher levels in males and estradiol in higher levels in females.\u00a0As you read in the opening example about Caster Semenya, some females have naturally occurring high levels of testosterone, which becomes an issue for elite athletes when milliseconds matter because increased testosterone levels can be attributed to performance boosts of 10 to 13 percent.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Block, M. 2016. &quot;The sensitive question of intersex athletes. NPR. https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetorch\/2016\/08\/16\/490236620\/south-african-star-raises-sensitive-questions-about-intersex-athletes.\" id=\"return-footnote-211-1\" href=\"#footnote-211-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Intersex\u00a0<\/strong>refers to a combination of primary sex characteristics, an umbrella term that can describe any individual who doesn&#8217;t fit binary sexual distinctions. It can also be referred to as Differences of Sexual Development (DSD). Intersex or DSD individuals were once called hermaphrodites, a term that is no longer used. According to the Human Rights Watch, approximately 1.7 percent of babies are born with chromosomes, gonads, internal or external sex organs that are atypical. Some of these are apparent at birth and others do not show themselves until puberty, and irreversible surgeries can cause infertility, pain, loss of sensation, and, more importantly, can take away an individual&#8217;s choice when they are performed on children.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;U.S.: Harmful surgery on intersex children,&quot; 2017. Human Rights Watch. https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2017\/07\/25\/us-harmful-surgery-intersex-children.\" id=\"return-footnote-211-2\" href=\"#footnote-211-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Read and watch this\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/feature\/nbc-out\/you-can-t-undo-surgery-more-parents-intersex-babies-are-n923271\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NBC story about Ori, an intersex child<\/a>, and how they (the neutral pronoun for Ori) feel about cosmetic surgery.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Gender<\/h3>\n<p>Gender is deeply cultural. Like race, it is a social construction with real consequences, particularly for those who do not conform to gender binaries.\u00a0In order to describe gender as a concept, we need to expand the language we use to describe gender beyond &#8220;masculine&#8221; or &#8220;feminine.&#8221;\u00a0<strong>Gender identity<\/strong>, or the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be woman, man, or genderqueer. <strong>C<\/strong><strong>isgender\u00a0<\/strong>is an umbrella terms used to describe\u00a0people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex, while <strong>transgender\u00a0<\/strong>is a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex. <strong>Gender<\/strong><strong> expression<\/strong>, or how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and interactions) can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum.<\/p>\n<h3>Gender Identity<\/h3>\n<section id=\"h21201_03\">Although gender has traditionally been considered in binary terms (male or female), increasingly gender is being seen as a spectrum; however, our vocabulary is still limited in terms of the ways in which we describe gender identity.\u00a0<\/section>\n<section>\n<div id=\"attachment_4696\" style=\"width: 287px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4696\" class=\"wp-image-4696\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/12143255\/5387638645_10c3fa400a_o-526x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Identity spectrum showing a continuum between female and male for sex, another continuum for gender identity between woman and man, a continuum for gender expression, and another continuum for sexual orientation.\" width=\"277\" height=\"539\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4696\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. This identity spectrum shows the fluidity between sex, gender identity, gender expression, and sexual orientation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2368079\">Individuals who identify with the role that is the different from their biological sex are called <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1873139\">transgender<\/span><\/strong>. Transgender is not synonymous with sexuality, a distinction that will be made in this module.\u00a0Approximately 1.4 million U.S. adults or .6 percent of the population are transgender according to a 2016 report.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Flores, A., J. Herman, G. Gates, and T. N.T. Brown. &quot;How many adults identify as transgender.&quot; The Williams Institute.\u00a0http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/How-Many-Adults-Identify-as-Transgender-in-the-United-States.pdf.\" id=\"return-footnote-211-3\" href=\"#footnote-211-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2864557\">Transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy\u2014so that their physical being is better aligned with gender identity\u2014are often called <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1254695\">transsexual<\/span><\/strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1254695\"> (transexual man or transexual woman), although some find this term outdated and prefer the term transgender<\/span>. They may also be known as male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM). Not all transgender individuals choose to alter their bodies; many will maintain their original anatomy but may present themselves to society as another gender. This is typically done by adopting the dress, hairstyle, mannerisms, or other characteristic typically assigned to another gender. It is important to note that people who cross-dress, or wear clothing that is traditionally assigned to a gender different are not the same as those identifying as trans.\u00a0Cross-dressing is typically a form of self-expression, entertainment, or personal style, and it is not necessarily an expression against one\u2019s assigned gender (APA, 2008).<\/p>\n<p>Some people choose not to adhere to conventional expressions of masculinity or femininity and are considered gender non-conforming. Non-binary and genderqueer are other terms used by individuals who feel that their gender identity and\/or gender expression fall outside the categories of man and woman.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"GLAAD Media Reference Guide - Transgender. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.glaad.org\/reference\/transgender\" id=\"return-footnote-211-4\" href=\"#footnote-211-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>After years of controversy over the treatment of sex and gender in the <em>American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders<\/em> (Drescher, 2010), the most recent edition, DSM-5, responds to allegations that the term \u201cgender identity disorder\u201d is stigmatizing by replacing it with \u201c<strong>gender dysphoria<\/strong>.\u201d Gender identity disorder as a diagnostic category stigmatized the patient by implying there was something \u201cdisordered\u201d about them. Gender dysphoria, on the other hand, removes some of that stigma by taking the word &#8220;disorder&#8221; out while maintaining a category that will protect patient access to care, including hormone therapy and gender reassignment surgery. In the DSM-5, Gender dysphoria is a condition of people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. For a person to be diagnosed with gender dysphoria, there must be a marked difference between the individual\u2019s expressed\/experienced gender and the gender others would assign him or her, and it must continue for at least six months. In children, the desire to be of the other gender must be present and verbalized. This diagnosis is now a separate category from sexual dysfunction and paraphilia, another important part of removing stigma from the diagnosis (APA, 2013).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2317293\">Changing the clinical description may contribute to a larger acceptance of transgender people in society. A 2017 poll showed that 54 percent of Americans believe gender is determined by sex at birth and 32 percent say society as &#8220;gone too far&#8221; in accepting transgender people; views are sharply divided along political and religious lines.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Salam, M. &quot;For transgender Americans, the political gets even more personal&quot; (2018). The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/10\/26\/us\/transgender-lgbt-rights-trump.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-211-5\" href=\"#footnote-211-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Studies show that people who identify as transgender are twice as likely to experience assault or discrimination as non-transgender individuals, and they are also one and a half times more likely to experience intimidation (Giovanniello, 2013; National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs, 2010). Trans women of color are most likely be to victims of abuse. A practice called &#8220;deadnaming&#8221; by the American Civil Liberties Union, whereby trans people who are murdered are referred to by their birth name and gender, is a discriminatory tool that effectively erases a person&#8217;s trans identity, and also prevents investigations into their deaths and knowledge of their deaths.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Strangio, C. 2018. &quot;Deadly violence against transgender people.&quot; ACLU. https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/blog\/lgbt-rights\/criminal-justice-reform-lgbt-people\/deadly-violence-against-transgender-people-rise.\" id=\"return-footnote-211-6\" href=\"#footnote-211-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a> Organizations such as the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs and Global Action for Trans Equality work to prevent, respond to, and end all types of violence against transgender, transsexual, and homosexual individuals.\u00a0\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2018\/06\/11\/us\/sproj-iyw-anti-violence-project-transgender-violence\/index.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Read about organizations educating the public about gender identity and\u00a0empowering transgender and transsexual individuals<\/a>. These organizations hope that\u00a0 educating the public will help lead to the end of this violence.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<h3>Gender Expression<\/h3>\n<p>U.S. society allows for some level of flexibility when it comes to acting out gender roles or gender expression. To a certain extent, men can assume some feminine roles and women can assume some masculine roles without interfering with their gender identity.\u00a0Males who work as teachers, nurses, and social workers, traditionally female-dominated occupations, often adopt norms that are traditionally feminine.\u00a0Many women in the U.S. workforce who are in male-dominated occupations must take on more traditionally masculine forms of dress (i.e., fire department or police department or military) and often adopt a set of behaviors that fit that job requirements that are traditionally masculine. In most cases, the gender identity remains cisgender although the gender expression might be more fluid.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_4697\" style=\"width: 233px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-4697\" class=\"wp-image-4697\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/04\/12150042\/377px-We-Wa_a_Zuni_berdache_full_length_portrait_-_NARA_-_523798-189x300.jpg\" alt=\"Black and white photo of a Native American Zuni man dressed in tribal attire that would typically be worn by a female..\" width=\"223\" height=\"354\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-4697\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4<\/strong>. A portrait of We-Wa, a Zuni berdache, taken sometime in the late 1800s.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The dichotomous view of gender (the notion that someone is either male or female) is specific to certain cultures and is not universal. In some cultures gender is viewed as being fluid. In the past, some anthropologists used the term <em>berdache<\/em> to refer to individuals who occasionally or permanently dressed and lived as a different gender. The practice has been noted among certain Native American tribes (Jacobs, Thomas, and Lang, 1997). The more current term used by indigenous people in the United States is &#8220;Two-Spirit&#8221; (Estrada, 2011). Also, in this regard, some of these indigenous groups believe\u00a0that there are\u00a0at least four genders.\u00a0In some tribes, Two-Spirits hold positions of higher social status because of they were believed to possess supernatural powers. In general, Native American groups viewed sex and gender as a spectrum as opposed to the binary view held by European colonists.<\/p>\n<p>Samoan culture accepts what Samoans refer to as a \u201cthird gender.\u201d <em>Fa\u2019afafine<\/em>, which translates as \u201cthe way of the woman,\u201d is a term used to describe individuals who are born biologically male but embody both masculine and feminine traits. Fa\u2019afafines are considered an important part of Samoan culture. Individuals from other cultures may mislabel them as homosexuals because fa\u2019afafines have a varied sexual life that may include men and women (Poasa, 1992).\u00a0As we will see in this module, the tendency to label one&#8217;s sexuality because of sex and gender can lead to many misconceptions and inaccurate labels.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Sex, Gender, and the Legal System<\/h3>\n<div class=\"note sociology-policy-debate\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2363950\">The terms <em>sex<\/em> and <em>gender<\/em> have not always been differentiated in the English language. It was not until the 1950s that U.S. and British psychologists and other professionals working with intersex and transsexual patients formally began distinguishing between sex and gender. Since then, psychological and physiological professionals have increasingly used the term gender (Moi, 2005). By the end of the twenty-first century, expanding the proper usage of the term <em>gender<\/em> to everyday language became more challenging\u2014particularly where legal language is concerned. In an effort to clarify usage of the terms <em>sex<\/em> and <em>gender<\/em>, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonio Scalia wrote in a 1994 briefing, \u201cThe word gender has acquired the new and useful connotation of cultural or attitudinal characteristics (as opposed to physical characteristics) distinctive to the sexes. That is to say, gender is to sex as feminine is to female and masculine is to male\u201d (<em>J.E.B. v. Alabama<\/em>, 144 S. Ct. 1436 [1994]).<\/p>\n<p>Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg had a different take, however. Viewing the words as synonymous, she freely swapped them in her briefings so as to avoid having the word \u201csex\u201d pop up too often. It is thought that her secretary supported this practice by suggestions to Ginsberg that \u201cthose nine men\u201d (the other Supreme Court justices), \u201chear that word and their first association is not the way you want them to be thinking\u201d (Case, 1995). This anecdote reveals that both sex and gender are actually socially defined variables whose definitions change over time.<\/p>\n<p>In 2018, thirteen state attorneys general and governors of three other states filed amicus briefs asked the Supreme Court to overturn a federal appeals court&#8217;s ruling protecting transgender people from employment discrimination by Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which prohibits sex discrimination in employment. This would also go against three dozen federal appeals court decisions protecting the rights of transgender people in the workplace.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;16 states ask supreme court to limit transgender&quot; (2018). https:\/\/transequality.org\/press\/releases\/16-states-ask-supreme-court-to-limit-transgender-legal-protections.\" id=\"return-footnote-211-7\" href=\"#footnote-211-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>The hit series\u00a0<em>Orange is the New Black\u00a0<\/em>(2013-present) has brought issues of trans people in the U.S. prison system into everyday life. Award-winning actor Laverne Cox, a trans advocate and the first openly transgender person to be nominated for an Emmy Award for acting, through the character of Sophia Burset, has brought issues of trans women into millions of households. Recently, the U.S. Department of Justice revised its guidelines for federal prisons eliminating &#8220;will recommend housing by gender identity when appropriate&#8221; with &#8220;will use biological sex as the initial determination&#8221; for facility assignment for transgender inmates&#8221; <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Gathright, J. 2018. &quot;The guidelines for protection of transgender prisoners just got rewritten.&quot; NPR. https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2018\/05\/12\/610692321\/the-guidelines-for-protection-of-transgender-prisoners-just-got-rewritten.\" id=\"return-footnote-211-8\" href=\"#footnote-211-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch the first half of this video to review the differences between sex and gender.<\/strong><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Sex &amp; Sexuality: Crash Course Sociology #31\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Kqt-_ILgv5c?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<section id=\"sh12_01\" class=\"short-answer\">\n<div id=\"sh1201_ex1\" class=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"sh_prob01\" class=\"problem\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"sh1201_ex1\" class=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"sh_prob01\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li>Why do you think many doctors and parents have opted for cosmetic surgery for intersex children? What are the ethical implications of irreversible surgery?<\/li>\n<li>What do you think are some of the concerns for non-binary individuals in the workplace, in the military, in schools, in prisons?<\/li>\n<li>In what ways does gender identity and gender expression become politicized?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<h2>Gender and Socialization<\/h2>\n<div style=\"width: 210px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204429\/Figure_12_02_01a.jpg\" alt=\"Woman in 1950s or 1960s dress placing coffee on buffet table in a formally set dining room.\" width=\"200\" height=\"495\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5.\u00a0<\/strong>Traditional images of U.S. gender roles reinforce the idea that women should be subordinate to men. (Photo courtesy of Sport Suburban\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"h21202_01\">\n<h3>Gender Roles<\/h3>\n<p>As we grow, we learn how to behave from those around us. In this socialization process, children are introduced to certain roles that are typically linked to their biological sex. The term <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2265759\">gender role<\/span><\/strong> refers to society\u2019s concept of how\u00a0people\u00a0are expected to look and behave based on socially created norms for masculinity and femininity.\u00a0In U.S. culture, masculine roles are usually associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles are usually associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination.<\/p>\n<p>Gender role socialization begins at birth and continues throughout the life course.\u00a0Our society is quick to outfit male infants in blue and girls in pink, even applying these color-coded gender labels while a baby is in the womb.\u00a0This color differentiation is quite new\u2014prior to the 1940s, boys wore pink and girls wore blue. In the 19th century and early 20th century, boys and girls wore dresses (mostly white) until the age of 6 or 7, which was also time for the first haircut.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Maglaty, J. 2011. &quot;When did girls first start wearing pink?&quot; The Smithsonian. https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/arts-culture\/when-did-girls-start-wearing-pink-1370097\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-211-9\" href=\"#footnote-211-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 210px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204425\/CNX_Soc2e_Figure_12_01_004.jpg\" alt=\"This image is of a kneeling man with a small child holding a mitt who is learning to play baseball.\" width=\"200\" height=\"318\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 6.\u00a0<\/strong>Fathers tend to be more involved when their sons engage in gender-appropriate activities such as sports. (Photo courtesy of Shawn Lea\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1737544\">Thus, gender, like race is a social construction with very real consequences.\u00a0The drive to adhere to masculine and feminine gender roles continues later in life. Men tend to outnumber women in professions such as law enforcement, the military, and politics. Women tend to outnumber men in care-related occupations such as childcare, healthcare (even though the term \u201cdoctor\u201d still conjures the image of a man), and social work. These occupational roles are examples of typical U.S. male and female behavior, derived from our culture\u2019s traditions. Adherence to them demonstrates fulfillment of social expectations but not necessarily personal preference (Diamond, 2002).<\/p>\n<h3>Gender and Socialization<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1684978\">The phrase \u201cboys will be boys\u201d is often used to justify behavior such as pushing, shoving, or other forms of aggression from young boys. The phrase implies that such behavior is unchangeable and something that is part of a boy\u2019s nature. Aggressive behavior, when it does not inflict significant harm, is often accepted from boys and men because it is congruent with the cultural script for masculinity. The \u201cscript\u201d written by society is in some ways similar to a script written by a playwright. Just as a playwright expects actors to adhere to a prescribed script, society expects women and men to behave according to the expectations of their respective gender roles.<\/p>\n<section id=\"h31202_01\">\n<h3>Socialization<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2617082\">Children learn at a young age that there are distinct expectations for boys and girls. Cross-cultural studies reveal that children are aware of gender roles by age two or three. At four or five, most children are firmly entrenched in culturally appropriate gender roles (Kane, 1996). Children acquire these roles through socialization, a process in which people learn to behave in a particular way as dictated by societal values, beliefs, and attitudes.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 260px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204430\/Figure_12_02_02a.jpg\" alt=\"A woman riding a pink motorcycle is shown here.\" width=\"250\" height=\"399\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 7.\u00a0<\/strong>Although our society may have a stereotype that associates motorcycles with men, female bikers demonstrate that a woman\u2019s place extends far beyond the kitchen in the modern United States. (Photo courtesy of Robert Couse-Baker\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>For example, society often views riding a motorcycle as a masculine activity and, therefore, considers it to be part of the male gender role. Attitudes such as this are typically based on stereotypes, which are oversimplified notions about members of a group. Gender stereotyping involves overgeneralizing about the attitudes, traits, or behavior patterns of women or men. For example, women may be thought of as too timid or weak to ride a motorcycle.<\/p>\n<p>Mimicking the actions of significant others is the first step in the development of a separate sense of self (Mead, 1934). Recall that according to Mead&#8217;s theory of development, children up to the age of two are in the preparatory stage, in which they copy actions of those around them, then the play stage (between 2-6) when they play pretend and have a difficult time following established rules, and then the game stage (ages seven and up), when they can play by a set of rules and understand different roles.<\/p>\n<p>Like adults, children become agents who actively facilitate and apply normative gender expectations to those around them. When children do not conform to the appropriate gender role, they may face negative sanctions such as being criticized or marginalized by their peers. Though many of these sanctions are informal, they can be quite severe. For example, a girl who wishes to take karate class instead of dance lessons may be called a \u201ctomboy,\u201d and face difficulty gaining acceptance from both male and female peer groups (Ready, 2001). Boys, especially, are subject to intense ridicule for gender nonconformity (Coltrane and Adams, 2004; Kimmel, 2000).<\/p>\n<p>One way children learn gender roles is through play. Parents typically supply boys with trucks, toy guns, and superhero paraphernalia, which are active toys that promote motor skills, aggression, and solitary play. Daughters are often given dolls and dress-up apparel that foster nurturing, social proximity, and role play. Studies have shown that children will most likely choose to play with \u201cgender appropriate\u201d toys (or same-gender toys) even when cross-gender toys are available, because parents give children positive feedback (in the form of praise, involvement, and physical closeness) for gender normative behavior (Caldera, Huston, and O\u2019Brien, 1998). Charles Cooley&#8217;s concept of the looking-glass self applies to gender socialization because it is through this interactive, interpretive process with the social world that individuals develop a sense of gender identity.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2011383\">Gender socialization occurs through four major agents of socialization: family, schools, peer groups, and mass media. Each agent reinforces gender roles by creating and maintaining normative expectations for gender-specific behavior. Exposure also occurs through secondary agents such as religion and the workplace. Repeated exposure to these agents over time leads men and women into a false sense that they are acting naturally rather than following a socially constructed role.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1301053\">Family is the first agent of socialization. There is considerable evidence that parents socialize sons and daughters differently. Generally speaking, girls are given more latitude to step outside of their prescribed gender role (Coltrane and Adams, 2004; Kimmel, 2000; Raffaelli and Ontai, 2004). However, differential socialization typically results in greater privileges afforded to sons. For instance, boys are allowed more autonomy and independence at an earlier age than daughters. They may be given fewer restrictions on appropriate clothing, dating habits, or curfew. Sons are also often free from performing domestic duties such as cleaning or cooking and other household tasks that are considered feminine. Daughters are limited by their expectation to be passive and nurturing, generally obedient, and to assume domestic responsibilities.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2660068\">Even when parents set gender equality as a goal, there may be underlying indications of inequality. For example, boys may be asked to take out the garbage or perform other tasks that require strength or toughness, while girls may be asked to fold laundry or perform duties that require neatness and care. It has been found that fathers are firmer in their expectations for gender conformity than are mothers, and their expectations are stronger for sons than they are for daughters (Kimmel, 2000). This is true in many types of activities, including preference for toys, play styles, discipline, chores, and personal achievements. As a result, boys tend to be particularly attuned to their father\u2019s disapproval when engaging in an activity that might be considered feminine, like dancing or singing (Coltraine and Adams, 2008). Parental socialization and normative expectations also vary along lines of social class, race, and ethnicity. African American families, for instance, are more likely than Caucasians to model an egalitarian role structure for their children (Staples and Johnson, 2004).<\/p>\n<p>The reinforcement of gender roles and stereotypes continues once a child reaches school age. Until very recently, schools were rather explicit in their efforts to stratify boys and girls. The first step toward stratification was segregation. Girls were encouraged to take home economics or humanities courses and boys to take math and science. Studies suggest that gender socialization still occurs in schools today, perhaps in less obvious forms (Lips, 2004). Teachers may not even realize they are acting in ways that reproduce gender differentiated behavior patterns. Yet any time they ask students to arrange their seats or line up according to gender, teachers may be asserting that boys and girls should be treated differently (Thorne, 1993).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2868948\">Schools subtly convey messages to girls indicating that they are less intelligent or less important than boys. For example, in a study of teacher responses to male and female students, data indicated that teachers praised male students far more than female students. Teachers interrupted girls more often and gave boys more opportunities to expand on their ideas (Sadker and Sadker, 1994). Further, in social as well as academic situations, teachers have traditionally treated boys and girls in opposite ways, reinforcing a sense of competition rather than collaboration (Thorne, 1993). Boys are also permitted a greater degree of freedom to break rules or commit minor acts of deviance, whereas girls are expected to follow rules carefully and adopt an obedient role (Ready, 2001).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1763733\">Mass media serves as another significant agent of gender socialization. In television and movies, women tend to have less significant roles and are often portrayed as wives or mothers. When women are given a lead role, it often falls into one of two extremes: a wholesome, saint-like figure or a malevolent, hypersexual figure (Etaugh and Bridges, 2003). Gender inequalities are also pervasive in children\u2019s movies (Smith, 2008). Research indicates that in the ten top-grossing G-rated movies released between 1991 and 2013, nine out of ten characters were male (Smith, 2008).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2195594\">Television commercials and other forms of advertising also reinforce inequality and gender-based stereotypes. Women are almost exclusively present in ads promoting cooking, cleaning, or childcare-related products (Davis, 1993). Think about the last time you saw a man star in a dishwasher or laundry detergent commercial. In general, women are underrepresented in roles that involve leadership, intelligence, or a balanced psyche. Of particular concern is the depiction of women in ways that are dehumanizing, especially in music videos. Even in mainstream advertising, however, themes intermingling violence and sexuality are quite common (Kilbourne, 2000).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch the following video to think more about the social construct of gender.<\/strong><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Is Gender REAL? \u2013\u00a08-Bit Philosophy\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/gkilQ87UUj8?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2681129\">Watch <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Yb1_4FPtzrI&amp;index=33&amp;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this CrashCourse video<\/a> to learn more about gender stratification.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Sexism<\/h3>\n<p>Gender stereotypes form the basis of sexism. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1332231\">Sexism<\/span><\/strong> refers to prejudiced beliefs that value one sex over another. Like racism, sexism has been a part of U.S. culture for centuries. Here is a brief timeline of &#8220;firsts&#8221; in the United States:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"import-auto-id1738674\">\n<li>Before 1809\u2014Women could not execute a will<\/li>\n<li>Before 1840\u2014Women were not allowed to own or control property<\/li>\n<li>Before 1920\u2014Women were not permitted to vote<\/li>\n<li>Before 1963\u2014Employers could legally pay a woman less than a man for the same work<\/li>\n<li>Before 1973\u2014Women did not have the right to a safe and legal abortion<\/li>\n<li>Before 1981\u2014No woman had served on the U.S. Supreme Court<\/li>\n<li>Before 2009\u2014No African American woman had been CEO of a U.S. Fortune 500 corporation<\/li>\n<li>Before 2016\u2014No Latina had served as a U.S. Senator<\/li>\n<li>Before 2017\u2014No openly transgender person had been elected in a state legislature<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>While it is illegal in the United States when practiced as overt discrimination, unequal treatment of women continues to pervade social life. It should be noted that discrimination based on sex occurs at both the micro- and macro-levels. Many sociologists focus on discrimination that is built into the social structure; this type of discrimination is known as institutional discrimination (Pincus, 2008).<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204432\/Figure_12_02_04a.jpg\" alt=\"A woman is shown kneeling on a bathroom floor scrubbing a toilet.\" width=\"300\" height=\"411\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 8.\u00a0<\/strong>In some cultures, women do all of the household chores with no help from men, as doing housework is a sign of weakness, considered by society as a feminine trait. (Photo courtesy of Evil Erin\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Like racism, sexism has very real consequences. Stereotypes about females, such as being &#8220;too soft&#8221; to make financial decisions about things like wills or property, have morphed into a lack of female leadership in Fortune 500 Companies (only 24 were headed up by women in 2018!). We also see gender discrepancies in politics and in legal matters, as the laws regarding women&#8217;s reproductive health are made by a largely male legislative body at both the state and federal levels.<\/p>\n<p>One of the most tangible effects of sexism is the gender wage gap.\u00a0Despite making up half (49.8 percent) of payroll employment, men disproportionately outnumber women in authoritative, powerful, and, therefore, high-earning jobs (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Even when a woman\u2019s employment status is equal to a man\u2019s, she will generally make only 77 cents for every dollar made by her male counterpart (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Women in the paid labor force also still do the majority of the unpaid work at home. On an average day, 84 percent of women (compared to 67 percent of men) undertake household management activities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). This double duty keeps working women in a subordinate role within the family structure (Hochschild and Machung, 1989).<\/p>\n<h3>Global Sexism<\/h3>\n<p>Gender stratification through the division of labor is not exclusive to the United States. According to George Murdock\u2019s classic work, <em>Outline of World Cultures<\/em> (1954), all societies classify work by gender. When a pattern appears in all societies, it is called a cultural universal. While the phenomenon of assigning work by gender is universal, its specifics are not. The same task is not assigned to either men or women worldwide. But the way each task\u2019s associated gender is valued is notable. In Murdock\u2019s examination of the division of labor among 324 societies around the world, he found that in nearly all cases the jobs assigned to men were given greater prestige (Murdock and White, 1968). Even if the job types were very similar and the differences slight, men\u2019s work was still considered more vital.<\/p>\n<p>In parts of the world where women are strongly undervalued, young girls may not be given the same access to nutrition, healthcare, and education as boys. Further, they will grow up believing they deserve to be treated differently from boys (Thorne, 1993; UNICEF, 2011).<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video for a brief overview of gender inequality and why it should be eradicated all over the world:<\/strong><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"Gender Equality: Now\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/4viXOGvvu0Y?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<section id=\"h21202_01\"><\/section>\n<section id=\"h21202_01\">\n<section id=\"h31202_02\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"sh1202_ex1\" class=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"sh1202_prob01\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li>In what way do parents treat sons and daughters differently? How do sons and daughters typically respond to this treatment?<\/li>\n<li>How is children\u2019s play influenced by gender roles? Think back to your childhood. How \u201cgendered\u201d were the toys and activities available to you? Do you remember gender expectations being conveyed through the approval or disapproval of your playtime choice?<\/li>\n<li>What can be done to lessen the sexism in the workplace? How does it\u00a0harm\u00a0society?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fresearch1202\" class=\"further-research\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>cisgender:<\/dt>\n<dd>an umbrella term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex<\/dd>\n<p class=\"p1\">\n<dt>gender:<\/dt>\n<dd>a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female<\/dd>\n<\/p>\n<dt>gender dysphoria:<\/dt>\n<dd>a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces &#8220;gender identity disorder&#8221;<\/dd>\n<dt>gender expression:<\/dt>\n<dd>how one demonstrates gender (based on traditional gender role norms related to clothing, behavior, and\u00a0interactions) can be feminine, masculine, androgynous, or somewhere along a spectrum<\/dd>\n<dt>gender identity:<\/dt>\n<dd>the way that one thinks about gender and self-identifies, can be woman, man, or genderqueer<\/dd>\n<p class=\"p1\">\n<dt>gender role:<\/dt>\n<dd>society\u2019s concept of how genders should behave<\/dd>\n<\/p>\n<dt>intersex:<\/dt>\n<dd>refers to a combination of primary sex characteristics<\/dd>\n<dt>sex:<\/dt>\n<dd>a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females<\/dd>\n<p class=\"p1\">\n<dt>sexism:<\/dt>\n<dd>the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another<\/dd>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\">\n<dt>transgender:<\/dt>\n<dd>a term used to describe people whose sense of personal identity does not correspond with their birth sex<\/dd>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\">\n<dt>transsexuals:<\/dt>\n<dd>transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy<\/dd>\n<\/p>\n<p class=\"p1\"><\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-211\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Gender. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Revision, Modification, and Original Content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Cathy Matresse and Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>gender and sexuality identity spectrum chart. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Beth Granter. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Flickr. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/trucknroll\/5387638645\">https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/trucknroll\/5387638645<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Revisions and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sarah Hoiland and Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Gender, Sex, and Sexuality. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:T_-LTWXd@3\/Introduction-to-Gender-Sex-and-Sexuality\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:T_-LTWXd@3\/Introduction-to-Gender-Sex-and-Sexuality<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><li>Gender Reveal Cake. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Jim. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Flickr. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/22606730@N02\/28005690402\/\">https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/22606730@N02\/28005690402\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Updated information on same sex marriage. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Gender Equality: Now. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: WorldFish. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=4viXOGvvu0Y\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=4viXOGvvu0Y<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Bic Pens for Women. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: The Ellen Show. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=eCyw3prIWhc&#038;list=PLc0poAPuof5c5UiTMgZARRbSdM_jRiqWq\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=eCyw3prIWhc&#038;list=PLc0poAPuof5c5UiTMgZARRbSdM_jRiqWq<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Sex &amp; Sexuality: Crash Course Sociology #31. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CrashCourse. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Kqt-_ILgv5c&#038;t=0s&#038;index=33&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Kqt-_ILgv5c&#038;t=0s&#038;index=33&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Is Gender Real? -8-bit Philosophy. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wisecrack. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gkilQ87UUj8&#038;index=50&#038;list=PL93FF46F5BC6A27CF\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gkilQ87UUj8&#038;index=50&#038;list=PL93FF46F5BC6A27CF<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>We-Wa, Zuni Berdache. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:We-Wa,_a_Zuni_berdache,_full_length_portrait_-_NARA_-_523798.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:We-Wa,_a_Zuni_berdache,_full_length_portrait_-_NARA_-_523798.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-211-1\">Block, M. 2016. \"The sensitive question of intersex athletes. NPR. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetorch\/2016\/08\/16\/490236620\/south-african-star-raises-sensitive-questions-about-intersex-athletes\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetorch\/2016\/08\/16\/490236620\/south-african-star-raises-sensitive-questions-about-intersex-athletes<\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-211-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-211-2\">\"U.S.: Harmful surgery on intersex children,\" 2017. Human Rights Watch. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2017\/07\/25\/us-harmful-surgery-intersex-children\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2017\/07\/25\/us-harmful-surgery-intersex-children<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-211-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-211-3\">Flores, A., J. Herman, G. Gates, and T. N.T. Brown. \"How many adults identify as transgender.\" The Williams Institute.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/How-Many-Adults-Identify-as-Transgender-in-the-United-States.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/How-Many-Adults-Identify-as-Transgender-in-the-United-States.pdf<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-211-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-211-4\">GLAAD Media Reference Guide - Transgender. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.glaad.org\/reference\/transgender\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.glaad.org\/reference\/transgender<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-211-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-211-5\">Salam, M. \"For transgender Americans, the political gets even more personal\" (2018). The New York Times. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/10\/26\/us\/transgender-lgbt-rights-trump.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2018\/10\/26\/us\/transgender-lgbt-rights-trump.html<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-211-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-211-6\">Strangio, C. 2018. \"Deadly violence against transgender people.\" ACLU. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/blog\/lgbt-rights\/criminal-justice-reform-lgbt-people\/deadly-violence-against-transgender-people-rise\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.aclu.org\/blog\/lgbt-rights\/criminal-justice-reform-lgbt-people\/deadly-violence-against-transgender-people-rise<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-211-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-211-7\">\"16 states ask supreme court to limit transgender\" (2018). <a href=\"https:\/\/transequality.org\/press\/releases\/16-states-ask-supreme-court-to-limit-transgender-legal-protections\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/transequality.org\/press\/releases\/16-states-ask-supreme-court-to-limit-transgender-legal-protections<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-211-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-211-8\">Gathright, J. 2018. \"The guidelines for protection of transgender prisoners just got rewritten.\" NPR. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2018\/05\/12\/610692321\/the-guidelines-for-protection-of-transgender-prisoners-just-got-rewritten\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2018\/05\/12\/610692321\/the-guidelines-for-protection-of-transgender-prisoners-just-got-rewritten<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-211-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-211-9\">Maglaty, J. 2011. \"When did girls first start wearing pink?\" The Smithsonian. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/arts-culture\/when-did-girls-start-wearing-pink-1370097\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/arts-culture\/when-did-girls-start-wearing-pink-1370097\/<\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-211-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Gender\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Gender, Sex, and Sexuality\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:T_-LTWXd@3\/Introduction-to-Gender-Sex-and-Sexuality\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Bic Pens for Women\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"The Ellen Show\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=eCyw3prIWhc&list=PLc0poAPuof5c5UiTMgZARRbSdM_jRiqWq\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Gender Reveal Cake\",\"author\":\"Jim\",\"organization\":\"Flickr\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/22606730@N02\/28005690402\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Updated information on same sex marriage\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Same-sex_marriage_in_the_United_States\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Revision, Modification, and Original Content\",\"author\":\"Cathy Matresse and Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"gender and sexuality identity spectrum chart\",\"author\":\"Beth Granter\",\"organization\":\"Flickr\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/trucknroll\/5387638645\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Revisions and original content\",\"author\":\"Sarah Hoiland and Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"We-Wa, Zuni Berdache\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:We-Wa,_a_Zuni_berdache,_full_length_portrait_-_NARA_-_523798.jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Sex & Sexuality: Crash Course Sociology #31\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"CrashCourse\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Kqt-_ILgv5c&t=0s&index=33&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Gender Equality: Now\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"WorldFish\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=4viXOGvvu0Y\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Is Gender Real? -8-bit Philosophy\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wisecrack\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gkilQ87UUj8&index=50&list=PL93FF46F5BC6A27CF\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"5e9f5068-5001-4bcd-9438-c630cddd831b","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-211","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":581,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/211","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":39,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/211\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9740,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/211\/revisions\/9740"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/581"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/211\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=211"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=211"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=211"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=211"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}