{"id":707,"date":"2017-06-27T20:55:22","date_gmt":"2017-06-27T20:55:22","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-worldhistory\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=707"},"modified":"2017-06-27T20:55:22","modified_gmt":"2017-06-27T20:55:22","slug":"the-ancient-andes","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-boundless-worldhistory\/chapter\/the-ancient-andes\/","title":{"raw":"The Ancient Andes","rendered":"The Ancient Andes"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>The Caral Civilization<\/h2>\r\nThe Caral civilization flourished in the Andean region between the 30th and 18th centuries BCE. This peaceful, urban center yielded several major discoveries, including a method of keeping records known as quipu.\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nDescribe the significance of the Caral civilization of the Andes\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Key Takeaways<\/h3>\r\n<h4>Key Points<\/h4>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The Caral civilization (also known as Caral-Supe) was part of the Norte Chico civilization complex, in\u00a0what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The urban complex of Caral takes up more than 150 acres, and contains plazas, dwellings, and a 28-meters-high temple.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Some scholars have suggested that Norte Chico was founded on seafood and maritime resources, rather than development of agricultural cereal and crop surpluses.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>One of the artifacts found at Caral is a knotted textile piece, called a quipu, which archaeologists believe was a method of keeping records.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Evidence of warfare has not been found in Caral.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A geoglyph of a human with long hair and open mouth was discovered in 2000 by Marco Machacuay and Rocio Aramburu just west of Caral.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>At its peak, approximately 3,000 people are believed to have lived in Caral.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Norte Chico civilizations are pre-ceramic cultures of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic; they completely lacked ceramics, and apparently had almost no art. The most impressive achievement of these civilizations was its monumental architecture.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4>Key Terms<\/h4>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>geoglyph<\/strong>: A large design produced on the ground, typically formed by rocks, stones, trees, gravel, or earth.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>quipu<\/strong>: A knotted textile piece found at the Caral site, believed to be used for record-keeping.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Caral civilization<\/strong>: A complex pre-Columbian society that included as many as 30 major population centers, in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"522\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-world-history\/d0zsyoshtbki1cumy17f.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"522\" height=\"284\" \/> <strong>Caral:<\/strong> The remains of the Caral site in Peru[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Caral civilization (also known as the Norte Chico civilization and as Caral-Supe) was a complex pre-Columbian society, located \u00a0in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru, near Supe, Barranca province, Peru (200 km north of Lima). Its location allowed it to take advantage of three rivers: the Fortaleza, the Pativilca, and the Supe. It has been established as the oldest known civilization in the Americas, and as one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world.\r\n\r\nThe Caral flourished between the 30th and 18th centuries BCE. This complex society arose a millennium after Sumer in Mesopotamia, was contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids, and predated the Mesoamerican Olmec by nearly two millennia.\r\n\r\nCaral was discovered by Paul Kosok in 1948, and further studied by archaeologist Ruth Shady. The urban complex of Caral takes up more than 150 acres, and holds plazas, dwellings, and a 28-meters-high temple. Its urban plan was used by Andean civilizations for the next four thousand years. One of the artifacts found at Caral is a knotted textile piece named a quipu, which archaeologists believe was a method of keeping records. Other pieces found include flutes made of condor and pelican bones, and cornetts made of deer and llama bones. Evidence of warfare has not been found. A geoglyph was discovered in 2000 by Marco Machacuay and Rocio Aramburu just west of Caral. The lines of the etching form a human face with long hair and an open mouth. At its peak, approximately 3,000 people are believed to have lived in Caral.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"680\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-world-history\/vgecxnajsbcldhaym7zn.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"680\" height=\"383\" \/> <strong>Caral Temple:<\/strong> A view of the Caral temple[\/caption]\r\n<h3>The Norte-Chico Region<\/h3>\r\nIn archaeological nomenclature, Norte Chico civilizations are pre-ceramic cultures of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic; they completely lacked ceramics and apparently had almost no art. The most impressive achievement of these civilizations was its monumental architecture, including large earthwork platform mounds and sunken circular plazas. Archaeological evidence suggests use of textile technology and, possibly, the worship of common god symbols, both of which recur in pre-Columbian Andean cultures. Sophisticated government is assumed to have been required to manage the ancient Norte Chico. Questions remain over its organization, particularly the political influence of food resources. Some scholars have suggested that Norte Chico was founded on seafood and maritime resources, as opposed to the development of agricultural cereal and crop surpluses, which have been considered essential to the rise of other ancient civilizations.\r\n<h2>The Chav\u00edn Civilization<\/h2>\r\nThe Chav\u00edn civilization, which lasted from 900-250 BCE in Peru, featured ingenious art and architecture, and had widespread influence on other local cultures.\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nDescribe the significance of the Chav\u00edn civilization\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Key Takeaways<\/h3>\r\n<h4>Key Points<\/h4>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The Chav\u00edn civilization developed in the northern Andean highlands of Peru between 900-250 BCE.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\u00a0There were three stages of development: Urabarriu (900-500 BCE), Chakinani (500-400 BCE), and Jarabarriu (400-250 BCE).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Chav\u00edn had a small, powerful elite that was legitimized through a claim to divine authority.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The chief example of Chav\u00edn architecture is the Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar temple, the design of which displays a complex and innovative adaptation to the highland environment of Peru.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Chav\u00edn people showed advanced knowledge of acoustics, metallurgy, soldering, and temperature control. One of their main economic resources was ch'arki, or llama jerky.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Chav\u00edn art represents the first widespread, recognizable artistic style in the Andes, and can be divided into two phases: the first phase corresponds to the construction of the \"Old Temple\" at Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar (c. 900-500 BCE); the second phase corresponds to the construction of Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar's \"New Temple\" (c. 500-200 BCE).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Significant pieces of art include the Lanz\u00f3n, Tello Obelisk, and tenon heads.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4>Key Terms<\/h4>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Tello Obelisk<\/strong>: A huge sculpted shaft depicting a Chav\u00edn creation myth.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>ch'arki<\/strong>: Llama jerky.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>axis mundi<\/strong>: A pivot point linking heaven, earth and the underworld.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Chav\u00edn civilization<\/strong>: A civilization in the northern Andean highlands\r\nof Peru from 900-250 BCE, known for their construction of temples and their\r\nadvancements in engineering and metallurgy.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Lanz\u00f3n<\/strong>: A stone stela found in the Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar temple.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>camelids<\/strong>: A mammal of the camel family (Camelidae).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>psychotropic drugs<\/strong>: A chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, or consciousness.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Jarabarriu<\/strong>: A stage of development in the Chav\u00edn civilization from 400-250 BCE.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Chakinani<\/strong>: A stage of development in the Chav\u00edn civilization from 500-400\u00a0BCE.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Urabarriu<\/strong>: A stage of development in the Chav\u00edn civilization from 900-500 BCE.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe Chav\u00edn civilization developed in the northern Andean highlands of Peru between 900-250 BCE. Their influence extended to other civilizations along the coast. The Chav\u00edn civilization was located in the Mosna Valley, where the Mosna and Huachecsa rivers merge. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage site.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"250\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1936\/2017\/05\/31174841\/bda30mbdthk8vz8w4jhe.png\" alt=\"The map shows the extent of the Chav\u00edn Civilization, which stretched along the Peruvian coast, from Cajamarca to the north to Pachacamac, an archaelogical site 40 km southeast of Lima, to the south. The map also shows the extent of Chav\u00edn influence, which stretched further north along the coast to the modern-day border of Peru and Ecuador and further south along the coast to Nazca.\" width=\"250\" height=\"271\" \/> <strong>Map Showing Location of the Chav\u00edn:<\/strong> This map shows the location of the Chav\u00edn culture, as well as the areas the Chav\u00edn influenced.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Stages of Development<\/h3>\r\nUrabarriu lasted from 900-500 BCE, and just a few hundred people lived at Chav\u00edn de Huantar. Ceramics were influenced by other cultures, and the people grew some maize and potatoes. Chakinani, from 500-400 BCE, was a transitional time, when residents migrated to the ceremonial center. From 400-250 BCE, Jarabarriu saw a dramatic increase in population, with an urban\/suburban pattern of settlement.\r\n<h3>Society<\/h3>\r\nChav\u00edn had a small, powerful elite that was legitimized through a claim to divine authority. These shamans were able to control and influence local citizens (probably partially\u00a0through the use of psychotropic drugs), and were able to plan and carry out construction of temples and stone-walled galleries.\r\n<h3>Architecture<\/h3>\r\nThe chief example of Chav\u00edn architecture is the Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar temple. The temple's design shows complex innovation to adapt to the highland environment of Peru. To avoid flooding and the destruction of the temple during the rainy season, the Chav\u00edn people created a successful drainage system with canals under the temple structure; the rushing water during the rainy season sounds like one of the Chav\u00edn's sacred animals, the jaguar.\r\n<h3>Economic Activity<\/h3>\r\nThe Chav\u00edn people showed advanced knowledge of acoustics, metallurgy, soldering, and temperature control to accommodate the rainy season. The Chav\u00edn were also skilled in developing refined goldwork, and used early techniques of melting\r\nmetal and soldering.\r\n\r\nThe Chav\u00edn people domesticated camelids, such as llamas, which were used as pack animals, and for fiber and meat. The Chavin produced ch'arki, or llama jerky, which was commonly traded by camelid herders and was the main economic resource for the Chav\u00edn people. They also successfully cultivated several crops, including potatoes, quinoa, and maize. They developed an irrigation system to assist the growth of these crops.\r\n<h3>Art<\/h3>\r\nChav\u00edn art represents the first widespread, recognizable artistic style in the Andes, and can be divided into two phases: the first phase corresponds to the construction of the \"Old Temple\" at Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar (c. 900-500 BCE); the second phase corresponds to the construction of Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar's \"New Temple\" (c. 500-200 BCE). The Old Temple featured the Lanz\u00f3n, which was housed in a central cruciform chamber in a labyrinth of underground passages. The Lanz\u00f3n functions as axis mundi, or a pivot point linking the heavens, earth, and underworld.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"297\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-world-history\/np16bjwytluzqoxpzyfg.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"297\" height=\"222\" \/> <strong>The Lanz\u00f3n\u00a0at Chav\u00edn:<\/strong> Shown here is the most important stela statue of the central deity of the Chav\u00edn, called the Lanz\u00f3n.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nChav\u00edn art decorated the walls of the temple and includes carvings, sculptures and pottery. Artists depicted exotic creatures found in other regions, such as jaguars and eagles, rather than local plants and animals. The feline figure is one of the most important motifs seen in Chav\u00edn art. It has an important religious meaning and is repeated on many carvings and sculptures. Eagles are also commonly seen throughout Chav\u00edn art. It was intentionally difficult to interpret and understand, as it was meant to be read by the high priests alone.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"551\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-world-history\/0hzp4rihqa8b3yhkbxqn.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"551\" height=\"386\" \/> <strong>Incised Strombus-Shell Trumpet: <\/strong>This shell trumpet was likely used in ceremonies. The incised designs show a person of high rank playing a shell trumpet, surrounded by snakes.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Tello Obelisk is a huge sculpted shaft decorated with images of plants, animals, including caymans and birds, and humans, which may be portraying a creation myth. Tenon heads are massive stone carvings of fanged jaguar heads, found at the tops of interior walls in Chav\u00edn de Huantar.\r\n<h3>Influence<\/h3>\r\nChav\u00edn had wide-ranging influence, with its art and architecture styles spreading for miles around. There is little evidence of warfare in Chav\u00edn relics; instead, local citizens were likely controlled by a combination of religious pressure and environmental conditions.\r\n<h2>The Valdivia Culture<\/h2>\r\nThe Valdivia culture of Ecuador (3500-1800 BCE) is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas. They were a sedentary, egalitarian people, known for their early use of pottery, and feminine ceramic figures.\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nDescribe the significance of the Valdivia culture\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Key Takeaways<\/h3>\r\n<h4>Key Points<\/h4>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The Valdivia culture of Ecuador (3500-1800 BCE) is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Valdivia lived in a community that built its houses in a circle or oval around a central plaza and were sedentary, egalitarian people.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Valdivian pottery (bowls, jars, and feminine figures) are the oldest in the Americas, dating to 2700 BCE.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Valdivians created rafts with sails, and built a maritime trade network with tribes in the Andes and Amazon.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A main trading item was the red shell of the thorny oyster, called Spondylus.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4>Key Terms<\/h4>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Spondylus<\/strong>: A genus of bivalve mollusks, also known as thorny oysters.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>cassava<\/strong>: The starchy tuberous root of a tropical tree.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>egalitarian<\/strong>: Believing in the principle that all people are equal.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe Valdivia culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas. It emerged from the earlier Las Vegas culture, and thrived on the Santa Elena peninsula near the modern-day town of Valdivia, Ecuador, between 3500-1800 BCE.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"449\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1936\/2017\/05\/31174842\/91n8voacqswgbau6402a.png\" alt=\"The map shows Ecuador, with the location of the Valdivia culture circled.\" width=\"449\" height=\"394\" \/> <strong>Map of Valdivian Culture:<\/strong> Shown here is the location of the Valdivia culture.[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Life Among the Valdivians<\/h3>\r\nThe Valdivia lived in a community that built its houses in a circle or oval around a central plaza. They were sedentary, egalitarian people who lived off farming and fishing, and occasional deer hunting. From the remains that have been found, it has been determined that Valdivians cultivated maize, kidney beans, squash, cassava, chili peppers, and cotton plants, the latter of which was used to make clothing.\r\n<h3>Pottery<\/h3>\r\nValdivian pottery, which has been dated to 2700 BCE, was initially rough and practical, but over time\u00a0became splendid, delicate, and large. Bowls, jars, and female statues were used in daily life and religious ceremonies. They generally used the colors red and gray, and polished dark red pottery is characteristic of the Valdivia period. In their ceramics and stone works, the Valdivia culture showed a progression from the most simple, to much more complicated works. Valdivians were the first Americans to use pottery.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"640\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-world-history\/ywras464srgqlnncwxy5.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"The photograph shows 13 fragments of pottery.\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" \/> <strong>Valdivian Pottery:<\/strong> Valdivian pottery is the oldest in America, on display in this image at the Museo de La Plata in Argentina.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe trademark Valdivia pottery piece is the \"Venus\" of Valdivia: feminine ceramic figures. The \"Venus\" of Valdivia likely represented actual people; \u00a0each figurine is individualand unique, as can be seen in the hairstyles. They were made by joining two rollsof clay, leaving the lower portion separated as legs and forming the body andhead from the top portion. The arms were usually very short, and in most caseswere bent towards the chest, holding the breasts or chin.\r\n<h3>Trade<\/h3>\r\nValdivians created rafts with sails, and built a maritime trade network with tribes in the Andes and Amazon. A main trading item was the red shell of the thorny oyster, called Spondylus, which were often made into ornaments, and were considered more valuable than gold or silver.","rendered":"<h2>The Caral Civilization<\/h2>\n<p>The Caral civilization flourished in the Andean region between the 30th and 18th centuries BCE. This peaceful, urban center yielded several major discoveries, including a method of keeping records known as quipu.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>Describe the significance of the Caral civilization of the Andes<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Takeaways<\/h3>\n<h4>Key Points<\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li>The Caral civilization (also known as Caral-Supe) was part of the Norte Chico civilization complex, in\u00a0what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru.<\/li>\n<li>The urban complex of Caral takes up more than 150 acres, and contains plazas, dwellings, and a 28-meters-high temple.<\/li>\n<li>Some scholars have suggested that Norte Chico was founded on seafood and maritime resources, rather than development of agricultural cereal and crop surpluses.<\/li>\n<li>One of the artifacts found at Caral is a knotted textile piece, called a quipu, which archaeologists believe was a method of keeping records.<\/li>\n<li>Evidence of warfare has not been found in Caral.<\/li>\n<li>A geoglyph of a human with long hair and open mouth was discovered in 2000 by Marco Machacuay and Rocio Aramburu just west of Caral.<\/li>\n<li>At its peak, approximately 3,000 people are believed to have lived in Caral.<\/li>\n<li>Norte Chico civilizations are pre-ceramic cultures of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic; they completely lacked ceramics, and apparently had almost no art. The most impressive achievement of these civilizations was its monumental architecture.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4>Key Terms<\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>geoglyph<\/strong>: A large design produced on the ground, typically formed by rocks, stones, trees, gravel, or earth.<\/li>\n<li><strong>quipu<\/strong>: A knotted textile piece found at the Caral site, believed to be used for record-keeping.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Caral civilization<\/strong>: A complex pre-Columbian society that included as many as 30 major population centers, in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"width: 532px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-world-history\/d0zsyoshtbki1cumy17f.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"522\" height=\"284\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Caral:<\/strong> The remains of the Caral site in Peru<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The Caral civilization (also known as the Norte Chico civilization and as Caral-Supe) was a complex pre-Columbian society, located \u00a0in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru, near Supe, Barranca province, Peru (200 km north of Lima). Its location allowed it to take advantage of three rivers: the Fortaleza, the Pativilca, and the Supe. It has been established as the oldest known civilization in the Americas, and as one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world.<\/p>\n<p>The Caral flourished between the 30th and 18th centuries BCE. This complex society arose a millennium after Sumer in Mesopotamia, was contemporaneous with the Egyptian pyramids, and predated the Mesoamerican Olmec by nearly two millennia.<\/p>\n<p>Caral was discovered by Paul Kosok in 1948, and further studied by archaeologist Ruth Shady. The urban complex of Caral takes up more than 150 acres, and holds plazas, dwellings, and a 28-meters-high temple. Its urban plan was used by Andean civilizations for the next four thousand years. One of the artifacts found at Caral is a knotted textile piece named a quipu, which archaeologists believe was a method of keeping records. Other pieces found include flutes made of condor and pelican bones, and cornetts made of deer and llama bones. Evidence of warfare has not been found. A geoglyph was discovered in 2000 by Marco Machacuay and Rocio Aramburu just west of Caral. The lines of the etching form a human face with long hair and an open mouth. At its peak, approximately 3,000 people are believed to have lived in Caral.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 690px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-world-history\/vgecxnajsbcldhaym7zn.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"680\" height=\"383\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Caral Temple:<\/strong> A view of the Caral temple<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The Norte-Chico Region<\/h3>\n<p>In archaeological nomenclature, Norte Chico civilizations are pre-ceramic cultures of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic; they completely lacked ceramics and apparently had almost no art. The most impressive achievement of these civilizations was its monumental architecture, including large earthwork platform mounds and sunken circular plazas. Archaeological evidence suggests use of textile technology and, possibly, the worship of common god symbols, both of which recur in pre-Columbian Andean cultures. Sophisticated government is assumed to have been required to manage the ancient Norte Chico. Questions remain over its organization, particularly the political influence of food resources. Some scholars have suggested that Norte Chico was founded on seafood and maritime resources, as opposed to the development of agricultural cereal and crop surpluses, which have been considered essential to the rise of other ancient civilizations.<\/p>\n<h2>The Chav\u00edn Civilization<\/h2>\n<p>The Chav\u00edn civilization, which lasted from 900-250 BCE in Peru, featured ingenious art and architecture, and had widespread influence on other local cultures.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>Describe the significance of the Chav\u00edn civilization<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Takeaways<\/h3>\n<h4>Key Points<\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li>The Chav\u00edn civilization developed in the northern Andean highlands of Peru between 900-250 BCE.<\/li>\n<li>\u00a0There were three stages of development: Urabarriu (900-500 BCE), Chakinani (500-400 BCE), and Jarabarriu (400-250 BCE).<\/li>\n<li>Chav\u00edn had a small, powerful elite that was legitimized through a claim to divine authority.<\/li>\n<li>The chief example of Chav\u00edn architecture is the Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar temple, the design of which displays a complex and innovative adaptation to the highland environment of Peru.<\/li>\n<li>The Chav\u00edn people showed advanced knowledge of acoustics, metallurgy, soldering, and temperature control. One of their main economic resources was ch&#8217;arki, or llama jerky.<\/li>\n<li>Chav\u00edn art represents the first widespread, recognizable artistic style in the Andes, and can be divided into two phases: the first phase corresponds to the construction of the &#8220;Old Temple&#8221; at Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar (c. 900-500 BCE); the second phase corresponds to the construction of Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar&#8217;s &#8220;New Temple&#8221; (c. 500-200 BCE).<\/li>\n<li>Significant pieces of art include the Lanz\u00f3n, Tello Obelisk, and tenon heads.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4>Key Terms<\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Tello Obelisk<\/strong>: A huge sculpted shaft depicting a Chav\u00edn creation myth.<\/li>\n<li><strong>ch&#8217;arki<\/strong>: Llama jerky.<\/li>\n<li><strong>axis mundi<\/strong>: A pivot point linking heaven, earth and the underworld.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Chav\u00edn civilization<\/strong>: A civilization in the northern Andean highlands<br \/>\nof Peru from 900-250 BCE, known for their construction of temples and their<br \/>\nadvancements in engineering and metallurgy.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Lanz\u00f3n<\/strong>: A stone stela found in the Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar temple.<\/li>\n<li><strong>camelids<\/strong>: A mammal of the camel family (Camelidae).<\/li>\n<li><strong>psychotropic drugs<\/strong>: A chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, or consciousness.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Jarabarriu<\/strong>: A stage of development in the Chav\u00edn civilization from 400-250 BCE.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Chakinani<\/strong>: A stage of development in the Chav\u00edn civilization from 500-400\u00a0BCE.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Urabarriu<\/strong>: A stage of development in the Chav\u00edn civilization from 900-500 BCE.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>The Chav\u00edn civilization developed in the northern Andean highlands of Peru between 900-250 BCE. Their influence extended to other civilizations along the coast. The Chav\u00edn civilization was located in the Mosna Valley, where the Mosna and Huachecsa rivers merge. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage site.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 260px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1936\/2017\/05\/31174841\/bda30mbdthk8vz8w4jhe.png\" alt=\"The map shows the extent of the Chav\u00edn Civilization, which stretched along the Peruvian coast, from Cajamarca to the north to Pachacamac, an archaelogical site 40 km southeast of Lima, to the south. The map also shows the extent of Chav\u00edn influence, which stretched further north along the coast to the modern-day border of Peru and Ecuador and further south along the coast to Nazca.\" width=\"250\" height=\"271\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Map Showing Location of the Chav\u00edn:<\/strong> This map shows the location of the Chav\u00edn culture, as well as the areas the Chav\u00edn influenced.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">\n<h3>Stages of Development<\/h3>\n<p>Urabarriu lasted from 900-500 BCE, and just a few hundred people lived at Chav\u00edn de Huantar. Ceramics were influenced by other cultures, and the people grew some maize and potatoes. Chakinani, from 500-400 BCE, was a transitional time, when residents migrated to the ceremonial center. From 400-250 BCE, Jarabarriu saw a dramatic increase in population, with an urban\/suburban pattern of settlement.<\/p>\n<h3>Society<\/h3>\n<p>Chav\u00edn had a small, powerful elite that was legitimized through a claim to divine authority. These shamans were able to control and influence local citizens (probably partially\u00a0through the use of psychotropic drugs), and were able to plan and carry out construction of temples and stone-walled galleries.<\/p>\n<h3>Architecture<\/h3>\n<p>The chief example of Chav\u00edn architecture is the Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar temple. The temple&#8217;s design shows complex innovation to adapt to the highland environment of Peru. To avoid flooding and the destruction of the temple during the rainy season, the Chav\u00edn people created a successful drainage system with canals under the temple structure; the rushing water during the rainy season sounds like one of the Chav\u00edn&#8217;s sacred animals, the jaguar.<\/p>\n<h3>Economic Activity<\/h3>\n<p>The Chav\u00edn people showed advanced knowledge of acoustics, metallurgy, soldering, and temperature control to accommodate the rainy season. The Chav\u00edn were also skilled in developing refined goldwork, and used early techniques of melting<br \/>\nmetal and soldering.<\/p>\n<p>The Chav\u00edn people domesticated camelids, such as llamas, which were used as pack animals, and for fiber and meat. The Chavin produced ch&#8217;arki, or llama jerky, which was commonly traded by camelid herders and was the main economic resource for the Chav\u00edn people. They also successfully cultivated several crops, including potatoes, quinoa, and maize. They developed an irrigation system to assist the growth of these crops.<\/p>\n<h3>Art<\/h3>\n<p>Chav\u00edn art represents the first widespread, recognizable artistic style in the Andes, and can be divided into two phases: the first phase corresponds to the construction of the &#8220;Old Temple&#8221; at Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar (c. 900-500 BCE); the second phase corresponds to the construction of Chav\u00edn de Hu\u00e1ntar&#8217;s &#8220;New Temple&#8221; (c. 500-200 BCE). The Old Temple featured the Lanz\u00f3n, which was housed in a central cruciform chamber in a labyrinth of underground passages. The Lanz\u00f3n functions as axis mundi, or a pivot point linking the heavens, earth, and underworld.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 307px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-world-history\/np16bjwytluzqoxpzyfg.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"297\" height=\"222\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>The Lanz\u00f3n\u00a0at Chav\u00edn:<\/strong> Shown here is the most important stela statue of the central deity of the Chav\u00edn, called the Lanz\u00f3n.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Chav\u00edn art decorated the walls of the temple and includes carvings, sculptures and pottery. Artists depicted exotic creatures found in other regions, such as jaguars and eagles, rather than local plants and animals. The feline figure is one of the most important motifs seen in Chav\u00edn art. It has an important religious meaning and is repeated on many carvings and sculptures. Eagles are also commonly seen throughout Chav\u00edn art. It was intentionally difficult to interpret and understand, as it was meant to be read by the high priests alone.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 561px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-world-history\/0hzp4rihqa8b3yhkbxqn.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"551\" height=\"386\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Incised Strombus-Shell Trumpet: <\/strong>This shell trumpet was likely used in ceremonies. The incised designs show a person of high rank playing a shell trumpet, surrounded by snakes.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The Tello Obelisk is a huge sculpted shaft decorated with images of plants, animals, including caymans and birds, and humans, which may be portraying a creation myth. Tenon heads are massive stone carvings of fanged jaguar heads, found at the tops of interior walls in Chav\u00edn de Huantar.<\/p>\n<h3>Influence<\/h3>\n<p>Chav\u00edn had wide-ranging influence, with its art and architecture styles spreading for miles around. There is little evidence of warfare in Chav\u00edn relics; instead, local citizens were likely controlled by a combination of religious pressure and environmental conditions.<\/p>\n<h2>The Valdivia Culture<\/h2>\n<p>The Valdivia culture of Ecuador (3500-1800 BCE) is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas. They were a sedentary, egalitarian people, known for their early use of pottery, and feminine ceramic figures.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>Describe the significance of the Valdivia culture<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Takeaways<\/h3>\n<h4>Key Points<\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li>The Valdivia culture of Ecuador (3500-1800 BCE) is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas.<\/li>\n<li>The Valdivia lived in a community that built its houses in a circle or oval around a central plaza and were sedentary, egalitarian people.<\/li>\n<li>Valdivian pottery (bowls, jars, and feminine figures) are the oldest in the Americas, dating to 2700 BCE.<\/li>\n<li>Valdivians created rafts with sails, and built a maritime trade network with tribes in the Andes and Amazon.<\/li>\n<li>A main trading item was the red shell of the thorny oyster, called Spondylus.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4>Key Terms<\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Spondylus<\/strong>: A genus of bivalve mollusks, also known as thorny oysters.<\/li>\n<li><strong>cassava<\/strong>: The starchy tuberous root of a tropical tree.<\/li>\n<li><strong>egalitarian<\/strong>: Believing in the principle that all people are equal.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>The Valdivia culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas. It emerged from the earlier Las Vegas culture, and thrived on the Santa Elena peninsula near the modern-day town of Valdivia, Ecuador, between 3500-1800 BCE.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 459px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1936\/2017\/05\/31174842\/91n8voacqswgbau6402a.png\" alt=\"The map shows Ecuador, with the location of the Valdivia culture circled.\" width=\"449\" height=\"394\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Map of Valdivian Culture:<\/strong> Shown here is the location of the Valdivia culture.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Life Among the Valdivians<\/h3>\n<p>The Valdivia lived in a community that built its houses in a circle or oval around a central plaza. They were sedentary, egalitarian people who lived off farming and fishing, and occasional deer hunting. From the remains that have been found, it has been determined that Valdivians cultivated maize, kidney beans, squash, cassava, chili peppers, and cotton plants, the latter of which was used to make clothing.<\/p>\n<h3>Pottery<\/h3>\n<p>Valdivian pottery, which has been dated to 2700 BCE, was initially rough and practical, but over time\u00a0became splendid, delicate, and large. Bowls, jars, and female statues were used in daily life and religious ceremonies. They generally used the colors red and gray, and polished dark red pottery is characteristic of the Valdivia period. In their ceramics and stone works, the Valdivia culture showed a progression from the most simple, to much more complicated works. Valdivians were the first Americans to use pottery.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 650px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-world-history\/ywras464srgqlnncwxy5.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"The photograph shows 13 fragments of pottery.\" width=\"640\" height=\"480\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Valdivian Pottery:<\/strong> Valdivian pottery is the oldest in America, on display in this image at the Museo de La Plata in Argentina.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The trademark Valdivia pottery piece is the &#8220;Venus&#8221; of Valdivia: feminine ceramic figures. The &#8220;Venus&#8221; of Valdivia likely represented actual people; \u00a0each figurine is individualand unique, as can be seen in the hairstyles. They were made by joining two rollsof clay, leaving the lower portion separated as legs and forming the body andhead from the top portion. The arms were usually very short, and in most caseswere bent towards the chest, holding the breasts or chin.<\/p>\n<h3>Trade<\/h3>\n<p>Valdivians created rafts with sails, and built a maritime trade network with tribes in the Andes and Amazon. A main trading item was the red shell of the thorny oyster, called Spondylus, which were often made into ornaments, and were considered more valuable than gold or silver.<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-707\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Specific attribution<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Caral. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caral\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caral<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Norte Chico Civilization. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norte_Chico_civilization\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norte_Chico_civilization<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Andean Civilizations. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andean_civilizations\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andean_civilizations<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>1200px-Caral_1.JPG. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caral_1.JPG\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caral_1.JPG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>PiramidesdeCaral.JPG. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PiramidesdeCaral.JPG\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PiramidesdeCaral.JPG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Andean Civilizations. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andean_civilizations\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Andean_civilizations<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Chavu00edn Culture. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chav%C3%ADn_culture\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chav%C3%ADn_culture<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Lanzu00f3n. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lanz%C3%B3n\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Lanz%C3%B3n<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>1200px-Caral_1.JPG. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caral_1.JPG\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caral_1.JPG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>PiramidesdeCaral.JPG. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PiramidesdeCaral.JPG\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PiramidesdeCaral.JPG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>640px-Incised_Strombus-Shell_Trumpet_400-200_B.C.E_L52.1.jpg. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chav%C3%ADn_culture#\/media\/File:Incised_Strombus-Shell_Trumpet,_400-200_B.C.E,_L52.1.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chav%C3%ADn_culture#\/media\/File:Incised_Strombus-Shell_Trumpet,_400-200_B.C.E,_L52.1.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>640px-Chavin_lanzon_stela2_cyark.jpg. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chavin_lanzon_stela2_cyark.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chavin_lanzon_stela2_cyark.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>chavinmap.png. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chavin-small.png\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chavin-small.png<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>History of Ecuador. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: History of the Country. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/lychock.wikispaces.com\/History+of+the+Country\">https:\/\/lychock.wikispaces.com\/History+of+the+Country<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Pre-Columbian Ecuador. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pre-Columbian_Ecuador\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Pre-Columbian_Ecuador<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Valdivia Culture. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valdivia_culture\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valdivia_culture<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>1200px-Caral_1.JPG. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caral_1.JPG\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caral_1.JPG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>PiramidesdeCaral.JPG. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PiramidesdeCaral.JPG\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:PiramidesdeCaral.JPG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>640px-Incised_Strombus-Shell_Trumpet_400-200_B.C.E_L52.1.jpg. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chav%C3%ADn_culture#\/media\/File:Incised_Strombus-Shell_Trumpet,_400-200_B.C.E,_L52.1.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chav%C3%ADn_culture#\/media\/File:Incised_Strombus-Shell_Trumpet,_400-200_B.C.E,_L52.1.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>640px-Chavin_lanzon_stela2_cyark.jpg. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chavin_lanzon_stela2_cyark.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chavin_lanzon_stela2_cyark.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>chavinmap.png. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chavin-small.png\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Chavin-small.png<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Localizaciou0301n_de_la_Cultura_Valdivia.png. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valdivia_culture#\/media\/File:Localizaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Cultura_Valdivia.PNG\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valdivia_culture#\/media\/File:Localizaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Cultura_Valdivia.PNG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>640px-Museo_LP_503_Estilo_Valdivia.jpeg. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikipedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valdivia_culture#\/media\/File:Museo_LP_503_Estilo_Valdivia.JPG\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Valdivia_culture#\/media\/File:Museo_LP_503_Estilo_Valdivia.JPG<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc-attribution\",\"description\":\"Caral\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Caral\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc-attribution\",\"description\":\"Norte Chico Civilization\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Wikipedia\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Norte_Chico_civilization\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc-attribution\",\"description\":\"Andean 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