{"id":60,"date":"2016-05-16T19:57:22","date_gmt":"2016-05-16T19:57:22","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-level3-english\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=60"},"modified":"2016-10-06T20:18:01","modified_gmt":"2016-10-06T20:18:01","slug":"1-4-supporting-claims-text","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/chapter\/1-4-supporting-claims-text\/","title":{"raw":"Supporting Claims","rendered":"Supporting Claims"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Kinds of Support Authors Use<\/span><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\">Writers are generally most successful with their audiences when they can skillfully and appropriately balance the\u00a0three core types of appeals. These appeals are referred to by their Greek names:\u00a0<strong>logos<\/strong> (the appeal to logic), <strong>pathos<\/strong> (the appeal to emotion), and <strong>ethos<\/strong> (the appeal to authority).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"p2\"><img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-230 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/106\/2016\/05\/16193141\/Ethos-Pathos-Logos.jpg\" alt=\"Graphic. Central green circle reads &quot;Persuasion.&quot; Three circles connect out from it: at the top, a purple one reads &quot;Ethos \/ trust \/ authority.&quot; Bottom right, in blue, &quot;Pathos \/ emotion \/ beliefs.&quot; Bottom left, in turquoise, &quot;Logos \/ logic \/ reasoning.&quot;\" width=\"520\" height=\"414\" \/><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"p2\">Logical Appeals<\/h3>\r\nAuthors using logic to support their claims will include a combination of different types of evidence. These include the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>established\u00a0facts<\/li>\r\n \t<li>case studies<\/li>\r\n \t<li>statistics<\/li>\r\n \t<li>experiments<\/li>\r\n \t<li>analogies and logical reasoning<\/li>\r\n \t<li>citation of recognized experts on the issue<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Authoritative Appeals<\/h3>\r\nAuthors using authority to support their claims can also draw from a variety of techniques. These include the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>personal anecdotes<\/li>\r\n \t<li>illustration of deep knowledge on the issue<\/li>\r\n \t<li>citation of recognized experts on the issue<\/li>\r\n \t<li>testimony of those involved first-hand on the issue<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Emotional Appeals<\/h3>\r\nAuthors using emotion to support their claims again have a deep well of options to do so. These include the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>personal anecdotes<\/li>\r\n \t<li>narratives<\/li>\r\n \t<li>impact studies<\/li>\r\n \t<li>testimony of those involved first-hand on the issue<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nAs you can see, there is some overlap on these lists. One technique might work on two or more different levels.\r\n\r\nMost texts rely on one of the three as the primary method of support, but may also draw upon one or two others at the same time.\r\n<h2 class=\"p1\">Using the STAR method to Assess Appeals to Logic<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\">Mapping or diagramming arguments you read in a text may help you judge whether an appeal is adequately supported. Applying the STAR Criteria\u2014<b>S<\/b>ufficiency, <b>T<\/b>ypicality, <b>A<\/b>ccuracy, and <b>R<\/b>elevance\u2014is one such technique for assessing whether an\u00a0argument has sufficient depth and clarity.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table class=\"t1\" width=\"505.0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th valign=\"middle\"><b>Measure<\/b><\/th>\r\n<th style=\"text-align: center;\" valign=\"middle\">\u00a0Question<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"text-align: center;\" valign=\"middle\">\u00a0Examples &amp; Notes<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"td1\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>S<\/b>ufficiency<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"td2\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Is there <i>enough\u00a0<\/i>evidence cited to support the conclusion?<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"td3\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Generally, only \u201cstrongly\u201d and not \u201cweakly\u201d supported conclusions should be accepted. The more controversial a claim is, the more evidence authors should provide before expecting an audience to accept it. If the evidence is not sufficient, the author may need to modify or qualify the claim, by stating that something is true \u2018sometimes\u2019 rather than \u2018always\u2019.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"td1\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>T<\/b>ypicality<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"td2\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Is the cited evidence typical or representative?<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"td3\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">If an author makes a claim about a whole group but the evidence is based on a small or biased sample of that group, the evidence is not \u201ctypical.\u201d Similar problems stem from relying just on personal experiences (anecdotal evidence) and from \"cherry picking\" data by citing only the parts that support a conclusion while ignoring parts that might challenge it.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"td1\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>A<\/b>ccuracy<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"td2\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Is the cited evidence up to date and accurate?<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"td3\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Authors using polls, studies and statistics must ask whether the data were produced in a biased way and also ask whether the sample was large and representative of its target population so that results were outside the \"margin of error.\" (<b>Margin of error<\/b>: If a sample is too small or not well chosen, results may be meaningless because they may represent random variation.)<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"td1\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>R<\/b>elevance<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"td2\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Is the cited evidence directly relevant to the claim(s) it is being used to support?<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"td3\" valign=\"middle\">\r\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">An author may supply lots of evidence, but the evidence may support something different from what the person is actually claiming. If the evidence is not relevant to the claim, the author\u00a0may need to modify or qualify the claim\u2014or even to acknowledge that the claim is indefensible.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p class=\"p1\"><\/p>","rendered":"<h2 class=\"p1\"><span class=\"s1\">Kinds of Support Authors Use<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\">Writers are generally most successful with their audiences when they can skillfully and appropriately balance the\u00a0three core types of appeals. These appeals are referred to by their Greek names:\u00a0<strong>logos<\/strong> (the appeal to logic), <strong>pathos<\/strong> (the appeal to emotion), and <strong>ethos<\/strong> (the appeal to authority).\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"p2\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-230\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/106\/2016\/05\/16193141\/Ethos-Pathos-Logos.jpg\" alt=\"Graphic. Central green circle reads &quot;Persuasion.&quot; Three circles connect out from it: at the top, a purple one reads &quot;Ethos \/ trust \/ authority.&quot; Bottom right, in blue, &quot;Pathos \/ emotion \/ beliefs.&quot; Bottom left, in turquoise, &quot;Logos \/ logic \/ reasoning.&quot;\" width=\"520\" height=\"414\" \/><\/p>\n<h3 class=\"p2\">Logical Appeals<\/h3>\n<p>Authors using logic to support their claims will include a combination of different types of evidence. These include the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>established\u00a0facts<\/li>\n<li>case studies<\/li>\n<li>statistics<\/li>\n<li>experiments<\/li>\n<li>analogies and logical reasoning<\/li>\n<li>citation of recognized experts on the issue<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Authoritative Appeals<\/h3>\n<p>Authors using authority to support their claims can also draw from a variety of techniques. These include the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>personal anecdotes<\/li>\n<li>illustration of deep knowledge on the issue<\/li>\n<li>citation of recognized experts on the issue<\/li>\n<li>testimony of those involved first-hand on the issue<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Emotional Appeals<\/h3>\n<p>Authors using emotion to support their claims again have a deep well of options to do so. These include the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>personal anecdotes<\/li>\n<li>narratives<\/li>\n<li>impact studies<\/li>\n<li>testimony of those involved first-hand on the issue<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>As you can see, there is some overlap on these lists. One technique might work on two or more different levels.<\/p>\n<p>Most texts rely on one of the three as the primary method of support, but may also draw upon one or two others at the same time.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"p1\">Using the STAR method to Assess Appeals to Logic<\/h2>\n<p class=\"p2\"><span class=\"s1\">Mapping or diagramming arguments you read in a text may help you judge whether an appeal is adequately supported. Applying the STAR Criteria\u2014<b>S<\/b>ufficiency, <b>T<\/b>ypicality, <b>A<\/b>ccuracy, and <b>R<\/b>elevance\u2014is one such technique for assessing whether an\u00a0argument has sufficient depth and clarity.<\/span><\/p>\n<table class=\"t1\" cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"width: 505.0; border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th valign=\"middle\"><b>Measure<\/b><\/th>\n<th style=\"text-align: center;\" valign=\"middle\">\u00a0Question<\/th>\n<th style=\"text-align: center;\" valign=\"middle\">\u00a0Examples &amp; Notes<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"td1\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>S<\/b>ufficiency<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"td2\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Is there <i>enough\u00a0<\/i>evidence cited to support the conclusion?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"td3\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Generally, only \u201cstrongly\u201d and not \u201cweakly\u201d supported conclusions should be accepted. The more controversial a claim is, the more evidence authors should provide before expecting an audience to accept it. If the evidence is not sufficient, the author may need to modify or qualify the claim, by stating that something is true \u2018sometimes\u2019 rather than \u2018always\u2019.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"td1\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>T<\/b>ypicality<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"td2\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Is the cited evidence typical or representative?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"td3\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">If an author makes a claim about a whole group but the evidence is based on a small or biased sample of that group, the evidence is not \u201ctypical.\u201d Similar problems stem from relying just on personal experiences (anecdotal evidence) and from &#8220;cherry picking&#8221; data by citing only the parts that support a conclusion while ignoring parts that might challenge it.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"td1\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>A<\/b>ccuracy<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"td2\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Is the cited evidence up to date and accurate?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"td3\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Authors using polls, studies and statistics must ask whether the data were produced in a biased way and also ask whether the sample was large and representative of its target population so that results were outside the &#8220;margin of error.&#8221; (<b>Margin of error<\/b>: If a sample is too small or not well chosen, results may be meaningless because they may represent random variation.)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"td1\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\"><b>R<\/b>elevance<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"td2\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">Is the cited evidence directly relevant to the claim(s) it is being used to support?<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"td3\" valign=\"middle\">\n<p class=\"p5\"><span class=\"s1\">An author may supply lots of evidence, but the evidence may support something different from what the person is actually claiming. If the evidence is not relevant to the claim, the author\u00a0may need to modify or qualify the claim\u2014or even to acknowledge that the claim is indefensible.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p class=\"p1\">\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-60\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Revision and Adaptation. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Image of Persuasion. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Mrs. Adcock. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/agi241classes.wikispaces.com\/Fifth+Grade\">https:\/\/agi241classes.wikispaces.com\/Fifth+Grade<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Computer Class AGI241. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Academic Argument Essay. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Radford University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/lcubbison.pressbooks.com\/chapter\/core-101-academic-argument-essay\/\">http:\/\/lcubbison.pressbooks.com\/chapter\/core-101-academic-argument-essay\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: Core Handbook. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":19,"menu_order":1,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Image of Persuasion\",\"author\":\"Mrs. Adcock\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/agi241classes.wikispaces.com\/Fifth+Grade\",\"project\":\"Computer Class AGI241\",\"license\":\"cc-by-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"Academic Argument Essay\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Radford University\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/lcubbison.pressbooks.com\/chapter\/core-101-academic-argument-essay\/\",\"project\":\"Core Handbook\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Revision and Adaptation\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-60","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":1838,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/60","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/19"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/60\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1887,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/60\/revisions\/1887"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/1838"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/60\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=60"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=60"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=60"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-engcomp1-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=60"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}