{"id":271,"date":"2016-05-20T18:59:03","date_gmt":"2016-05-20T18:59:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontosociology-waymaker\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=271"},"modified":"2020-07-03T21:47:19","modified_gmt":"2020-07-03T21:47:19","slug":"sociological-views-on-religion","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/chapter\/sociological-views-on-religion\/","title":{"raw":"Sociological Views on Religion","rendered":"Sociological Views on Religion"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Discuss the historical views and sociological perspectives on religion<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how the major sociological paradigms view religion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nReligion describes the beliefs, values, and practices related to sacred or spiritual concerns. It\u00a0is a social institution, because it serves\u00a0societal needs, including a sense of community. Religion is also an example of a cultural universal, because it is found in all societies in one form or another. Functionalism, conflict theory, and interactionism all provide valuable ways for sociologists to understand religion.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6016\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"464\"]<img class=\"wp-image-6016\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/27220623\/1599px-The_Line_of_Communion_7074868945.jpg\" alt=\"A woman with a head covering is in the middle of the photo holding a cup. There is a cross and a depiction of Jesus Christ out of focus in the background.\" width=\"464\" height=\"309\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. A woman administers communion, a religious ceremony, dispensing wine and bread to a line of congregants. (Photo courtesy of Alex Proimos\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]\r\n<h2>The History of Religion<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033139731\">What is religion? Pioneering sociologist \u00c9mile Durkheim claimed that it consists of \u201cthings that surpass the limits of our knowledge\u201d (1915).\u00a0He defined religion as \u201ca unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community, called a church, all those who adhere to them\u201d (1915). Some people associate religion with places of worship (a synagogue or church), others with a practice (confession or meditation), and still others with a concept that guides their daily lives (like dharma or sin). All these people can agree that <span id=\"import-auto-id1169033112479\">religion<\/span> is a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds sacred or considers to be spiritually significant.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id2215982\" class=\"references\"><\/section>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nFrom the Latin <em>religio<\/em> (respect for what is sacred) and <em>religare<\/em> (to bind, in the sense of an obligation), the term religion describes systems of belief and practice that define what people consider to be sacred or spiritual ( Durkheim, 1915; Fasching and deChant, 2001). Throughout history, and in societies across the world, leaders have used religious narratives, symbols, and traditions in an attempt to give more meaning to life and to offer a framework for understanding the universe. Some form of religion is found in every known culture, and it is usually practiced in a public way by a recognizable group. The practice of religion can include feasts and festivals, prayer to God or gods, marriage and funeral services, devotional music and art, meditation or initiation, sacrifice or service, and other aspects of ritualized culture.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034204417\">While some people think of religion as something individual because religious beliefs can be highly personal, religion is also a social institution. Social scientists recognize that religion exists as an organized and integrated set of beliefs, behaviors, and norms centered on basic social needs and values. Moreover, religion is a cultural universal found in all social groups. For instance, in every culture, funeral rites are practiced in some way, although these customs vary between cultures and within religious affiliations. Despite differences, there are common elements in a ceremony marking a person\u2019s death, such as announcement of the death, care of the deceased, disposition (e.g., cremation or burial), and ceremony or ritual. These universals, and the differences in how societies and individuals experience and practice religion, provide rich material for sociological study.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034222946\">In studying religion, sociologists distinguish between experience, belief, and ritual. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1169034209951\">Religious experience<\/span><\/strong> refers to the conviction or sensation that we are connected to \u201cthe divine\u201d and\u00a0might be felt when people\u00a0pray or meditate. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1169034198622\">Religious beliefs<\/span><\/strong> are specific ideas members of a particular faith hold to be true, such as that Jesus Christ was the son of God, or that reincarnation exists. Another illustration of religious beliefs is the creation stories we find in different religions. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1169034204928\">Religious rituals<\/span><\/strong> are behaviors or practices that are either required or expected of the members of a particular group, such as baptism, bar mitzvah, First Communion, or confession of sins (Barkan and Greenwood, 2003).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id2331778\">\r\n<h3>The History of Religion as a Sociological Concept<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034225830\">In the wake of nineteenth century European industrialization and secularization, three social theorists attempted to examine the relationship between religion and society: Karl Marx, \u00c9mile Durkheim, and Max Weber.<\/p>\r\nGerman philosopher, journalist, and revolutionary socialist\u00a0Karl Marx\u00a0(1818\u20131883) studied the social impact of religion. He believed religion reflects the social stratification of society and that it maintains inequality and perpetuates an unjust status quo. For him, religion was just an extension of and false remedy for working-class (proletarian) economic suffering. He famously argued that religion \u201cis the opium of the people\u201d (1844).\r\n\r\nFrench sociologist \u00c9mile Durkheim (1858\u20131917) defined religion as a \u201cunified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things\u201d (1915). To him, sacred meant extraordinary\u2014something that inspired wonder and that seemed connected to the concept of \u201cthe divine.\u201d Durkheim argued that \u201creligion happens\u201d in society when there is a separation between the profane (ordinary life) and the sacred (1915). A rock, for example, isn\u2019t sacred or profane as it exists. But if someone makes it into a headstone, or another person uses it for landscaping, it takes on different meanings\u2014one sacred, one profane.\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034185059\">Durkheim is generally considered the first sociologist who analyzed religion in terms of its societal impact. Above all, he believed religion is about community: It binds people together (social cohesion), promotes behavior consistency (social control), and offers strength during life\u2019s transitions and tragedies (meaning and purpose). By applying the methods of natural science to the study of society, Durkheim held that the source of religion and morality is the collective mind-set of society and that the cohesive bonds of social order result from common values in a society. He contended that these values need to be maintained to preserve social stability.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034215109\">But what would happen if religion were to decline? This question led Durkheim to posit that religion is not just a social creation but something that demonstrates the cohesive power of societal bonds: when people celebrate sacred things, they celebrate the stabilizing power of their society. By this reasoning, even if traditional religion disappeared, society wouldn\u2019t necessarily dissolve.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034184002\">Whereas Durkheim saw religion as a source of social stability, German sociologist and political economist Max Weber (1864\u20131920) believed it was a precipitator of social change. He examined the effects of religion on economic activities and noticed that heavily Protestant societies\u2014such as those in the Netherlands, England, Scotland, and Germany\u2014were the most highly developed capitalist societies and that their most successful business leaders were Protestant. In his writing <em>The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism<\/em> (1905), he contends that the Protestant work ethic influenced and accelerated the development of capitalism. Weber noted that certain kinds of Protestantism supported the pursuit of material gain by motivating believers to work hard, be successful, and not spend their money on frivolous things. (The modern use of \u201cwork ethic\u201d comes directly from Weber\u2019s Protestant ethic, although it has now lost its religious connotations.)<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"title\">The Protestant Work Ethic in the Information Age<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034196909\">Max Weber (1904) posited that, in Europe in his time, Protestants were more likely than Catholics to value capitalist ideology, and believed in hard work and careful saving. He showed that Protestant values directly influenced the rise of capitalism and helped create the modern world order. Weber thought the emphasis on community in Catholicism versus the emphasis on individual achievement in Protestantism made a difference.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this brief video to review Weber's ideas:<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=j-0sIHDzsU4[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n\r\nWeber's century-old claim that the Protestant work ethic led to the development of capitalism has been one of the most important and controversial topics in the sociology of religion. Despite its influence, some scholars have found little merit to his contention when applied to modern society (Greeley, 1989).\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034198389\">What does the concept of work ethic mean today? The work ethic in the information age has been affected by tremendous cultural and social change, just as labor practices and relations were shaped by the Industrial Revolution. In that period, factory jobs tended to be simple, and required very little thinking or decision making on the part of the worker. Today, the work ethic of the modern workforce has been transformed, as more thinking and decision making is required. Contemporary workers also seek autonomy and fulfillment in their jobs, not just wages. Higher levels of education have become necessary, as have interpersonal management skills and access to the most recent information on any given topic. The information age has increased the rapid pace of production expected in many sectors of the economy.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034184814\">On the other hand, the \u201cMcDonaldization\u201d of the United States (Hightower, 1975; Ritzer, 1993), in which many \"service\" industries, such as the fast-food and retail industries, have established routinized roles and tasks, has resulted in a \u201cdiscouragement\u201d of the work ethic. In jobs where roles and tasks are highly prescribed, workers have no opportunity to make decisions. They are considered replaceable commodities as opposed to valued employees. During times of recession, these service jobs may be the only employment available to younger individuals or those with low-level skills and credentials. The pay, working conditions, and robotic nature of the tasks dehumanizes the workers and strips them of incentives for doing quality work.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034296706\">Working hard also doesn\u2019t seem to have any relationship with Catholic or Protestant religious beliefs anymore, or those of other religions; information age workers expect talent and hard work to be rewarded by material gain and career advancement. In fact, some people now argue that work has <em>replaced<\/em> religion. Read this article, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/ideas\/archive\/2019\/02\/religion-workism-making-americans-miserable\/583441\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Workism Is Making Americans Miserable<\/a>,\" by Derek Thompson to learn more.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034219092\">For Durkheim, Weber, and Marx, who were reacting to the great social and economic upheaval of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century in Europe, religion was an integral part of society. For Durkheim, religion was a cohesive force that helped bind the members of society together, while Weber believed religion could be understood as something important to, but separate from, society. Marx considered religion inseparable from the economy and the worker's position within it. Religion could not be understood apart from the capitalist society that perpetuated inequality. Despite their different views, these social theorists all believed in the importance of religion to society.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1381326\"><section id=\"fs-id3028478\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034214152\">For more discussion on the study of sociology and religion, check out the following blog:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/tif.ssrc.org\/about\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Immanent Frame<\/a>. It is a forum for the exchange of ideas about religion, secularism, and society by leading thinkers in the social sciences and humanities.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-id1662112\" class=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1587450\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li id=\"import-auto-id1169034188169\">List some ways that you see religion exerting social control in the everyday world.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What are some sacred items that you\u2019re familiar with? Are there some objects, such as cups, candles, or clothing, that would be considered profane in normal settings but are considered sacred in special circumstances or when used in specific ways?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2>Theoretical Perspectives on Religion<\/h2>\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1169034221472\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"200\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204551\/Figure_15_01_01.jpg\" alt=\"Numerous people are shown from behind standing in a church.\" width=\"200\" height=\"450\" \/> <strong>Figure 2.\u00a0<\/strong>Functionalists believe religion meets many important needs for people, including group cohesion and companionship. (Photo courtesy of James Emery\/flickr)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034203824\">Modern-day sociologists often apply one of the major theoretical perspectives. These views offer different lenses through which to study and understand society: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Let\u2019s explore how scholars applying these paradigms understand religion.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1331313\">\r\n<h3>Functionalism<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034178159\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">Functionalists contend that religion serves several functions in society. Religion, in fact, depends on society for its existence, value, and significance, and vice versa. From this perspective, religion serves several purposes, like providing answers to spiritual mysteries, offering emotional comfort, and creating a place for social interaction and social control.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034196888\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">In providing answers, religion defines the spiritual world and spiritual forces, including divine beings. For example, it helps answer questions like, \u201cHow was the world created?\u201d \u201cWhy do we suffer?\u201d \u201cIs there a plan for our lives?\u201d and \u201cIs there an afterlife?\u201d As another function, religion provides emotional comfort in times of crisis. Religious rituals bring order, reassurance, and organization through shared familiar symbols and patterns of behavior.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034209298\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">One of the most important functions of religion, from a functionalist perspective, is the opportunities it creates for socializing and the formation of groups. It provides social support and offers a place to meet others who hold simila<\/span>r values, as well as a place to seek help (spiritual and material) in times of need. Moreover, it can foster group cohesion and integration. Because religion can be central to many people\u2019s concept of themselves, sometimes there is an \u201cin-group\u201d versus \u201cout-group\u201d feeling toward other religions in our society or within a particular practice.\u00a0Religion promotes social control: it reinforces social norms such as appropriate styles of dress, following the law, conforming to gender roles, and regulating sexual behavior.<\/p>\r\nOn an extreme level, the dysfunctions of this type of in-group\/ out-group mentality has resulted in violent episodes such as the Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834) and\u00a0the Salem witch trials (1692-1693), as well as extremist acts by anti-Semitic groups, jihadists, Christian fundamentalists, and many more. Social control can be a function of religious groups but it can also be dysfunctional when prescriptive social norms produce inequality between men and women, between different castes or classes, and\/or when they diminish individual agency and choice within a religious group.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"250\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204553\/Figure_15_01_02.jpg\" alt=\"About a half-dozen older men wearing Roman Catholic priestly garb are shown from the shoulders up.\" width=\"250\" height=\"333\" \/> <span style=\"color: #000000\"><strong>Figure 3.\u00a0<\/strong>Many religions, including the Catholic faith, have long prohibited women from becoming spiritual leaders. Feminist theorists focus on gender inequality and promote leadership roles for women in religion. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)<\/span>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1337643\">\r\n<span style=\"color: #000000\"><h3>Conflict Theory<\/h3><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034215695\">Conflict theorists view religion as an institution that helps maintain patterns of social inequality. For example, the Vatican has a tremendous amount of wealth, while the average income of Catholic parishioners is small. According to this perspective, religion has been used to support the \u201cdivine right\u201d of oppressive hereditary monarchies and to justify unequal social structures, like India\u2019s rigidly hierarchical caste system.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034209617\">Conflict theorists are critical of the way many religions promote the idea that believers should be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely ordained. This power dynamic has been used by Christian institutions for centuries to keep poor people poor and to teach them that they shouldn\u2019t be concerned with what they lack because their \u201ctrue\u201d reward (from a religious perspective) will come after death. Conflict theorists also point out that those in power in a religion are often able to dictate practices, rituals, and beliefs through their interpretation of religious texts or via proclaimed direct communication with the divine, perhaps through \"revelation\" or a process of \"divination.\"<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1169034221473\"><\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034185634\">The feminist perspective is considered to be another\u00a0conflict theory view that focuses specifically on gender inequality. In terms of religion, feminist theorists assert that, although women are typically the ones to socialize children into a religion, they have traditionally held very few positions of power within religions. A few religions and religious denominations are more gender equal, but male dominance remains the norm of most. In addition to examining power relations within religious organizations, feminists also attend to the ways that religion justifies and sustains a belief in patriarchy, or the assumption that men should occupy positions of authority in society.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Rational Choice Theory: Can Economic Theory Be Applied to Religion?<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034206445\">How do people decide which religion to follow, if any? How does one pick a church or decide which denomination \u201cfits\u201d best? Rational choice theory (RCT) is one way social scientists have attempted to explain these behaviors. The theory proposes that people are self-interested, though not necessarily selfish, and that people make rational choices\u2014choices that can reasonably be expected to maximize positive outcomes while minimizing negative outcomes. Sociologists Roger Finke and Rodney Stark (1988) first considered the use of RCT to explain some aspects of religious behavior, with the assumption that there is a basic human need for religion in terms of providing belief in a supernatural being, a sense of meaning in life, and belief in life after death. Religious explanations of these concepts are presumed to be more satisfactory than scientific explanations, which may help to account for the continuation of strong religious connectedness in countries such as the United States, despite predictions of some competing theories for a great decline in religious affiliation due to modernization and religious pluralism.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034197133\">Another assumption of RCT is that religious organizations can be viewed in terms of \u201ccosts\u201d and \u201crewards.\u201d Costs are not only monetary requirements, but are also the time, effort, and commitment demands of any particular religious organization. Rewards are the intangible benefits in terms of belief and satisfactory explanations about life, death, and the supernatural, as well as social rewards from membership. RCT proposes that, in a pluralistic society with many religious options, religious organizations will compete for members, and people will choose between different churches or denominations in much the same way they select other consumer goods, balancing costs and rewards in a rational manner. In this framework, RCT also explains the development and decline of churches, denominations, sects, and even cults; this limited part of the very complex RCT theory is the only aspect well supported by research data.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034205898\">Critics of RCT argue that it doesn\u2019t fit well with human spiritual needs, and many sociologists disagree that the costs and rewards of religion can even be meaningfully measured or that individuals use a rational balancing process regarding religious affiliation. The theory doesn\u2019t address many aspects of religion that individuals may consider essential (such as faith) and further fails to account for agnostics and atheists who don\u2019t seem to have a similar need for religious explanations. Critics also believe this theory overuses economic terminology and structure and point out that terms such as \u201crational\u201d and \u201creward\u201d are unacceptably defined by their use; they would argue that the theory is based on faulty logic and lacks external, empirical support. A scientific explanation for <em>why<\/em> something occurs can\u2019t reasonably be supported by the fact that it <em>does<\/em> occur. RCT is widely used in economics and to a lesser extent in criminal justice, but the application of RCT in explaining the religious beliefs and behaviors of people and societies is still being debated in sociology today.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id3028478\">\r\n<h3>Symbolic Interactionism<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034203895\">Rising from the concept that our world is socially constructed, symbolic interactionism studies the symbols and interactions of everyday life. To interactionists, beliefs and experiences are not sacred unless individuals in a society regard them as sacred. The Star of David in Judaism, the cross in Christianity, and the crescent and star in Islam are examples of sacred symbols. Interactionists are interested in the negotiated meanings that different societies and groups attribute to these symbols.<\/p>\r\nBecause interactionists study one-on-one, everyday interactions between individuals, a scholar using this approach might ask questions focused on this dynamic. The interaction between religious leaders and practitioners, the role of religion in the ordinary components of everyday life, and the ways people express religious values in social interactions\u2014all might be topics of study to an interactionist.\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video for a deeper look into each theoretical perspective on religion.<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/pIgb-3e8CWA[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1662112\" class=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"exercise\">\r\nConsider a religion that you are familiar with, and discuss some of its beliefs, behaviors, and norms. Discuss how these meet social needs. Then, research a religion that you don\u2019t know much about. Explain how its beliefs, behaviors, and norms are like\/unlike the other religion.\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]religion:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]religious beliefs:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]specific ideas that members of a particular faith hold to be true[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]religious experience:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the conviction or sensation that one is connected to \u201cthe divine\u201d[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]religious rituals:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]behaviors or practices that are either required for or expected of the members of a particular group[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Discuss the historical views and sociological perspectives on religion<\/li>\n<li>Explain how the major sociological paradigms view religion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Religion describes the beliefs, values, and practices related to sacred or spiritual concerns. It\u00a0is a social institution, because it serves\u00a0societal needs, including a sense of community. Religion is also an example of a cultural universal, because it is found in all societies in one form or another. Functionalism, conflict theory, and interactionism all provide valuable ways for sociologists to understand religion.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6016\" style=\"width: 474px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6016\" class=\"wp-image-6016\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2034\/2016\/05\/27220623\/1599px-The_Line_of_Communion_7074868945.jpg\" alt=\"A woman with a head covering is in the middle of the photo holding a cup. There is a cross and a depiction of Jesus Christ out of focus in the background.\" width=\"464\" height=\"309\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-6016\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. A woman administers communion, a religious ceremony, dispensing wine and bread to a line of congregants. (Photo courtesy of Alex Proimos\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>The History of Religion<\/h2>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169033139731\">What is religion? Pioneering sociologist \u00c9mile Durkheim claimed that it consists of \u201cthings that surpass the limits of our knowledge\u201d (1915).\u00a0He defined religion as \u201ca unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community, called a church, all those who adhere to them\u201d (1915). Some people associate religion with places of worship (a synagogue or church), others with a practice (confession or meditation), and still others with a concept that guides their daily lives (like dharma or sin). All these people can agree that <span id=\"import-auto-id1169033112479\">religion<\/span> is a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds sacred or considers to be spiritually significant.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id2215982\" class=\"references\"><\/section>\n<div>\n<p>From the Latin <em>religio<\/em> (respect for what is sacred) and <em>religare<\/em> (to bind, in the sense of an obligation), the term religion describes systems of belief and practice that define what people consider to be sacred or spiritual ( Durkheim, 1915; Fasching and deChant, 2001). Throughout history, and in societies across the world, leaders have used religious narratives, symbols, and traditions in an attempt to give more meaning to life and to offer a framework for understanding the universe. Some form of religion is found in every known culture, and it is usually practiced in a public way by a recognizable group. The practice of religion can include feasts and festivals, prayer to God or gods, marriage and funeral services, devotional music and art, meditation or initiation, sacrifice or service, and other aspects of ritualized culture.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034204417\">While some people think of religion as something individual because religious beliefs can be highly personal, religion is also a social institution. Social scientists recognize that religion exists as an organized and integrated set of beliefs, behaviors, and norms centered on basic social needs and values. Moreover, religion is a cultural universal found in all social groups. For instance, in every culture, funeral rites are practiced in some way, although these customs vary between cultures and within religious affiliations. Despite differences, there are common elements in a ceremony marking a person\u2019s death, such as announcement of the death, care of the deceased, disposition (e.g., cremation or burial), and ceremony or ritual. These universals, and the differences in how societies and individuals experience and practice religion, provide rich material for sociological study.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034222946\">In studying religion, sociologists distinguish between experience, belief, and ritual. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1169034209951\">Religious experience<\/span><\/strong> refers to the conviction or sensation that we are connected to \u201cthe divine\u201d and\u00a0might be felt when people\u00a0pray or meditate. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1169034198622\">Religious beliefs<\/span><\/strong> are specific ideas members of a particular faith hold to be true, such as that Jesus Christ was the son of God, or that reincarnation exists. Another illustration of religious beliefs is the creation stories we find in different religions. <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1169034204928\">Religious rituals<\/span><\/strong> are behaviors or practices that are either required or expected of the members of a particular group, such as baptism, bar mitzvah, First Communion, or confession of sins (Barkan and Greenwood, 2003).<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id2331778\">\n<h3>The History of Religion as a Sociological Concept<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034225830\">In the wake of nineteenth century European industrialization and secularization, three social theorists attempted to examine the relationship between religion and society: Karl Marx, \u00c9mile Durkheim, and Max Weber.<\/p>\n<p>German philosopher, journalist, and revolutionary socialist\u00a0Karl Marx\u00a0(1818\u20131883) studied the social impact of religion. He believed religion reflects the social stratification of society and that it maintains inequality and perpetuates an unjust status quo. For him, religion was just an extension of and false remedy for working-class (proletarian) economic suffering. He famously argued that religion \u201cis the opium of the people\u201d (1844).<\/p>\n<p>French sociologist \u00c9mile Durkheim (1858\u20131917) defined religion as a \u201cunified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things\u201d (1915). To him, sacred meant extraordinary\u2014something that inspired wonder and that seemed connected to the concept of \u201cthe divine.\u201d Durkheim argued that \u201creligion happens\u201d in society when there is a separation between the profane (ordinary life) and the sacred (1915). A rock, for example, isn\u2019t sacred or profane as it exists. But if someone makes it into a headstone, or another person uses it for landscaping, it takes on different meanings\u2014one sacred, one profane.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034185059\">Durkheim is generally considered the first sociologist who analyzed religion in terms of its societal impact. Above all, he believed religion is about community: It binds people together (social cohesion), promotes behavior consistency (social control), and offers strength during life\u2019s transitions and tragedies (meaning and purpose). By applying the methods of natural science to the study of society, Durkheim held that the source of religion and morality is the collective mind-set of society and that the cohesive bonds of social order result from common values in a society. He contended that these values need to be maintained to preserve social stability.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034215109\">But what would happen if religion were to decline? This question led Durkheim to posit that religion is not just a social creation but something that demonstrates the cohesive power of societal bonds: when people celebrate sacred things, they celebrate the stabilizing power of their society. By this reasoning, even if traditional religion disappeared, society wouldn\u2019t necessarily dissolve.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034184002\">Whereas Durkheim saw religion as a source of social stability, German sociologist and political economist Max Weber (1864\u20131920) believed it was a precipitator of social change. He examined the effects of religion on economic activities and noticed that heavily Protestant societies\u2014such as those in the Netherlands, England, Scotland, and Germany\u2014were the most highly developed capitalist societies and that their most successful business leaders were Protestant. In his writing <em>The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism<\/em> (1905), he contends that the Protestant work ethic influenced and accelerated the development of capitalism. Weber noted that certain kinds of Protestantism supported the pursuit of material gain by motivating believers to work hard, be successful, and not spend their money on frivolous things. (The modern use of \u201cwork ethic\u201d comes directly from Weber\u2019s Protestant ethic, although it has now lost its religious connotations.)<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"title\">The Protestant Work Ethic in the Information Age<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034196909\">Max Weber (1904) posited that, in Europe in his time, Protestants were more likely than Catholics to value capitalist ideology, and believed in hard work and careful saving. He showed that Protestant values directly influenced the rise of capitalism and helped create the modern world order. Weber thought the emphasis on community in Catholicism versus the emphasis on individual achievement in Protestantism made a difference.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this brief video to review Weber&#8217;s ideas:<\/strong><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Max Weber and the Protestant Ethic\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/j-0sIHDzsU4?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>Weber&#8217;s century-old claim that the Protestant work ethic led to the development of capitalism has been one of the most important and controversial topics in the sociology of religion. Despite its influence, some scholars have found little merit to his contention when applied to modern society (Greeley, 1989).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034198389\">What does the concept of work ethic mean today? The work ethic in the information age has been affected by tremendous cultural and social change, just as labor practices and relations were shaped by the Industrial Revolution. In that period, factory jobs tended to be simple, and required very little thinking or decision making on the part of the worker. Today, the work ethic of the modern workforce has been transformed, as more thinking and decision making is required. Contemporary workers also seek autonomy and fulfillment in their jobs, not just wages. Higher levels of education have become necessary, as have interpersonal management skills and access to the most recent information on any given topic. The information age has increased the rapid pace of production expected in many sectors of the economy.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034184814\">On the other hand, the \u201cMcDonaldization\u201d of the United States (Hightower, 1975; Ritzer, 1993), in which many &#8220;service&#8221; industries, such as the fast-food and retail industries, have established routinized roles and tasks, has resulted in a \u201cdiscouragement\u201d of the work ethic. In jobs where roles and tasks are highly prescribed, workers have no opportunity to make decisions. They are considered replaceable commodities as opposed to valued employees. During times of recession, these service jobs may be the only employment available to younger individuals or those with low-level skills and credentials. The pay, working conditions, and robotic nature of the tasks dehumanizes the workers and strips them of incentives for doing quality work.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034296706\">Working hard also doesn\u2019t seem to have any relationship with Catholic or Protestant religious beliefs anymore, or those of other religions; information age workers expect talent and hard work to be rewarded by material gain and career advancement. In fact, some people now argue that work has <em>replaced<\/em> religion. Read this article, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/ideas\/archive\/2019\/02\/religion-workism-making-americans-miserable\/583441\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Workism Is Making Americans Miserable<\/a>,&#8221; by Derek Thompson to learn more.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034219092\">For Durkheim, Weber, and Marx, who were reacting to the great social and economic upheaval of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century in Europe, religion was an integral part of society. For Durkheim, religion was a cohesive force that helped bind the members of society together, while Weber believed religion could be understood as something important to, but separate from, society. Marx considered religion inseparable from the economy and the worker&#8217;s position within it. Religion could not be understood apart from the capitalist society that perpetuated inequality. Despite their different views, these social theorists all believed in the importance of religion to society.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1381326\">\n<section id=\"fs-id3028478\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034214152\">For more discussion on the study of sociology and religion, check out the following blog:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/tif.ssrc.org\/about\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">The Immanent Frame<\/a>. It is a forum for the exchange of ideas about religion, secularism, and society by leading thinkers in the social sciences and humanities.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1662112\" class=\"short-answer\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div class=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-id1587450\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169034188169\">List some ways that you see religion exerting social control in the everyday world.<\/li>\n<li>What are some sacred items that you\u2019re familiar with? Are there some objects, such as cups, candles, or clothing, that would be considered profane in normal settings but are considered sacred in special circumstances or when used in specific ways?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<h2>Theoretical Perspectives on Religion<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1169034221472\">\n<div style=\"width: 210px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204551\/Figure_15_01_01.jpg\" alt=\"Numerous people are shown from behind standing in a church.\" width=\"200\" height=\"450\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2.\u00a0<\/strong>Functionalists believe religion meets many important needs for people, including group cohesion and companionship. (Photo courtesy of James Emery\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034203824\">Modern-day sociologists often apply one of the major theoretical perspectives. These views offer different lenses through which to study and understand society: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Let\u2019s explore how scholars applying these paradigms understand religion.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1331313\">\n<h3>Functionalism<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034178159\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">Functionalists contend that religion serves several functions in society. Religion, in fact, depends on society for its existence, value, and significance, and vice versa. From this perspective, religion serves several purposes, like providing answers to spiritual mysteries, offering emotional comfort, and creating a place for social interaction and social control.<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034196888\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">In providing answers, religion defines the spiritual world and spiritual forces, including divine beings. For example, it helps answer questions like, \u201cHow was the world created?\u201d \u201cWhy do we suffer?\u201d \u201cIs there a plan for our lives?\u201d and \u201cIs there an afterlife?\u201d As another function, religion provides emotional comfort in times of crisis. Religious rituals bring order, reassurance, and organization through shared familiar symbols and patterns of behavior.<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034209298\"><span style=\"color: #000000\">One of the most important functions of religion, from a functionalist perspective, is the opportunities it creates for socializing and the formation of groups. It provides social support and offers a place to meet others who hold simila<\/span>r values, as well as a place to seek help (spiritual and material) in times of need. Moreover, it can foster group cohesion and integration. Because religion can be central to many people\u2019s concept of themselves, sometimes there is an \u201cin-group\u201d versus \u201cout-group\u201d feeling toward other religions in our society or within a particular practice.\u00a0Religion promotes social control: it reinforces social norms such as appropriate styles of dress, following the law, conforming to gender roles, and regulating sexual behavior.<\/p>\n<p>On an extreme level, the dysfunctions of this type of in-group\/ out-group mentality has resulted in violent episodes such as the Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834) and\u00a0the Salem witch trials (1692-1693), as well as extremist acts by anti-Semitic groups, jihadists, Christian fundamentalists, and many more. Social control can be a function of religious groups but it can also be dysfunctional when prescriptive social norms produce inequality between men and women, between different castes or classes, and\/or when they diminish individual agency and choice within a religious group.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 260px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204553\/Figure_15_01_02.jpg\" alt=\"About a half-dozen older men wearing Roman Catholic priestly garb are shown from the shoulders up.\" width=\"250\" height=\"333\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"color: #000000\"><strong>Figure 3.\u00a0<\/strong>Many religions, including the Catholic faith, have long prohibited women from becoming spiritual leaders. Feminist theorists focus on gender inequality and promote leadership roles for women in religion. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1337643\">\n<span style=\"color: #000000\">Conflict Theory<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034215695\">Conflict theorists view religion as an institution that helps maintain patterns of social inequality. For example, the Vatican has a tremendous amount of wealth, while the average income of Catholic parishioners is small. According to this perspective, religion has been used to support the \u201cdivine right\u201d of oppressive hereditary monarchies and to justify unequal social structures, like India\u2019s rigidly hierarchical caste system.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034209617\">Conflict theorists are critical of the way many religions promote the idea that believers should be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely ordained. This power dynamic has been used by Christian institutions for centuries to keep poor people poor and to teach them that they shouldn\u2019t be concerned with what they lack because their \u201ctrue\u201d reward (from a religious perspective) will come after death. Conflict theorists also point out that those in power in a religion are often able to dictate practices, rituals, and beliefs through their interpretation of religious texts or via proclaimed direct communication with the divine, perhaps through &#8220;revelation&#8221; or a process of &#8220;divination.&#8221;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1169034221473\"><\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034185634\">The feminist perspective is considered to be another\u00a0conflict theory view that focuses specifically on gender inequality. In terms of religion, feminist theorists assert that, although women are typically the ones to socialize children into a religion, they have traditionally held very few positions of power within religions. A few religions and religious denominations are more gender equal, but male dominance remains the norm of most. In addition to examining power relations within religious organizations, feminists also attend to the ways that religion justifies and sustains a belief in patriarchy, or the assumption that men should occupy positions of authority in society.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Rational Choice Theory: Can Economic Theory Be Applied to Religion?<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034206445\">How do people decide which religion to follow, if any? How does one pick a church or decide which denomination \u201cfits\u201d best? Rational choice theory (RCT) is one way social scientists have attempted to explain these behaviors. The theory proposes that people are self-interested, though not necessarily selfish, and that people make rational choices\u2014choices that can reasonably be expected to maximize positive outcomes while minimizing negative outcomes. Sociologists Roger Finke and Rodney Stark (1988) first considered the use of RCT to explain some aspects of religious behavior, with the assumption that there is a basic human need for religion in terms of providing belief in a supernatural being, a sense of meaning in life, and belief in life after death. Religious explanations of these concepts are presumed to be more satisfactory than scientific explanations, which may help to account for the continuation of strong religious connectedness in countries such as the United States, despite predictions of some competing theories for a great decline in religious affiliation due to modernization and religious pluralism.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034197133\">Another assumption of RCT is that religious organizations can be viewed in terms of \u201ccosts\u201d and \u201crewards.\u201d Costs are not only monetary requirements, but are also the time, effort, and commitment demands of any particular religious organization. Rewards are the intangible benefits in terms of belief and satisfactory explanations about life, death, and the supernatural, as well as social rewards from membership. RCT proposes that, in a pluralistic society with many religious options, religious organizations will compete for members, and people will choose between different churches or denominations in much the same way they select other consumer goods, balancing costs and rewards in a rational manner. In this framework, RCT also explains the development and decline of churches, denominations, sects, and even cults; this limited part of the very complex RCT theory is the only aspect well supported by research data.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034205898\">Critics of RCT argue that it doesn\u2019t fit well with human spiritual needs, and many sociologists disagree that the costs and rewards of religion can even be meaningfully measured or that individuals use a rational balancing process regarding religious affiliation. The theory doesn\u2019t address many aspects of religion that individuals may consider essential (such as faith) and further fails to account for agnostics and atheists who don\u2019t seem to have a similar need for religious explanations. Critics also believe this theory overuses economic terminology and structure and point out that terms such as \u201crational\u201d and \u201creward\u201d are unacceptably defined by their use; they would argue that the theory is based on faulty logic and lacks external, empirical support. A scientific explanation for <em>why<\/em> something occurs can\u2019t reasonably be supported by the fact that it <em>does<\/em> occur. RCT is widely used in economics and to a lesser extent in criminal justice, but the application of RCT in explaining the religious beliefs and behaviors of people and societies is still being debated in sociology today.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id3028478\">\n<h3>Symbolic Interactionism<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169034203895\">Rising from the concept that our world is socially constructed, symbolic interactionism studies the symbols and interactions of everyday life. To interactionists, beliefs and experiences are not sacred unless individuals in a society regard them as sacred. The Star of David in Judaism, the cross in Christianity, and the crescent and star in Islam are examples of sacred symbols. Interactionists are interested in the negotiated meanings that different societies and groups attribute to these symbols.<\/p>\n<p>Because interactionists study one-on-one, everyday interactions between individuals, a scholar using this approach might ask questions focused on this dynamic. The interaction between religious leaders and practitioners, the role of religion in the ordinary components of everyday life, and the ways people express religious values in social interactions\u2014all might be topics of study to an interactionist.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video for a deeper look into each theoretical perspective on religion.<\/strong><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Religion: Crash Course Sociology #39\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/pIgb-3e8CWA?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1662112\" class=\"short-answer\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div class=\"exercise\">\nConsider a religion that you are familiar with, and discuss some of its beliefs, behaviors, and norms. Discuss how these meet social needs. Then, research a religion that you don\u2019t know much about. Explain how its beliefs, behaviors, and norms are like\/unlike the other religion.\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>religion:<\/dt>\n<dd>a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant<\/dd>\n<dt>religious beliefs:<\/dt>\n<dd>specific ideas that members of a particular faith hold to be true<\/dd>\n<dt>religious experience:<\/dt>\n<dd>the conviction or sensation that one is connected to \u201cthe divine\u201d<\/dd>\n<dt>religious rituals:<\/dt>\n<dd>behaviors or practices that are either required for or expected of the members of a particular group<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-271\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Sociological Views on Religion. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Sarah Hoiland for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Revision and Original Content related to feminist theory. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>The Sociological Approach to Religion. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:U9O-WSd_@3\/The-Sociological-Approach-to-Religion\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:U9O-WSd_@3\/The-Sociological-Approach-to-Religion<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><li>The Line of Communion. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Alex Proimos. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia Commons. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_Line_of_Communion_(7074868945).jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_Line_of_Communion_(7074868945).jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Max Weber and the Protestant Ethic. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: BBC Radio 4. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=j-0sIHDzsU4\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=j-0sIHDzsU4<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Religion: Crash Course Sociology #39. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: CrashCourse. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=pIgb-3e8CWA&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA&#038;index=40\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=pIgb-3e8CWA&#038;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA&#038;index=40<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Sociological Views on Religion\",\"author\":\"Sarah Hoiland for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The Sociological Approach to Religion\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:U9O-WSd_@3\/The-Sociological-Approach-to-Religion\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The Line of Communion\",\"author\":\"Alex Proimos\",\"organization\":\"Wikimedia Commons\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_Line_of_Communion_(7074868945).jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Max Weber and the Protestant Ethic\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"BBC Radio 4\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=j-0sIHDzsU4\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Revision and Original Content related to feminist theory\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Religion: Crash Course Sociology #39\",\"author\":\"CrashCourse\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=pIgb-3e8CWA&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMJ-AfB_7J1538YKWkZAnGA&index=40\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"8ce79b62-1833-490b-92de-ddbf6b653acd","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-271","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":7955,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/271","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":31,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/271\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9779,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/271\/revisions\/9779"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/7955"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/271\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=271"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=271"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=271"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=271"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}