{"id":7918,"date":"2019-07-19T12:44:06","date_gmt":"2019-07-19T12:44:06","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/wmopen-introtosociology\/chapter\/introduction-to-types-of-government\/"},"modified":"2020-07-03T21:16:17","modified_gmt":"2020-07-03T21:16:17","slug":"types-of-government","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/chapter\/types-of-government\/","title":{"raw":"Types of Government","rendered":"Types of Government"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Compare and identify common forms of government (monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, democracy)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss issues surrounding voter participation in the U.S.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explore the influence of race, gender, and class issues on the voting process<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nNations are governed by different political systems, including monarchies, oligarchies, dictatorships, and democracies. Generally speaking, citizens of nations wherein power is concentrated\u00a0in\u00a0one leader or a small group are more likely to suffer violations of civil liberties and experience economic inequality. Many nations that are today organized around democratic ideals started out as monarchies or dictatorships but have evolved into more egalitarian systems. Democratic ideals, although hard to implement and achieve, promote basic human rights and justice for all citizens.\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/c.pxhere.com\/images\/a2\/c3\/a19b0f26f21a1d2bcfb4a002e221-1445485.jpg!d\" alt=\"Graphic illustration of a hand putting a ballot into a blue box labeled &quot;VOTE&quot;\" width=\"367\" height=\"312\" \/>\r\n\r\nThe success and validity of\u00a0democracy in the U.S. hinges on free and fair elections that are characterized by the support and participation of diverse citizens. In this section, we'll examine political systems and take a look at how politics work in the United States.\r\n<h2>Forms of Government<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"200\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204619\/Figure_17_02_01.jpg\" alt=\"A mosaic of Saddam Hussein and other tile decorations are shown on a wall.\" width=\"200\" height=\"502\" \/> <strong>Figure 1.\u00a0<\/strong>Former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein used fear and intimidation to keep citizens in check. (Photo courtesy of Brian Hillegas\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2647543\">Most people generally agree that <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2276341\">anarchy<\/span><\/strong>, or the absence of organized government, does not facilitate a desirable living environment for society, but it is much harder for individuals to agree upon the particulars of how a population should be governed.<span style=\"color: #333333\"> Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, three political philosophers that heavily influenced early sociologists and whose works are widely read across sociology classrooms today, all argued that the role of government is to facilitate a form of \"social contract\" among individuals living in a society. They presented different views on human nature, relationships, and governance, but they all agreed that government was a necessary mechanism in modern societies.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\nThroughout history, various forms of government have evolved to suit the needs of changing populations and mindsets, each with pros and cons. <span style=\"color: #333333\">Today, a majority of citizens in Western societies hold that democracy is the most just and stable form of government, although former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill once declared to the House of Commons, \u201cIndeed it<\/span> has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time\u201d (Shapiro, 2006).\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id2099973\">\r\n<h3>Monarchy<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1414571\">Even though people in the United States tend to be most aware of Great Britain\u2019s royals, many other nations also recognize kings, queens, princes, princesses, and other figures with official royal titles. The power held by these positions varies from one country to another. Strictly speaking, a <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1932262\">monarchy<\/span><\/strong> is a government in which a single person (a monarch) rules until he or she dies or abdicates the throne. Usually, a <span style=\"color: #333333\">monarch claims the rights to the title by way of hereditary succession or as a result of some sort of divine appointment or calling. As mentioned above, the monarchies of most modern nations are ceremonial remnants of tradition (traditional authority as opposed to charismatic or legal-rational authority), and individ<\/span>uals who hold titles in such sovereignties are often aristocratic figureheads.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1290923\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Very few nations today, however, are run by governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated power. In other words, very few nations today are run by monarchies exercising legal-rational authority.\u00a0Nations that are run by monarchs with absolute power\u00a0are called<strong> <span id=\"import-auto-id3033534\">absolute monarchies<\/span><\/strong>. Although governments and regimes are constantly changing across the global landscape, it is generally safe to say that most modern absolute monarc<\/span>hies are concentrated in the Middle East and Africa. The small, oil-rich nation of Oman, for instance, is an example of an absolute monarchy. In this nation, Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said has ruled since the 1970s. Recently, living conditions and opportunities for Oman\u2019s citizens have improved, but many citizens who live under the reign of an absolute ruler must contend with oppressive or unfair policies that are installed based on the unchecked whims or political agendas of that leader.<\/p>\r\nIn today\u2019s global political climate, monarchies far more often take the form of <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1900916\">constitutional monarchies<\/span><\/strong>, governments of nations that recognize monarchs but require these figures to abide by the laws of a greater constitution. Many countries that are now constitutional monarchies evolved from governments that were once considered absolute monarchies. In most cases, constitutional monarchies, such as Great Britain and Canada, feature elected prime ministers whose leadership role is far more involved and significant than that of its titled monarchs. In spite of their limited authority, mona<span style=\"color: #333333\">rchs endure in such governments because people enjoy their symbolic or ceremonial significance, as well as the pageantry of their weddings, funerals, and public performances of succession.\u00a0<\/span>\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2105557\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204620\/Figure_17_02_02.jpg\" alt=\"Queen Noor of Jordan is shown speaking into mics on a podium\" width=\"300\" height=\"400\" \/> <strong>Figure 2.\u00a0<\/strong>Queen Noor of Jordan is the dowager queen of this constitutional monarchy and has limited political authority. Queen Noor is American by birth, but relinquished her citizenship when she married. She is a noted global advocate for Arab-Western relations. (Photo courtesy of Skoll World Forum\/flickr)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/section><section>\r\n<h3>Oligarchy<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1448182\">The power in an <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1778950\">oligarchy<\/span><\/strong> is held by a small, elite group. Unlike in a monarchy, members of an oligarchy do not necessarily achieve their statuses based on ties to noble ancestry. Rather, they may ascend to positions of power because of military might, economic power, or similar circumstances.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2020484\">The concept of oligarchy is somewhat elusive; rarely does a society openly define itself as an oligarchy. Generally, the word carries negative connotations and conjures notions of a corrupt group whose members make unfair policy decisions in order to maintain their privileged positions. Many modern nations that claim to be democracies are really <span style=\"color: #333333\">oligarchies. In fact, some prominent journalists, such as Paul Krugman, who won a Nobel\u00a0Laureate Prize in economics, have labeled the United States an oligarchy, pointing to the influence of large corp<\/span>orations and Wall Street executives on U.S. policy (Krugman, 2011). Other political analysts assert that all democracies are really just \u201celected oligarchies,\u201d or systems in which citizens must vote for an individual who is part of a pool of candidates who come from the society\u2019s elite ruling class (Winters, 2011).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1662490\">Oligarchies have existed throughout history, and today many consider Russia an example of oligarchic political structure. After the fall of communism, groups of business owners captured control of the nation\u2019s natural resources and have used the opportunity to expand their wealth and political influence. <span style=\"color: #333333\">Once an oligarchic power structure has been established, it can be very difficult for middle and lower-class citizens to advance their socioeconomic status.\u00a0The line between oligarchies and democracies is grayer than we probably want it to be, and some would even argue that no nation is a true democracy, as it is impossible to have no interest groups, companies, or economically advantaged elites seeking to influence policy.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3 class=\"title\">Is the United States an Oligarchy?<\/h3>\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1666720\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"200\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204622\/Figure_17_02_03.jpg\" alt=\"A mansion with a large green field built during the Gilded Age.\" width=\"200\" height=\"300\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.\u00a0<\/strong>The American Gilded Age was one of lavish parties hosted in the grand mansions of wealthy families. (Photo courtesy of Seniju\/flickr)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2869360\">The American Gilded Age saw the rise and dominance of ultra-rich families such as the Vanderbilts, Rockefellers, and Carnegies, and the wealthy often indulged in absurd luxuries. One example is a lavish dinner party hosted for a pampered pet dog who attended wearing a $15,000 diamond collar (PBS Online, 1999). At the same time, most Americans barely scraped by, living below what was considered the poverty level.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2784652\">Some scholars believe that the United States has now embarked on a second gilded age, pointing out that the \u201c400 wealthiest American families now own more than the \u2018lower\u2019 150 million Americans put together\" (Schultz, 2011), and \u201cthe top 10% of earners took in more than half of the country\u2019s overall income in 2012, the highest proportion recorded in a century of government record keeping\u201d (Lowery, 20<span style=\"color: #333333\">14).\u00a0Recent movements in the United States have drawn attention to the power and privilege of the extremely wealthy, often referred to as the 1%, and have sought to reform policy due to their lack of proportional contributions in taxes. In 2015, the 1% were those who earned over $480,930 annually, although this varies significantly based on location, with some areas being so costly that a person needs to earn nearly double that to be in the 1%. [footnote]Konish, Lorie (July 2018) \"Here\u2019s how much money those 1 percenters really make.\" CNBC. Retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnbc.com\/2018\/07\/10\/heres-how-much-money-the-1-percent-really-make.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.cnbc.com\/2018\/07\/10\/heres-how-much-money-the-1-percent-really-make.html<\/a>.[\/footnote]\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\nMany of the super\u2013rich use their economic clout to purchase more than luxury items; wealthy individuals and corporations are major political donors. Based on campaign finance reform legislation in 1971 and 2002, political campaign contributions were regulated and limited; however, the 2012 Supreme Court decision in the case of Citizen\u2019s United versus the Federal Election Commission repealed many of those restrictions. The Court ruled that contributions of corporations and unions to Political Action Committees (PACs) are a form of free speech that cannot be abridged and so cannot be limited or disclosed. Opponents believe that this definition effectively promotes oligarchy in the United States. The ultra-wealthy and those who control the purse strings of large corporations and unions will, in effect, be able to elect their candidate of choice through their unlimited spending power, as well as influence policy decisions, appointments to non-elected government jobs, and other forms of political power. Krugman (2011) says, \u201cWe have a society in which money is increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few people, and in which that concentration of income and wealth threatens to make us a democracy in name only.\u201d\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id3025884\"><\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id2859936\">\r\n<h3>Dictatorship<\/h3>\r\nPower in a <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1151658\">dictatorship<\/span><\/strong> is held by a single person (or a very small group) that wields complete and absolute authority over a government and population. Like some absolute monarchies, dictatorships may be corrupt and seek to limit or even eradicate the liberties of the general population. Dictators use a variety of means to perpetuate their authority. Economic and military might, as well as intimidation and brutality, are often foremost among their tactics; individuals are less likely to rebel when they are starving and fearful. Many dictators start out as military leaders and are conditioned to the use of violence against opposition.\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1873218\">Some dictators also possess the personal appeal that Max Weber identified with a charismatic leader. Subjects of such a dictator may believe that the leader has special ability or authority and may be willing to submit to his or her authority. The late Kim Jong-Il, North Korean dictator, and his successor, Kim Jong-Un, exemplify this type of charismatic dictatorship.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video for a brief explanation of how North Korea as the least democratic country in the world, exemplifies a modern dictatorship:<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/uGCodBnM2hI[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2010456\">Some dictatorships do not align themselves with any particular belief system or ideology; the goal of this type of regime is usually limited to preserving the authority of the dictator. A<strong> totalitarian dictatorship<\/strong> is even more oppressive and attempts to control all aspects of its subjects\u2019 lives, including occupation, religious beliefs, and number of children permitted to each family. Citizens may be forced to publicly demonstrate their faith in the regime by participating in marches and demonstrations.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1194471\">Some \u201cbenevolent\u201d dictators, such as Napoleon and Anwar Sadat, are credited with advancing their people\u2019s standard of living or exercising a moderate amount of even-handedness. Others grossly abuse their power. Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Cambodia\u2019s Pol Pot, and Zimbabwe\u2019s Robert Mugabe, for instance, are heads of state who earned a reputation for leading through fear, violence, and intimidation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2388846\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"200\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204625\/Figure_17_02_05.jpg\" alt=\"Kim Jong-Il of North Korea is shown wearing sunglasses, standing among a group of uniformed North Korean soldiers.\" width=\"200\" height=\"512\" \/> <strong>Figure 4.\u00a0<\/strong>Dictator Kim Jong-Il of North Korea was a charismatic leader of an absolute dictatorship. His followers responded emotionally to the death of their leader in 2011. (Photo courtesy of babeltrave\/flickr)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id2080508\">\r\n<h3>Democracy<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2281694\">A <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1496528\">democracy<\/span><\/strong> is a form of governme<span style=\"color: #333333\">nt that strives to provide all citizens with an equal voice, or vote, in determining state policy, regardless of their level of socioeconomic status or other attributes. Another important fundamental of the democratic state is the establishment and governance of a just and comprehensive constitution-like document\u00a0that delineates the roles and responsibilities of leaders and citizens alike.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1683170\">Democracies, in general, ensure certain basic rights for their citizens. First and foremost, citizens are free to organize political parties and hold elections. Leaders, once elected, must abide by the terms of the given nation\u2019s constitution and are limited in the powers they can exercise, as well as in the length of the duration of their terms. Most d<span style=\"color: #333333\">emocratic societies also champion freedom of individual speech, the press, and assembly, and they prohibit unlawful imprisonment. Of course, even in a democratic society, the government constrains citizens' total freedom to act however they wish\u2014a sacrifice that individuals must make in order to have other rights protected, as the social contract theorists first posited. A democratically elected government does this by passing laws and writing regulations that, at least ideally, reflect the will of the majority of its people.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1452853\">Although the United States champions the democratic ideology, it is not a \u201cpure\u201d democracy. In a purely democratic society, all citizens would vote on all proposed legislation, and this is not how laws are passed in the United States. There is a practical reason for this: a pure democracy would be hard to implement. Thus, the United States is a constitution-based federal republic in which citizens elect representatives to make policy decisions on their behalf. The term <strong>representative democracy<\/strong>, which is virtually synonymous with <em>republic<\/em>, can also be used to describe a government in which citizens elect representatives to promote policies that favor their interests. In the United States, representatives are elected at local and state levels, and the votes of the Electoral College determine who will hold the office of president. Each of the three branches of the U.S. government\u2014the executive, judicial, and legislative\u2014is held in check by the other branches.<\/p>\r\nThe Electoral College is one of the hotly debated topics in today's political arena, and a rather complicated system to untangle. It has benefits and drawbacks.\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video to better understand the role of The Electoral College in our democracy:<\/strong>\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/W9H3gvnN468[\/embed]<\/p>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1337213\">The Tea Party is among the highest-profile grassroots organizations active in U.S. politics today. What is its official platform? Examine the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.teaparty.org\/about-us\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Tea Party website<\/a> to find out more information.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id2675431\" class=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id2361925\" class=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1323847\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li id=\"import-auto-id1395952\">Do you feel the United States has become an oligarchy? Why, or why not?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how an absolute monarchy differs from a dictatorship.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In which form of government do average citizens have the least political power? What options might they have for exerting political power under this type of regime?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2>Politics in the United States<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"250\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204628\/Figure_17_03_01.jpg\" alt=\"People are shown standing outside a building in line. Signs on the building read \u201cvote here\u201d in various languages.\" width=\"250\" height=\"332\" \/> <strong>Figure 5.\u00a0<\/strong>Americans' voting rights are a fundamental element of the U.S. democratic structure. (Photo courtesy of David Goehring\/flickr)[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3073828\">When discussing a nation\u2019s government, we should also define the word\u00a0\"politics.\" We may have associated the term with freedom, power, corruption, or rhetoric. Political science looks at <strong>politics<\/strong> as the interaction between citizens and their government. Sociology studies politics as a means to understand the underlying social norms and values of a group. A society\u2019s political structure and practices provide insight into the distribution of power and wealth, as well as larger philosophical and cultural beliefs. A cursory sociological analysis of U.S. politics might suggest that Americans' desire to promote equality and democracy on a theoretical level is at odds with the nation\u2019s real-life capitalist orientation.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3081534\">Lincoln's famous phrase \u201cof the people, by the people, for the people\u201d is at the heart of the U.S. system and sums up its most essential aspect: that citizens willingly and freely elect representatives they believe will look out for their best interests. Although many Americans take free elections for granted, it is a vital foundation of any democracy. When the United States government was formed, however, African Americans and women were denied the right to vote. Democratic ideals and giving people a voice, which partially caused the American revolution and were fundamental ideals of American politics, initially failed specific groups and placed them at a further disadvantage than they were already in.\u00a0Each of these groups struggled to secure the same suffrage rights as their white male counterparts, yet this history fails to inspire some Americans to show up at the polls and cast their ballots. Problems with the democratic process, including limited voter turnout, require us to more closely examine complex social issues that influence political participation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id3599029\">\r\n<h3>Voter Participation<\/h3>\r\nVoter participation is essential to the success of the U.S. political system. Although many Americans are quick to complain about laws and political leadership, a substantial portion of individuals do not vote.\u00a0Likely the result of more polarized elections and partisan politics, voter turnout has actually increased dramatically in the past 12 years. In 2016, 61.4 percent of the qualifying population voted; in 2008, 63.3 percent did.[footnote]Manuel Krogsted, Jens and Mark Hugo Lopez (May 2017). <em>Black voter turnout fell in 2016, even as a record number of Americans cast ballots<\/em>. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/05\/12\/black-voter-turnout-fell-in-2016-even-as-a-record-number-of-americans-cast-ballots\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/05\/12\/black-voter-turnout-fell-in-2016-even-as-a-record-number-of-americans-cast-ballots\/<\/a>.[\/footnote] Even mid-term elections (the ones that do not encompass a presidential election) have seen an increase in voter turnout\u2014in 2018, 47 percent of the voting-eligible population participated.[footnote]Domonoske, Camila (November 2018). <em>A Boatload Of Ballots: Midterm Voter Turnout Hit 50-Year High<\/em>. Retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2018\/11\/08\/665197690\/a-boatload-of-ballots-midterm-voter-turnout-hit-50-year-high\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2018\/11\/08\/665197690\/a-boatload-of-ballots-midterm-voter-turnout-hit-50-year-high<\/a>. [\/footnote] Even with recent increases in voter turnout, poor turnout can skew election results, particularly if one age or socioeconomic group is more diligent in its efforts to make it to the polls. Consequently, election outcomes can seem disconnected from substantial parts of the population they ostensibly represent.\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWant to better understand voter turnout? Watch <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=134&amp;v=You0q4JJzS4\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this Khan Academy video<\/a>, which explains how voter turnout in the United States is related to political participation.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2217881\">Certain voting advocacy groups work to improve turnout. Rock the Vote, for example, targets and reaches out to America\u2019s youngest potential voters to educate and equip them to share their voice at the polls. Public service promos from celebrity musicians support their cause. Native Vote is an organization that strives to inform American Indians about upcoming elections and encourages their participation. America\u2019s Hispanic population is reached out to by the National Council of La Raza, which strives to improve voter turnout among the Latino population. William Frey, author of Diversity Explosion, points out that Hispanics, Asians, and multiracial populations is expected to double in the next forty years (Balz, 2014), and they are therefore likely to increasingly influence elections.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1335751\">\r\n<h4>Race, Gender, and Class Issues<\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1750575\">Although recent records have shown more voting among historically marginalized populations now than ever before, this trend is still fairly new. Historically, African Americans and other racialized groups have been underrepresented at the polls. Black men were not allowed to vote at all until after the Civil War, and black women gained the right to vote along with other women only with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920. For years, African Americans who were brave enough to vote were discouraged by discriminatory legislation, passed in many southern states, which required poll taxes and literacy tests of prospective voters.\u00a0While voting was legal for African Americans, additional barriers kept them from reaching the polls.\u00a0Literacy tests were not outlawed until 1965, when President Lyndon Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1325772\">The 1965 Voting Rights Act was preceded by Lyndon Johnson\u2019s signing of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Both articles were instrumental in establishing equal rights for African Americans. Check out <a href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/wex\/Civil_rights\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cornell University\u2019s website<\/a> on this topic to learn more about this civil rights legislation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id811407\">The 1960s saw other important reforms in U.S. voting. Shortly before the Voting Rights Act was passed, the 1964 U.S. Supreme Court case <em>Reynolds v. Sims<\/em> changed the nature of elections. This landmark decision reaffirmed the notion of \u201c<strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2774502\">one person, one vote<\/span><\/strong>,\u201d a concept holding that all people\u2019s votes should be counted equally. Before this decision, unequal distributions of population enabled small groups of people in sparsely populated rural areas to have as much voting power as the denser populations of urban areas. After <em>Reynolds v. Sims<\/em>, districts were redrawn so that they would include equal numbers of voters.<\/p>\r\nUnfortunately, in June 2013, the Supreme Court repealed several important aspects of the 1965 Voting Rights Act, ruling that southern states no longer need the stricter scrutiny that was once required to prohibit racial discrimination in voting practices in the South. Following this decision, several states moved forward with voter identification laws that had previously been banned by federal courts. Officials in Texas, Mississippi, and Alabama claim that new identification (ID) laws are needed to reduce voter fraud. Opponents point to the Department of Justice statistics\u00a0indicating that only twenty-six voters, of 197 million voters in federal elections, were found guilty of voter fraud between 2002 and 2005. \"Contemporary voter identification laws are trying to solve a problem that hasn\u2019t existed in over a century\u201d (Campbell, 2012). Opponents further note that new voter ID laws disproportionately affect minorities and the poor, potentially prohibiting them from exercising their right to vote.\u00a0As such, modern forms of informal discrimination continue to exist, despite institutional policies that allow Americans to vote.\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1872590\">Evidence suggests that legal protection of voting rights does not directly translate into equal voting power. Relative to their presence in the U.S. population, women and racial\/ethnic minorities are underrepresented in the U.S. Congress.\u00a0Even though we had a record-breaking election in 2018, with 127 women elected to serve in the 116th Congress, women still remain far from having equal representation in Congress. White males still dominate both houses. And until the inauguration of Barack Obama in 2009, all U.S. presidents had been white men.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2851095\">Like race and ethnicity, social class has also influenced voting practices. Voting rates among less-educated, lower-paid workers are lower than for people with comparatively higher socioeconomic status, which results in people with more power and access to resources having the means to perpetuate their political power. Several explanations have been offered to account for this difference (Raymond, 2010). Workers in low-paying service jobs might find it harder to get to the polls because they lack flexibility in their work hours and quality daycare to look after children while they vote. Because a larger share of racial and ethnic minorities is employed in such positions, social class may be linked to race and ethnicity influencing voting rates. New requirements for specific types of voter identification in some states are likely to compound these issues, because it may take additional time away from work, as well as additional child care or transportation, for voters to get the needed IDs. The impact on minorities and the impoverished may cause a decrease in voter participation. Attitudes play a role as well. Some people of low socioeconomic status or minority race\/ethnicity doubt their vote will count or voice will be heard because they have seen no evidence of their political power in their communities. Many believe that what they already have is all they can achieve.\u00a0Furthermore, these individual characteristics (race, social class, gender), beyond influencing voting turnout and political activity, are linked to varying party voting patterns and preferences.[footnote]Tyson, Alec (November 2018). The 2018 midterm vote: Divisions by race, gender, education. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from<a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2018\/11\/08\/the-2018-midterm-vote-divisions-by-race-gender-education\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u00a0https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2018\/11\/08\/the-2018-midterm-vote-divisions-by-race-gender-education\/<\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2622659\">As suggested earlier, money can carry a lot of influence in U.S. democracy, which has led some to argue that the U.S. is an informal oligarchy. But there are other means to make one\u2019s voice heard. Free speech can be influential, and people can participate in the democratic system through volunteering with political advocacy groups, writing to elected officials, sharing views in a public forum such as a blog or letter to the editor, forming or joining cause-related political organizations and interest groups, participating in public demonstrations, and even running for a local office.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/section><section id=\"eip-102\">\r\n<h3>The Judicial System<\/h3>\r\nThe third branch of the United States government is the judicial system, which consists of local, state, and federal courts. The U.S. Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States, and it has the final say on decisions about the constitutionality of laws that citizens\u00a0and businesses challenge. As noted earlier, some rulings have a direct impact on the political system, such as recent decisions about voter identification and campaign financing. Other Supreme Court decisions affect different aspects of society, and they are useful for sociological study because they help us understand cultural changes, as Supreme Court rulings are often a reflection of shifts in popular ideas (which is actually often a critique of the Supreme Court, as it was meant to be independent of and external to public opinion). One example is a recent and highly controversial case that dealt with the religious opposition of Hobby Lobby Stores Inc. to providing employees with specific kinds of insurance mandated by the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Another example was found\u00a0same-sex marriage cases.\u00a0In 2015, the Supreme Court overruled its previous decisions on same-sex marriage by a 5-4 vote, ruling that same-sex marriage is to be recognized across all 50 states in accordance with the Fourteenth Amendment.[footnote]Chappell, Bill (June 2015). <em>Supreme Court Declares Same-Sex Marriage Legal In All 50 States<\/em>. NPR. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2015\/06\/26\/417717613\/supreme-court-rules-all-states-must-allow-same-sex-marriages\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2015\/06\/26\/417717613\/supreme-court-rules-all-states-must-allow-same-sex-marriages<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch the video\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KEjgAXxrkXY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u201cHow a Case Gets to the Supreme Court\u201d<\/a>\u00a0to learn about how only a small number of cases even reach the highest court in the land.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section class=\"short-answer\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1884725\" class=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-id1652760\" class=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>If the percentage of Asian Americans in Congress is far below the percentage of Asian Americans in the United States, does that mean Asian Americans lack political power? Why or why not?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain how a voter\u2019s social position (race, class, gender)\u00a0can affect their\u00a0voting practices.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Besides voting, how can U.S. citizens influence political processes and outcomes? Which of these strategies have you personally used?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\r\n[glossary-page]\r\n[glossary-term]absolute monarchies:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated power[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]anarchy:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]the absence of any organized government[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]constitutional monarchies:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]national governments that recognize monarchs but require these figures to abide by the laws of a greater constitution[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]democracy:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a form of government that provides all citizens with an equal voice or vote in determining state policy[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]dictatorship:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a form of government in which a single person (or a very small group) wields complete and absolute authority over a government or populace after the dictator rises to power, usually through economic or military might[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]monarchy:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a form of government in which a single person (a monarch) rules until that individual dies or abdicates the throne[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]oligarchy:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a form of government in which power is held by a small, elite group[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]one person, one vote:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a concept holding that each person\u2019s vote should be counted equally[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]politics:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a means of studying a nation\u2019s or group\u2019s underlying social norms as values as evidenced through its political structure and practices[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]representative democracy:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]a government wherein citizens elect officials to represent their interests[\/glossary-definition]\r\n\r\n[glossary-term]totalitarian dictatorship:[\/glossary-term]\r\n[glossary-definition]an extremely oppressive form of dictatorship in which most aspects of citizens\u2019 lives are controlled by the leader[\/glossary-definition]\r\n[\/glossary-page]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning outcomes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Compare and identify common forms of government (monarchy, oligarchy, dictatorship, democracy)<\/li>\n<li>Discuss issues surrounding voter participation in the U.S.<\/li>\n<li>Explore the influence of race, gender, and class issues on the voting process<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Nations are governed by different political systems, including monarchies, oligarchies, dictatorships, and democracies. Generally speaking, citizens of nations wherein power is concentrated\u00a0in\u00a0one leader or a small group are more likely to suffer violations of civil liberties and experience economic inequality. Many nations that are today organized around democratic ideals started out as monarchies or dictatorships but have evolved into more egalitarian systems. Democratic ideals, although hard to implement and achieve, promote basic human rights and justice for all citizens.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/c.pxhere.com\/images\/a2\/c3\/a19b0f26f21a1d2bcfb4a002e221-1445485.jpg!d\" alt=\"Graphic illustration of a hand putting a ballot into a blue box labeled &quot;VOTE&quot;\" width=\"367\" height=\"312\" \/><\/p>\n<p>The success and validity of\u00a0democracy in the U.S. hinges on free and fair elections that are characterized by the support and participation of diverse citizens. In this section, we&#8217;ll examine political systems and take a look at how politics work in the United States.<\/p>\n<h2>Forms of Government<\/h2>\n<div style=\"width: 210px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204619\/Figure_17_02_01.jpg\" alt=\"A mosaic of Saddam Hussein and other tile decorations are shown on a wall.\" width=\"200\" height=\"502\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1.\u00a0<\/strong>Former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein used fear and intimidation to keep citizens in check. (Photo courtesy of Brian Hillegas\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2647543\">Most people generally agree that <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2276341\">anarchy<\/span><\/strong>, or the absence of organized government, does not facilitate a desirable living environment for society, but it is much harder for individuals to agree upon the particulars of how a population should be governed.<span style=\"color: #333333\"> Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, three political philosophers that heavily influenced early sociologists and whose works are widely read across sociology classrooms today, all argued that the role of government is to facilitate a form of &#8220;social contract&#8221; among individuals living in a society. They presented different views on human nature, relationships, and governance, but they all agreed that government was a necessary mechanism in modern societies.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Throughout history, various forms of government have evolved to suit the needs of changing populations and mindsets, each with pros and cons. <span style=\"color: #333333\">Today, a majority of citizens in Western societies hold that democracy is the most just and stable form of government, although former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill once declared to the House of Commons, \u201cIndeed it<\/span> has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except for all those other forms that have been tried from time to time\u201d (Shapiro, 2006).<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id2099973\">\n<h3>Monarchy<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1414571\">Even though people in the United States tend to be most aware of Great Britain\u2019s royals, many other nations also recognize kings, queens, princes, princesses, and other figures with official royal titles. The power held by these positions varies from one country to another. Strictly speaking, a <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1932262\">monarchy<\/span><\/strong> is a government in which a single person (a monarch) rules until he or she dies or abdicates the throne. Usually, a <span style=\"color: #333333\">monarch claims the rights to the title by way of hereditary succession or as a result of some sort of divine appointment or calling. As mentioned above, the monarchies of most modern nations are ceremonial remnants of tradition (traditional authority as opposed to charismatic or legal-rational authority), and individ<\/span>uals who hold titles in such sovereignties are often aristocratic figureheads.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1290923\"><span style=\"color: #333333\">Very few nations today, however, are run by governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated power. In other words, very few nations today are run by monarchies exercising legal-rational authority.\u00a0Nations that are run by monarchs with absolute power\u00a0are called<strong> <span id=\"import-auto-id3033534\">absolute monarchies<\/span><\/strong>. Although governments and regimes are constantly changing across the global landscape, it is generally safe to say that most modern absolute monarc<\/span>hies are concentrated in the Middle East and Africa. The small, oil-rich nation of Oman, for instance, is an example of an absolute monarchy. In this nation, Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said has ruled since the 1970s. Recently, living conditions and opportunities for Oman\u2019s citizens have improved, but many citizens who live under the reign of an absolute ruler must contend with oppressive or unfair policies that are installed based on the unchecked whims or political agendas of that leader.<\/p>\n<p>In today\u2019s global political climate, monarchies far more often take the form of <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1900916\">constitutional monarchies<\/span><\/strong>, governments of nations that recognize monarchs but require these figures to abide by the laws of a greater constitution. Many countries that are now constitutional monarchies evolved from governments that were once considered absolute monarchies. In most cases, constitutional monarchies, such as Great Britain and Canada, feature elected prime ministers whose leadership role is far more involved and significant than that of its titled monarchs. In spite of their limited authority, mona<span style=\"color: #333333\">rchs endure in such governments because people enjoy their symbolic or ceremonial significance, as well as the pageantry of their weddings, funerals, and public performances of succession.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2105557\">\n<div style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204620\/Figure_17_02_02.jpg\" alt=\"Queen Noor of Jordan is shown speaking into mics on a podium\" width=\"300\" height=\"400\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2.\u00a0<\/strong>Queen Noor of Jordan is the dowager queen of this constitutional monarchy and has limited political authority. Queen Noor is American by birth, but relinquished her citizenship when she married. She is a noted global advocate for Arab-Western relations. (Photo courtesy of Skoll World Forum\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h3>Oligarchy<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1448182\">The power in an <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1778950\">oligarchy<\/span><\/strong> is held by a small, elite group. Unlike in a monarchy, members of an oligarchy do not necessarily achieve their statuses based on ties to noble ancestry. Rather, they may ascend to positions of power because of military might, economic power, or similar circumstances.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2020484\">The concept of oligarchy is somewhat elusive; rarely does a society openly define itself as an oligarchy. Generally, the word carries negative connotations and conjures notions of a corrupt group whose members make unfair policy decisions in order to maintain their privileged positions. Many modern nations that claim to be democracies are really <span style=\"color: #333333\">oligarchies. In fact, some prominent journalists, such as Paul Krugman, who won a Nobel\u00a0Laureate Prize in economics, have labeled the United States an oligarchy, pointing to the influence of large corp<\/span>orations and Wall Street executives on U.S. policy (Krugman, 2011). Other political analysts assert that all democracies are really just \u201celected oligarchies,\u201d or systems in which citizens must vote for an individual who is part of a pool of candidates who come from the society\u2019s elite ruling class (Winters, 2011).<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1662490\">Oligarchies have existed throughout history, and today many consider Russia an example of oligarchic political structure. After the fall of communism, groups of business owners captured control of the nation\u2019s natural resources and have used the opportunity to expand their wealth and political influence. <span style=\"color: #333333\">Once an oligarchic power structure has been established, it can be very difficult for middle and lower-class citizens to advance their socioeconomic status.\u00a0The line between oligarchies and democracies is grayer than we probably want it to be, and some would even argue that no nation is a true democracy, as it is impossible to have no interest groups, companies, or economically advantaged elites seeking to influence policy.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3 class=\"title\">Is the United States an Oligarchy?<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id1666720\">\n<div style=\"width: 210px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204622\/Figure_17_02_03.jpg\" alt=\"A mansion with a large green field built during the Gilded Age.\" width=\"200\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.\u00a0<\/strong>The American Gilded Age was one of lavish parties hosted in the grand mansions of wealthy families. (Photo courtesy of Seniju\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2869360\">The American Gilded Age saw the rise and dominance of ultra-rich families such as the Vanderbilts, Rockefellers, and Carnegies, and the wealthy often indulged in absurd luxuries. One example is a lavish dinner party hosted for a pampered pet dog who attended wearing a $15,000 diamond collar (PBS Online, 1999). At the same time, most Americans barely scraped by, living below what was considered the poverty level.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2784652\">Some scholars believe that the United States has now embarked on a second gilded age, pointing out that the \u201c400 wealthiest American families now own more than the \u2018lower\u2019 150 million Americans put together&#8221; (Schultz, 2011), and \u201cthe top 10% of earners took in more than half of the country\u2019s overall income in 2012, the highest proportion recorded in a century of government record keeping\u201d (Lowery, 20<span style=\"color: #333333\">14).\u00a0Recent movements in the United States have drawn attention to the power and privilege of the extremely wealthy, often referred to as the 1%, and have sought to reform policy due to their lack of proportional contributions in taxes. In 2015, the 1% were those who earned over $480,930 annually, although this varies significantly based on location, with some areas being so costly that a person needs to earn nearly double that to be in the 1%. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Konish, Lorie (July 2018) &quot;Here\u2019s how much money those 1 percenters really make.&quot; CNBC. Retrieved from\u00a0https:\/\/www.cnbc.com\/2018\/07\/10\/heres-how-much-money-the-1-percent-really-make.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-7918-1\" href=\"#footnote-7918-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Many of the super\u2013rich use their economic clout to purchase more than luxury items; wealthy individuals and corporations are major political donors. Based on campaign finance reform legislation in 1971 and 2002, political campaign contributions were regulated and limited; however, the 2012 Supreme Court decision in the case of Citizen\u2019s United versus the Federal Election Commission repealed many of those restrictions. The Court ruled that contributions of corporations and unions to Political Action Committees (PACs) are a form of free speech that cannot be abridged and so cannot be limited or disclosed. Opponents believe that this definition effectively promotes oligarchy in the United States. The ultra-wealthy and those who control the purse strings of large corporations and unions will, in effect, be able to elect their candidate of choice through their unlimited spending power, as well as influence policy decisions, appointments to non-elected government jobs, and other forms of political power. Krugman (2011) says, \u201cWe have a society in which money is increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few people, and in which that concentration of income and wealth threatens to make us a democracy in name only.\u201d<\/p>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id3025884\"><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id2859936\">\n<h3>Dictatorship<\/h3>\n<p>Power in a <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1151658\">dictatorship<\/span><\/strong> is held by a single person (or a very small group) that wields complete and absolute authority over a government and population. Like some absolute monarchies, dictatorships may be corrupt and seek to limit or even eradicate the liberties of the general population. Dictators use a variety of means to perpetuate their authority. Economic and military might, as well as intimidation and brutality, are often foremost among their tactics; individuals are less likely to rebel when they are starving and fearful. Many dictators start out as military leaders and are conditioned to the use of violence against opposition.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1873218\">Some dictators also possess the personal appeal that Max Weber identified with a charismatic leader. Subjects of such a dictator may believe that the leader has special ability or authority and may be willing to submit to his or her authority. The late Kim Jong-Il, North Korean dictator, and his successor, Kim Jong-Un, exemplify this type of charismatic dictatorship.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video for a brief explanation of how North Korea as the least democratic country in the world, exemplifies a modern dictatorship:<\/strong><br \/>\nhttps:\/\/youtube.com\/watch?v=uGCodBnM2hI<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2010456\">Some dictatorships do not align themselves with any particular belief system or ideology; the goal of this type of regime is usually limited to preserving the authority of the dictator. A<strong> totalitarian dictatorship<\/strong> is even more oppressive and attempts to control all aspects of its subjects\u2019 lives, including occupation, religious beliefs, and number of children permitted to each family. Citizens may be forced to publicly demonstrate their faith in the regime by participating in marches and demonstrations.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1194471\">Some \u201cbenevolent\u201d dictators, such as Napoleon and Anwar Sadat, are credited with advancing their people\u2019s standard of living or exercising a moderate amount of even-handedness. Others grossly abuse their power. Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Cambodia\u2019s Pol Pot, and Zimbabwe\u2019s Robert Mugabe, for instance, are heads of state who earned a reputation for leading through fear, violence, and intimidation.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"import-auto-id2388846\">\n<div style=\"width: 210px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204625\/Figure_17_02_05.jpg\" alt=\"Kim Jong-Il of North Korea is shown wearing sunglasses, standing among a group of uniformed North Korean soldiers.\" width=\"200\" height=\"512\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 4.\u00a0<\/strong>Dictator Kim Jong-Il of North Korea was a charismatic leader of an absolute dictatorship. His followers responded emotionally to the death of their leader in 2011. (Photo courtesy of babeltrave\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id2080508\">\n<h3>Democracy<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2281694\">A <strong><span id=\"import-auto-id1496528\">democracy<\/span><\/strong> is a form of governme<span style=\"color: #333333\">nt that strives to provide all citizens with an equal voice, or vote, in determining state policy, regardless of their level of socioeconomic status or other attributes. Another important fundamental of the democratic state is the establishment and governance of a just and comprehensive constitution-like document\u00a0that delineates the roles and responsibilities of leaders and citizens alike.<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1683170\">Democracies, in general, ensure certain basic rights for their citizens. First and foremost, citizens are free to organize political parties and hold elections. Leaders, once elected, must abide by the terms of the given nation\u2019s constitution and are limited in the powers they can exercise, as well as in the length of the duration of their terms. Most d<span style=\"color: #333333\">emocratic societies also champion freedom of individual speech, the press, and assembly, and they prohibit unlawful imprisonment. Of course, even in a democratic society, the government constrains citizens&#8217; total freedom to act however they wish\u2014a sacrifice that individuals must make in order to have other rights protected, as the social contract theorists first posited. A democratically elected government does this by passing laws and writing regulations that, at least ideally, reflect the will of the majority of its people.<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1452853\">Although the United States champions the democratic ideology, it is not a \u201cpure\u201d democracy. In a purely democratic society, all citizens would vote on all proposed legislation, and this is not how laws are passed in the United States. There is a practical reason for this: a pure democracy would be hard to implement. Thus, the United States is a constitution-based federal republic in which citizens elect representatives to make policy decisions on their behalf. The term <strong>representative democracy<\/strong>, which is virtually synonymous with <em>republic<\/em>, can also be used to describe a government in which citizens elect representatives to promote policies that favor their interests. In the United States, representatives are elected at local and state levels, and the votes of the Electoral College determine who will hold the office of president. Each of the three branches of the U.S. government\u2014the executive, judicial, and legislative\u2014is held in check by the other branches.<\/p>\n<p>The Electoral College is one of the hotly debated topics in today&#8217;s political arena, and a rather complicated system to untangle. It has benefits and drawbacks.<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>Watch this video to better understand the role of The Electoral College in our democracy:<\/strong><br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Does your vote count? The Electoral College explained - Christina Greer\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/W9H3gvnN468?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1337213\">The Tea Party is among the highest-profile grassroots organizations active in U.S. politics today. What is its official platform? Examine the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.teaparty.org\/about-us\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Tea Party website<\/a> to find out more information.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id2675431\" class=\"short-answer\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-id2361925\" class=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-id1323847\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1395952\">Do you feel the United States has become an oligarchy? Why, or why not?<\/li>\n<li>Explain how an absolute monarchy differs from a dictatorship.<\/li>\n<li>In which form of government do average citizens have the least political power? What options might they have for exerting political power under this type of regime?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<h2>Politics in the United States<\/h2>\n<div style=\"width: 260px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/120\/2016\/04\/15204628\/Figure_17_03_01.jpg\" alt=\"People are shown standing outside a building in line. Signs on the building read \u201cvote here\u201d in various languages.\" width=\"250\" height=\"332\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 5.\u00a0<\/strong>Americans&#8217; voting rights are a fundamental element of the U.S. democratic structure. (Photo courtesy of David Goehring\/flickr)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3073828\">When discussing a nation\u2019s government, we should also define the word\u00a0&#8220;politics.&#8221; We may have associated the term with freedom, power, corruption, or rhetoric. Political science looks at <strong>politics<\/strong> as the interaction between citizens and their government. Sociology studies politics as a means to understand the underlying social norms and values of a group. A society\u2019s political structure and practices provide insight into the distribution of power and wealth, as well as larger philosophical and cultural beliefs. A cursory sociological analysis of U.S. politics might suggest that Americans&#8217; desire to promote equality and democracy on a theoretical level is at odds with the nation\u2019s real-life capitalist orientation.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id3081534\">Lincoln&#8217;s famous phrase \u201cof the people, by the people, for the people\u201d is at the heart of the U.S. system and sums up its most essential aspect: that citizens willingly and freely elect representatives they believe will look out for their best interests. Although many Americans take free elections for granted, it is a vital foundation of any democracy. When the United States government was formed, however, African Americans and women were denied the right to vote. Democratic ideals and giving people a voice, which partially caused the American revolution and were fundamental ideals of American politics, initially failed specific groups and placed them at a further disadvantage than they were already in.\u00a0Each of these groups struggled to secure the same suffrage rights as their white male counterparts, yet this history fails to inspire some Americans to show up at the polls and cast their ballots. Problems with the democratic process, including limited voter turnout, require us to more closely examine complex social issues that influence political participation.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id3599029\">\n<h3>Voter Participation<\/h3>\n<p>Voter participation is essential to the success of the U.S. political system. Although many Americans are quick to complain about laws and political leadership, a substantial portion of individuals do not vote.\u00a0Likely the result of more polarized elections and partisan politics, voter turnout has actually increased dramatically in the past 12 years. In 2016, 61.4 percent of the qualifying population voted; in 2008, 63.3 percent did.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Manuel Krogsted, Jens and Mark Hugo Lopez (May 2017). Black voter turnout fell in 2016, even as a record number of Americans cast ballots. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/05\/12\/black-voter-turnout-fell-in-2016-even-as-a-record-number-of-americans-cast-ballots\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-7918-2\" href=\"#footnote-7918-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> Even mid-term elections (the ones that do not encompass a presidential election) have seen an increase in voter turnout\u2014in 2018, 47 percent of the voting-eligible population participated.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Domonoske, Camila (November 2018). A Boatload Of Ballots: Midterm Voter Turnout Hit 50-Year High. Retrieved from\u00a0https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2018\/11\/08\/665197690\/a-boatload-of-ballots-midterm-voter-turnout-hit-50-year-high.\" id=\"return-footnote-7918-3\" href=\"#footnote-7918-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> Even with recent increases in voter turnout, poor turnout can skew election results, particularly if one age or socioeconomic group is more diligent in its efforts to make it to the polls. Consequently, election outcomes can seem disconnected from substantial parts of the population they ostensibly represent.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Want to better understand voter turnout? Watch <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?time_continue=134&amp;v=You0q4JJzS4\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">this Khan Academy video<\/a>, which explains how voter turnout in the United States is related to political participation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2217881\">Certain voting advocacy groups work to improve turnout. Rock the Vote, for example, targets and reaches out to America\u2019s youngest potential voters to educate and equip them to share their voice at the polls. Public service promos from celebrity musicians support their cause. Native Vote is an organization that strives to inform American Indians about upcoming elections and encourages their participation. America\u2019s Hispanic population is reached out to by the National Council of La Raza, which strives to improve voter turnout among the Latino population. William Frey, author of Diversity Explosion, points out that Hispanics, Asians, and multiracial populations is expected to double in the next forty years (Balz, 2014), and they are therefore likely to increasingly influence elections.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-id1335751\">\n<h4>Race, Gender, and Class Issues<\/h4>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1750575\">Although recent records have shown more voting among historically marginalized populations now than ever before, this trend is still fairly new. Historically, African Americans and other racialized groups have been underrepresented at the polls. Black men were not allowed to vote at all until after the Civil War, and black women gained the right to vote along with other women only with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920. For years, African Americans who were brave enough to vote were discouraged by discriminatory legislation, passed in many southern states, which required poll taxes and literacy tests of prospective voters.\u00a0While voting was legal for African Americans, additional barriers kept them from reaching the polls.\u00a0Literacy tests were not outlawed until 1965, when President Lyndon Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Further Research<\/h3>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1325772\">The 1965 Voting Rights Act was preceded by Lyndon Johnson\u2019s signing of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Both articles were instrumental in establishing equal rights for African Americans. Check out <a href=\"https:\/\/www.law.cornell.edu\/wex\/Civil_rights\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cornell University\u2019s website<\/a> on this topic to learn more about this civil rights legislation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id811407\">The 1960s saw other important reforms in U.S. voting. Shortly before the Voting Rights Act was passed, the 1964 U.S. Supreme Court case <em>Reynolds v. Sims<\/em> changed the nature of elections. This landmark decision reaffirmed the notion of \u201c<strong><span id=\"import-auto-id2774502\">one person, one vote<\/span><\/strong>,\u201d a concept holding that all people\u2019s votes should be counted equally. Before this decision, unequal distributions of population enabled small groups of people in sparsely populated rural areas to have as much voting power as the denser populations of urban areas. After <em>Reynolds v. Sims<\/em>, districts were redrawn so that they would include equal numbers of voters.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately, in June 2013, the Supreme Court repealed several important aspects of the 1965 Voting Rights Act, ruling that southern states no longer need the stricter scrutiny that was once required to prohibit racial discrimination in voting practices in the South. Following this decision, several states moved forward with voter identification laws that had previously been banned by federal courts. Officials in Texas, Mississippi, and Alabama claim that new identification (ID) laws are needed to reduce voter fraud. Opponents point to the Department of Justice statistics\u00a0indicating that only twenty-six voters, of 197 million voters in federal elections, were found guilty of voter fraud between 2002 and 2005. &#8220;Contemporary voter identification laws are trying to solve a problem that hasn\u2019t existed in over a century\u201d (Campbell, 2012). Opponents further note that new voter ID laws disproportionately affect minorities and the poor, potentially prohibiting them from exercising their right to vote.\u00a0As such, modern forms of informal discrimination continue to exist, despite institutional policies that allow Americans to vote.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1872590\">Evidence suggests that legal protection of voting rights does not directly translate into equal voting power. Relative to their presence in the U.S. population, women and racial\/ethnic minorities are underrepresented in the U.S. Congress.\u00a0Even though we had a record-breaking election in 2018, with 127 women elected to serve in the 116th Congress, women still remain far from having equal representation in Congress. White males still dominate both houses. And until the inauguration of Barack Obama in 2009, all U.S. presidents had been white men.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2851095\">Like race and ethnicity, social class has also influenced voting practices. Voting rates among less-educated, lower-paid workers are lower than for people with comparatively higher socioeconomic status, which results in people with more power and access to resources having the means to perpetuate their political power. Several explanations have been offered to account for this difference (Raymond, 2010). Workers in low-paying service jobs might find it harder to get to the polls because they lack flexibility in their work hours and quality daycare to look after children while they vote. Because a larger share of racial and ethnic minorities is employed in such positions, social class may be linked to race and ethnicity influencing voting rates. New requirements for specific types of voter identification in some states are likely to compound these issues, because it may take additional time away from work, as well as additional child care or transportation, for voters to get the needed IDs. The impact on minorities and the impoverished may cause a decrease in voter participation. Attitudes play a role as well. Some people of low socioeconomic status or minority race\/ethnicity doubt their vote will count or voice will be heard because they have seen no evidence of their political power in their communities. Many believe that what they already have is all they can achieve.\u00a0Furthermore, these individual characteristics (race, social class, gender), beyond influencing voting turnout and political activity, are linked to varying party voting patterns and preferences.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Tyson, Alec (November 2018). The 2018 midterm vote: Divisions by race, gender, education. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from\u00a0https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2018\/11\/08\/the-2018-midterm-vote-divisions-by-race-gender-education\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-7918-4\" href=\"#footnote-7918-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id2622659\">As suggested earlier, money can carry a lot of influence in U.S. democracy, which has led some to argue that the U.S. is an informal oligarchy. But there are other means to make one\u2019s voice heard. Free speech can be influential, and people can participate in the democratic system through volunteering with political advocacy groups, writing to elected officials, sharing views in a public forum such as a blog or letter to the editor, forming or joining cause-related political organizations and interest groups, participating in public demonstrations, and even running for a local office.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"eip-102\">\n<h3>The Judicial System<\/h3>\n<p>The third branch of the United States government is the judicial system, which consists of local, state, and federal courts. The U.S. Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States, and it has the final say on decisions about the constitutionality of laws that citizens\u00a0and businesses challenge. As noted earlier, some rulings have a direct impact on the political system, such as recent decisions about voter identification and campaign financing. Other Supreme Court decisions affect different aspects of society, and they are useful for sociological study because they help us understand cultural changes, as Supreme Court rulings are often a reflection of shifts in popular ideas (which is actually often a critique of the Supreme Court, as it was meant to be independent of and external to public opinion). One example is a recent and highly controversial case that dealt with the religious opposition of Hobby Lobby Stores Inc. to providing employees with specific kinds of insurance mandated by the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Another example was found\u00a0same-sex marriage cases.\u00a0In 2015, the Supreme Court overruled its previous decisions on same-sex marriage by a 5-4 vote, ruling that same-sex marriage is to be recognized across all 50 states in accordance with the Fourteenth Amendment.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Chappell, Bill (June 2015). Supreme Court Declares Same-Sex Marriage Legal In All 50 States. NPR. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2015\/06\/26\/417717613\/supreme-court-rules-all-states-must-allow-same-sex-marriages\" id=\"return-footnote-7918-5\" href=\"#footnote-7918-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Watch the video\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=KEjgAXxrkXY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u201cHow a Case Gets to the Supreme Court\u201d<\/a>\u00a0to learn about how only a small number of cases even reach the highest court in the land.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"short-answer\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-id1884725\" class=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-id1652760\" class=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li>If the percentage of Asian Americans in Congress is far below the percentage of Asian Americans in the United States, does that mean Asian Americans lack political power? Why or why not?<\/li>\n<li>Explain how a voter\u2019s social position (race, class, gender)\u00a0can affect their\u00a0voting practices.<\/li>\n<li>Besides voting, how can U.S. citizens influence political processes and outcomes? Which of these strategies have you personally used?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>glossary<\/h3>\n<div class=\"titlepage\">\n<dl>\n<dt>absolute monarchies:<\/dt>\n<dd>governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated power<\/dd>\n<dt>anarchy:<\/dt>\n<dd>the absence of any organized government<\/dd>\n<dt>constitutional monarchies:<\/dt>\n<dd>national governments that recognize monarchs but require these figures to abide by the laws of a greater constitution<\/dd>\n<dt>democracy:<\/dt>\n<dd>a form of government that provides all citizens with an equal voice or vote in determining state policy<\/dd>\n<dt>dictatorship:<\/dt>\n<dd>a form of government in which a single person (or a very small group) wields complete and absolute authority over a government or populace after the dictator rises to power, usually through economic or military might<\/dd>\n<dt>monarchy:<\/dt>\n<dd>a form of government in which a single person (a monarch) rules until that individual dies or abdicates the throne<\/dd>\n<dt>oligarchy:<\/dt>\n<dd>a form of government in which power is held by a small, elite group<\/dd>\n<dt>one person, one vote:<\/dt>\n<dd>a concept holding that each person\u2019s vote should be counted equally<\/dd>\n<dt>politics:<\/dt>\n<dd>a means of studying a nation\u2019s or group\u2019s underlying social norms as values as evidenced through its political structure and practices<\/dd>\n<dt>representative democracy:<\/dt>\n<dd>a government wherein citizens elect officials to represent their interests<\/dd>\n<dt>totalitarian dictatorship:<\/dt>\n<dd>an extremely oppressive form of dictatorship in which most aspects of citizens\u2019 lives are controlled by the leader<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-7918\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction to Types of Government. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Florencia Silveira for Lumen Learning. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Government and Politics. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax CNX. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:dXA1d6sq@3\/Introduction-to-Government-and-Politics\">https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:dXA1d6sq@3\/Introduction-to-Government-and-Politics<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49<\/li><li><strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Mohamed Hassan. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: pxhere. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pxhere.com\/en\/photo\/1445485\">https:\/\/pxhere.com\/en\/photo\/1445485<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>The North Korean Government Explained. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: NowThisWorld. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=uGCodBnM2hI\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=uGCodBnM2hI<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Does your vote count? The Electoral College explained - Christina Greer. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Ted-Ed. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=W9H3gvnN468\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=W9H3gvnN468<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-7918-1\">Konish, Lorie (July 2018) \"Here\u2019s how much money those 1 percenters really make.\" CNBC. Retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cnbc.com\/2018\/07\/10\/heres-how-much-money-the-1-percent-really-make.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.cnbc.com\/2018\/07\/10\/heres-how-much-money-the-1-percent-really-make.html<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-7918-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-7918-2\">Manuel Krogsted, Jens and Mark Hugo Lopez (May 2017). <em>Black voter turnout fell in 2016, even as a record number of Americans cast ballots<\/em>. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/05\/12\/black-voter-turnout-fell-in-2016-even-as-a-record-number-of-americans-cast-ballots\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2017\/05\/12\/black-voter-turnout-fell-in-2016-even-as-a-record-number-of-americans-cast-ballots\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-7918-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-7918-3\">Domonoske, Camila (November 2018). <em>A Boatload Of Ballots: Midterm Voter Turnout Hit 50-Year High<\/em>. Retrieved from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2018\/11\/08\/665197690\/a-boatload-of-ballots-midterm-voter-turnout-hit-50-year-high\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2018\/11\/08\/665197690\/a-boatload-of-ballots-midterm-voter-turnout-hit-50-year-high<\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-7918-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-7918-4\">Tyson, Alec (November 2018). The 2018 midterm vote: Divisions by race, gender, education. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from<a href=\"https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2018\/11\/08\/the-2018-midterm-vote-divisions-by-race-gender-education\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u00a0https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2018\/11\/08\/the-2018-midterm-vote-divisions-by-race-gender-education\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-7918-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-7918-5\">Chappell, Bill (June 2015). <em>Supreme Court Declares Same-Sex Marriage Legal In All 50 States<\/em>. NPR. Retrieved from <a href=\"https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2015\/06\/26\/417717613\/supreme-court-rules-all-states-must-allow-same-sex-marriages\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2015\/06\/26\/417717613\/supreme-court-rules-all-states-must-allow-same-sex-marriages<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-7918-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Government and Politics\",\"author\":\"OpenStax CNX\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/AgQDEnLI@10.1:dXA1d6sq@3\/Introduction-to-Government-and-Politics\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d@3.49\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Introduction to Types of Government\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"\",\"author\":\"Mohamed Hassan\",\"organization\":\"pxhere\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pxhere.com\/en\/photo\/1445485\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"Florencia Silveira for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"The North Korean Government Explained\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"NowThisWorld\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=uGCodBnM2hI\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Does your vote count? The Electoral College explained - Christina Greer\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Ted-Ed\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=W9H3gvnN468\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"985aed1b-ff27-43bc-b69b-ed998012ce56","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-7918","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":7914,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/7918","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":17,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/7918\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":9769,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/7918\/revisions\/9769"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/7914"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/7918\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=7918"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=7918"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=7918"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-esc-introtosociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=7918"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}