{"id":910,"date":"2017-05-18T15:06:40","date_gmt":"2017-05-18T15:06:40","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intro-to-sociology\/?post_type=part&p=910"},"modified":"2018-02-10T17:04:24","modified_gmt":"2018-02-10T17:04:24","slug":"glossary","status":"web-only","type":"part","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intro-to-sociology\/part\/glossary\/","title":{"raw":"Glossary","rendered":"Glossary"},"content":{"raw":"

Glossary<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n
\r\n\r\nabsolute monarchies<\/strong>: governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated powerabsolute poverty<\/strong>: the state where one is barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities\r\n\r\nachieved status<\/strong>: the status a person chooses, such as a level of education or income\r\n\r\nacting crowds<\/strong>: crowds of people who are focused on a specific action or goal\r\n\r\nactivity theory<\/strong>: a theory which suggests that for individuals to enjoy old age and feel satisfied, they must maintain activities and find a replacement for the statuses and associated roles they have left behind as they aged\r\n

age stratification theory<\/strong>: a theory which states that members of society are stratified by age, just as they are stratified by race, class, and gender<\/p>\r\n

ageism<\/strong>: discrimination based on age<\/p>\r\n

aggregate<\/strong>: a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don\u2019t interact or share a sense of identity<\/p>\r\n

agricultural societies<\/strong>: societies that rely on farming as a way of life<\/p>\r\n

alienation<\/strong>: an individual\u2019s isolation from his society, his work, and his sense of self<\/p>\r\n

alternative movements<\/strong>: social movements that limit themselves to self-improvement changes in individuals<\/p>\r\n

amalgamation<\/strong>: the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group<\/p>\r\n

ambilineal<\/strong>: a type of unilateral descent that follows either the father\u2019s or the mother\u2019s side exclusively<\/p>\r\n

anarchy<\/strong>: the absence of any organized government<\/p>\r\n

animism<\/strong>: the religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world<\/p>\r\n

anomie<\/strong>: a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness<\/p>\r\n

anticipatory socialization<\/strong>: the way we prepare for future life roles<\/p>\r\n

antipositivism<\/strong>: the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values<\/p>\r\n

anxiety disorders<\/strong>: feelings of worry and fearfulness that last for months at a time<\/p>\r\n

ascribed status<\/strong>: the status outside of an individual\u2019s control, such as sex or race<\/p>\r\n

assembling perspective<\/strong>: a theory that credits individuals in crowds as behaving as rational thinkers and views crowds as engaging in purposeful behavior and collective action<\/p>\r\n

assimilation<\/strong>: the process by which a minority individual or group takes on the characteristics of the dominant culture<\/p>\r\n

asylum-seekers<\/strong>: those whose claim to refugee status have not been validated<\/p>\r\n

atheism<\/strong>: the belief in no deities<\/p>\r\n

authoritarian leader<\/strong>: a leader who issues orders and assigns tasks<\/p>\r\n

authority<\/strong>: power that people accept because it comes from a source that is perceived as legitimate<\/p>\r\n

automation: workers being replaced by technology<\/p>\r\n

baby boomers<\/strong>: people in the united states born between approximately 1946 and 1964<\/p>\r\n

bartering<\/strong>: a process where people exchange one form of goods or services for another<\/p>\r\n

beliefs<\/strong>: tenets or convictions that people hold to be true<\/p>\r\n

bigamy<\/strong>: the act of entering into marriage while still married to another person<\/p>\r\n

bilateral descent<\/strong>: the tracing of kinship through both parents\u2019 ancestral lines<\/p>\r\n

biological determinism<\/strong>: the belief that men and women behave differently due to inherent sex differences related to their biology<\/p>\r\n

bourgeoisie<\/strong>: the owners of the means of production in a society<\/p>\r\n

bureaucracies<\/strong>: formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality.<\/p>\r\n

cancer cluster<\/strong>: a geographic area with high levels of cancer within its population<\/p>\r\n

capital flight<\/strong>: the movement (flight) of capital from one nation to another, via jobs and resources<\/p>\r\n

capitalism<\/strong>: a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and companies rather than by the government<\/p>\r\n

career inheritance<\/strong>: a practice where children tend to enter the same or similar occupation as their parents<\/p>\r\n

carrying capacity<\/strong>: the amount of people that can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources<\/p>\r\n

case study<\/strong>: in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual<\/p>\r\n

caste system<\/strong>: a system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives<\/p>\r\n

casual crowds<\/strong>: people who share close proximity without really interacting<\/p>\r\n

category<\/strong>: people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way<\/p>\r\n

centenarians<\/strong>: people 100 years old or older<\/p>\r\n

charismatic authority<\/strong>: power legitimized on the basis of a leader\u2019s exceptional personal qualities<\/p>\r\n

chattel slavery<\/strong>: a form of slavery in which one person owns another<\/p>\r\n

class consciousness<\/strong>: the awareness of one\u2019s rank in society<\/p>\r\n

class system<\/strong>: social standing based on social factors and individual accomplishments<\/p>\r\n

class traits<\/strong>: the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class (also called class markers)<\/p>\r\n

class<\/strong>: a group who shares a common social status based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation<\/p>\r\n

clear division of labor<\/strong>: the fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform<\/p>\r\n

climate change<\/strong>: long-term shifts in temperature and climate due to human activity<\/p>\r\n

code of ethics<\/strong>: a set of guidelines that the American Sociological Association has established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology<\/p>\r\n

coercive organizations<\/strong>: organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital<\/p>\r\n

cohabitation<\/strong>: the act of a couple sharing a residence while they are not married<\/p>\r\n

cohort<\/strong>: a group of people who share a statistical or demographic trait<\/p>\r\n

collective behavior<\/strong>: a noninstitutionalized activity in which several people voluntarily engage<\/p>\r\n

collective conscience<\/strong>: the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society<\/p>\r\n

colorism<\/strong>: the belief that one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group<\/p>\r\n

commodification<\/strong>: the changing of something not generally thought of as a commodity into something that can be bought and sold in a marketplace<\/p>\r\n

concentric zone model<\/strong>: a model of human ecology that views cities as a series of circular rings or zones<\/p>\r\n

conflict theory<\/strong>: a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance<\/p>\r\n

conformity<\/strong>: the extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms<\/p>\r\n

conspicuous consumption<\/strong>: the act of buying and using products to make a statement about social standing<\/p>\r\n

constitutional monarchies<\/strong>: national governments that recognize monarchs but require these figures to abide by the laws of a greater constitution<\/p>\r\n

constructivism<\/strong>: an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be<\/p>\r\n

content analysi<\/strong>s: applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand<\/p>\r\n

contested illnesses<\/strong>: illnesses that are questioned or considered questionable by some medical professionals<\/p>\r\n

continuity theory<\/strong>: a theory which states that the elderly make specific choices to maintain consistency in internal (personality structure, beliefs) and external structures (relationships), remaining active and involved throughout their elder years<\/p>\r\n

control theory<\/strong>: a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society<\/p>\r\n

conventional crowds<\/strong>: people who come together for a regularly scheduled event<\/p>\r\n

convergence theory<\/strong>: a sociological theory to explain how and why societies move toward similarity over time as their economies develop<\/p>\r\n

core nations<\/strong>: dominant capitalist countries<\/p>\r\n

cornucopian theory<\/strong>: a theory that asserts human ingenuity will rise to the challenge of providing adequate resources for a growing population<\/p>\r\n

corporate crime<\/strong>: crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment<\/p>\r\n

corrections system<\/strong>: the system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted of, or sentenced for criminal offenses<\/p>\r\n

correlation<\/strong>: when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation<\/p>\r\n

countercultures<\/strong>: groups that reject and oppose society\u2019s widely accepted cultural patterns<\/p>\r\n

court<\/strong>: a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law<\/p>\r\n

credentialism<\/strong>: the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications<\/p>\r\n

crime<\/strong>: a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions<\/p>\r\n

criminal justice system<\/strong>: an organization that exists to enforce a legal code<\/p>\r\n

crowd<\/strong>: a fairly large number of people who share close proximity<\/p>\r\n

crowdsourcing<\/strong>: the process of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people<\/p>\r\n

cults<\/strong>: religious groups that are small, secretive, and highly controlling of members and have a charismatic leader<\/p>\r\n

cultural capital<\/strong>: cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency to help one navigate a culture<\/p>\r\n

cultural deviance theory<\/strong>: a theory that suggests conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime<\/p>\r\n

cultural imperialism<\/strong>: the deliberate imposition of one\u2019s own cultural values on another culture<\/p>\r\n

cultural relativism<\/strong>: the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards, and not in comparison to another culture<\/p>\r\n

cultural transmission<\/strong>: the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture<\/p>\r\n

cultural universals<\/strong>: patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies<\/p>\r\n

culture lag<\/strong>: the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture\u2019s acceptance of it<\/p>\r\n

culture of prejudice<\/strong>: the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture<\/p>\r\n

culture shock<\/strong>: an experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life<\/p>\r\n

culture<\/strong>: shared beliefs, values, and practices<\/p>\r\n

cyberfeminism: the application to and promotion of feminism online<\/p>\r\n

Davis-Moore thesis<\/strong>: a thesis that argues some social stratification is a social necessity<\/p>\r\n

debt accumulation<\/strong>: the buildup of external debt, wherein countries borrow money from other nations to fund their expansion or growth goals<\/p>\r\n

debt bondage<\/strong>: the act of people pledging themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage, and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom<\/p>\r\n

degradation ceremony<\/strong>: the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identities and are given new ones<\/p>\r\n

deindustrialization<\/strong>: the loss of industrial production, usually to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations where the costs are lower<\/p>\r\n

demedicalization<\/strong>: the social process that normalizes \u201csick\u201d behavior<\/p>\r\n

democracy<\/strong>: a form of government that provides all citizens with an equal voice or vote in determining state policy<\/p>\r\n

democratic leader<\/strong>: a leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before moving into action<\/p>\r\n

demographic transition theory<\/strong>: a theory that describes four stages of population growth, following patterns that connect birth and death rates with stages of industrial development<\/p>\r\n

demography<\/strong>: the study of population<\/p>\r\n

denomination<\/strong>: a large, mainstream religion that is not sponsored by the state<\/p>\r\n

dependency ratio<\/strong>: the number of nonproductive citizens (young, disabled, elderly) to productive working citizens<\/p>\r\n

dependency theory<\/strong>: a theory which states that global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations<\/p>\r\n

dependent variables<\/strong>: a variable changed by other variables<\/p>\r\n

depression<\/strong>: a sustained recession across several economic sectors<\/p>\r\n

design patents<\/strong>: patents that are granted when someone has invented a new and original design for a manufactured product<\/p>\r\n

deviance<\/strong>: a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms<\/p>\r\n

diagnostic framing<\/strong>: a the social problem that is stated in a clear, easily understood manner<\/p>\r\n

dictatorship<\/strong>: a form of government in which a single person (or a very small group) wields complete and absolute authority over a government or populace after the dictator rises to power, usually through economic or military might<\/p>\r\n

differential association theory<\/strong>: a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance<\/p>\r\n

diffusion<\/strong>: the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another<\/p>\r\n

digital divide<\/strong>: the uneven access to technology around race, class, and geographic lines<\/p>\r\n

disability<\/strong>: a reduction in one\u2019s ability to perform everyday tasks; the world health organization notes that this is a social limitation<\/p>\r\n

discoveries: things and ideas found from what already exists<\/p>\r\n

discrimination<\/strong>: prejudiced action against a group of people<\/p>\r\n

disengagement theory<\/strong>: a theory which suggests that withdrawing from society and social relationships is a natural part of growing old<\/p>\r\n

doing gender<\/strong>: the performance of tasks based upon the gender assigned to us by society and, in turn, ourselves<\/p>\r\n

DOMA<\/strong>: defense of marriage act, a 1996 u.s. law explicitly limiting the definition of \u201cmarriage\u201d to a union between one man and one woman and allowing each individual state to recognize or deny same-sex marriages performed in other states<\/p>\r\n

dominant group<\/strong>: a group of people who have more power in a society than any of the subordinate groups<\/p>\r\n

double standard<\/strong>: the concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men<\/p>\r\n

downward mobility<\/strong>: a lowering of one\u2019s social class<\/p>\r\n

dramaturgical analysis<\/strong>: a technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance<\/p>\r\n

dyad<\/strong>:a two-member group<\/p>\r\n

dynamic equilibrium<\/strong>: a stable state in which all parts of a healthy society work together properly<\/p>\r\n

dysfunctions<\/strong>: social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society<\/p>\r\n

ecclesia<\/strong>: a religion that is considered the state religion<\/p>\r\n

economy<\/strong>: the social institution through which a society\u2019s resources (goods and services) are managed<\/p>\r\n

education<\/strong>: a social institution through which a society\u2019s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms<\/p>\r\n

elder abuse<\/strong>: the act of a caretaker intentionally depriving an older person of care or harming the person in their charge<\/p>\r\n

emergent norm theory<\/strong>: a perspective that emphasizes the importance of social norms in crowd behavior<\/p>\r\n

empirical evidence<\/strong>: evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation<\/p>\r\n

endogamous marriages<\/strong>: unions of people within the same social category<\/p>\r\n

environmental racism<\/strong>: the burdening of economically and socially disadvantaged communities with a disproportionate share of environmental hazards<\/p>\r\n

environmental sociology<\/strong>: the sociological subfield that addresses the relationship between humans and the environment<\/p>\r\n

epidemiology<\/strong>: the study of the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases<\/p>\r\n

e-readiness<\/strong>: the ability to sort through, interpret, and process digital knowledge<\/p>\r\n

established sects<\/strong>: sects that last but do not become denominations<\/p>\r\n

ethnicity<\/strong>: shared culture, which may include heritage, language, religion, and more<\/p>\r\n

ethnocentrism<\/strong>: the practice of evaluating another culture according to the standards of one\u2019s own culture<\/p>\r\n

ethnography<\/strong>: observing a complete social setting and all that it entails<\/p>\r\n

evolutionary model of technological chang<\/strong>e: a breakthrough in one form of technology that leads to a number of variations, from which a prototype emerges, followed by a period of slight adjustments to the technology, interrupted by a breakthrough<\/p>\r\n

e-waste<\/strong>: the disposal of broken, obsolete, and worn-out electronics<\/p>\r\n

exchange theory<\/strong>: a theory which suggests that we experience an increased dependence as we age and must increasingly submit to the will of others, because we have fewer ways of compelling others to submit to us<\/p>\r\n

exogamous unions<\/strong>: unions of spouses from different social categories<\/p>\r\n

experiment<\/strong>: the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions<\/p>\r\n

explicit rules<\/strong>: the types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized<\/p>\r\n

expressive crowds<\/strong>: crowds who share opportunities to express emotions<\/p>\r\n

expressive function<\/strong>: a group function that serves an emotional need<\/p>\r\n

expressive leader<\/strong>: a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone\u2019s emotional wellbeing<\/p>\r\n

expulsion: the act of a dominant group forcing a subordinate group to leave a certain area or even the country<\/p>\r\n

extended family<\/strong>: a household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins<\/p>\r\n

exurbs<\/strong>: communities that arise farther out than the suburbs and are typically populated by residents of high socioeconomic status<\/p>\r\n

false consciousness<\/strong>: a person\u2019s beliefs and ideology that are in conflict with her best interests<\/p>\r\n

family life course<\/strong>: a sociological model of family that sees the progression of events as fluid rather than as occurring in strict stages<\/p>\r\n

family life cycle<\/strong>: a set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time<\/p>\r\n

family of orientation<\/strong>: the family into which one is born<\/p>\r\n

family of procreation<\/strong>: a family that is formed through marriage<\/p>\r\n

family<\/strong>: socially recognized groups of individuals who may be joined by blood, marriage, or adoption and who form an emotional connection and an economic unit of society<\/p>\r\n

fertility rate<\/strong>: a measure noting the actual number of children born<\/p>\r\n

feudal societies<\/strong>: societies that operate on a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection<\/p>\r\n

field research<\/strong>: gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey<\/p>\r\n

figuration<\/strong>: the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of an individual and the society that shapes that behavior<\/p>\r\n

filial piety<\/strong>: deference and respect to one\u2019s parents and ancestors in all things<\/p>\r\n

first world<\/strong>: a term from the cold war era that is used to describe industrialized capitalist democracies<\/p>\r\n

flash mob<\/strong>: a large group of people who gather together in a spontaneous activity that lasts a limited amount of time<\/p>\r\n

folkways<\/strong>: direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture<\/p>\r\n

formal education<\/strong>: the learning of academic facts and concepts<\/p>\r\n

formal norms<\/strong>: established, written rules<\/p>\r\n

formal organizations<\/strong>: large, impersonal organizations<\/p>\r\n

formal sanctions<\/strong>: sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced<\/p>\r\n

fourth world<\/strong>: a term that describes stigmatized minority groups who have no voice or representation on the world stage<\/p>\r\n

fracking<\/strong>: hydraulic fracturing, a method used to recover gas and oil from shale by drilling down into the earth and directing a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and proprietary chemicals into the rock<\/p>\r\n

frame alignment process<\/strong>: using bridging, amplification, extension, and transformation as an ongoing and intentional means of recruiting participants to a movement<\/p>\r\n

function<\/strong>: the part a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity<\/p>\r\n

functionalism<\/strong>: a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society<\/p>\r\n

gatekeeping<\/strong>: the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media-appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount<\/p>\r\n

gender dysphoria<\/strong>: a condition listed in the dsm-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. this condition replaces \u201cgender identity disorder\u201d<\/p>\r\n

gender identity<\/strong>: a person\u2019s deeply held internal perception of his or her gender<\/p>\r\n

gender role<\/strong>: society\u2019s concept of how men and women should behave<\/p>\r\n

gender<\/strong>: a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female<\/p>\r\n

generalized other<\/strong>: the common behavioral expectations of general society<\/p>\r\n

generalized others<\/strong>: the organized and generalized attitude of a social group<\/p>\r\n

genocide<\/strong>: the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group<\/p>\r\n

gentrification<\/strong>: the entry of upper- and middle-class residents to city areas or communities that have been historically less affluent<\/p>\r\n

geriatrics<\/strong>: a medical specialty focusing on the elderly<\/p>\r\n

gerontocracy<\/strong>: a type of social structure wherein the power is held by a society\u2019s oldest members<\/p>\r\n

gerontology<\/strong>: a field of science that seeks to understand the process of aging and the challenges encountered as seniors grow older<\/p>\r\n

gerotranscendence<\/strong>: the idea that as people age, they transcend limited views of life they held in earlier times<\/p>\r\n

gini coefficient<\/strong>: a measure of income inequality between countries using a 100-point scale, in which 1 represents complete equality and 100 represents the highest possible inequality<\/p>\r\n

global assembly lines<\/strong>: a practice where products are assembled over the course of several international transactions<\/p>\r\n

global commodity chains<\/strong>: internationally integrated economic links that connect workers and corporations for the purpose of manufacture and marketing<\/p>\r\n

global feminization of poverty<\/strong>: a pattern that occurs when women bear a disproportionate percentage of the burden of poverty<\/p>\r\n

global inequality<\/strong>: the concentration of resources in core nations and in the hands of a wealthy minority<\/p>\r\n

global stratification<\/strong>: a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole<\/p>\r\n

global stratification<\/strong>: the unequal distribution of resources between countries<\/p>\r\n

globalization<\/strong>: the integration of international trade and finance markets<\/p>\r\n

grade inflation<\/strong>: the idea that the achievement level associated with an a today is notably lower than the achievement level associated with a-level work a few decades ago<\/p>\r\n

grand theories<\/strong>: an attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change<\/p>\r\n

grief<\/strong>: a psychological, emotional, and social response to the feelings of loss that accompanies death or a similar event<\/p>\r\n

gross national income (gni)<\/strong>: the income of a nation calculated based on goods and services produced, plus income earned by citizens and corporations headquartered in that country<\/p>\r\n

group<\/strong>: any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity<\/p>\r\n

habitualization<\/strong>: the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit<\/p>\r\n

hate crimes<\/strong>: attacks based on a person\u2019s race, religion, or other characteristics<\/p>\r\n

Hawthorne effec<\/strong>t: when study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher<\/p>\r\n

Head Start program<\/strong>: a federal program that provides academically focused preschool to students of low socioeconomic status<\/p>\r\n

heterosexism<\/strong>: an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations<\/p>\r\n

hidden curriculum<\/strong>: the informal teaching done in schools that socializes children to societal norms<\/p>\r\n

hierarchy of authority<\/strong>: a clear chain of command found in a bureaucracy<\/p>\r\n

high culture<\/strong>: the cultural patterns of a society\u2019s elite<\/p>\r\n

homophobia<\/strong>: an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals<\/p>\r\n

horticultural societies<\/strong>: societies based around the cultivation of plants<\/p>\r\n

hospice<\/strong>: healthcare that treats terminally ill people by providing comfort during the dying process<\/p>\r\n

human ecology<\/strong>: a functional perspective that looks at the relationship between people and their built and natural environment<\/p>\r\n

hunter-gatherer societies<\/strong>: societies that depend on hunting wild animals and gathering uncultivated plants for survival<\/p>\r\n

hypothesis<\/strong>: a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables<\/p>\r\n

ideal culture<\/strong>: the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to<\/p>\r\n

impairment<\/strong>: the physical limitations a less-able person faces<\/p>\r\n

impersonality<\/strong>: the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation<\/p>\r\n

income<\/strong>: the money a person earns from work or investments<\/p>\r\n

independent variables<\/strong>: variables that cause changes in dependent variables<\/p>\r\n

individual mandate<\/strong>: a government rule that requires everyone to have insurance coverage or they will have to pay a penalty<\/p>\r\n

industrial societies<\/strong>: societies characterized by a reliance on mechanized labor to create material goods<\/p>\r\n

informal education<\/strong>: education that involves learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors through participation in a society<\/p>\r\n

informal norms<\/strong>: casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to<\/p>\r\n

informal sanctions<\/strong>: sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions<\/p>\r\n

information societies<\/strong>: societies based on the production of nonmaterial goods and services<\/p>\r\n

in-group<\/strong>: a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of his identity<\/p>\r\n

innovations<\/strong>: new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time<\/p>\r\n

institutional racism<\/strong>: racism embedded in social institutions<\/p>\r\n

institutionalization<\/strong>: the act of implanting a convention or norm into society<\/p>\r\n

instrumental function<\/strong>: being oriented toward a task or goal<\/p>\r\n

instrumental leader<\/strong>: a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks<\/p>\r\n

intergenerational mobility<\/strong>: a difference in social class between different generations of a family<\/p>\r\n

internally displaced person<\/strong>: someone who fled his or her home while remaining inside the country\u2019s borders<\/p>\r\n

interpretive framework<\/strong>: a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing<\/p>\r\n

intersection theory<\/strong>: theory that suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes<\/p>\r\n

interview<\/strong>: a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject<\/p>\r\n

intimate partner violence (ipv)<\/strong>: violence that occurs between individuals who maintain a romantic or sexual relationship<\/p>\r\n

intragenerational mobility:<\/strong> a difference in social class between different members of the same generation<\/p>\r\n

inventions<\/strong>: a combination of pieces of existing reality into new forms<\/p>\r\n

iron cage<\/strong>: a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions<\/p>\r\n

iron rule of oligarchy<\/strong>: the theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration<\/p>\r\n

kinship<\/strong>: a person\u2019s traceable ancestry (by blood, marriage, and\/or adoption)<\/p>\r\n

knowledge gap<\/strong>: the gap in information that builds as groups grow up without access to technology<\/p>\r\n

labeling theory<\/strong>: the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society<\/p>\r\n

laissez-faire leader: a hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions<\/p>\r\n

language<\/strong>: a symbolic system of communication<\/p>\r\n

latent functions<\/strong>: the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process<\/p>\r\n

leadership function<\/strong>: the main focus or goal of a leader<\/p>\r\n

leadership style<\/strong>: the style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members<\/p>\r\n

legal codes<\/strong>: codes that maintain formal social control through laws<\/p>\r\n

legitimation<\/strong>: the act of a physician certifying that an illness is genuine<\/p>\r\n

liberation theology<\/strong>: the use of a church to promote social change via the political arena<\/p>\r\nlife course<\/strong>: the period from birth to death, including a sequence of predictable life events\r\n

life expectancy<\/strong>: the number of years a newborn is expected to live<\/p>\r\n

literature review<\/strong>: a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research<\/p>\r\n

macro-level<\/strong>: a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society<\/p>\r\n

malthusian theory<\/strong>: a theory asserting that population is controlled through positive checks (war, famine, disease) and preventive checks (measures to reduce fertility)<\/p>\r\n

manifest functions<\/strong>: sought consequences of a social process<\/p>\r\n

market socialism<\/strong>: a subtype of socialism that adopts certain traits of capitalism, like allowing limited private ownership or consulting market demand<\/p>\r\n

marriage<\/strong>: a legally recognized contract between two or more people in a sexual relationship who have an expectation of permanence about their relationship<\/p>\r\n

mass<\/strong>: a relatively large group with a common interest, even if they may not be in close proximity<\/p>\r\n

master status<\/strong>: a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual<\/p>\r\n

material culture<\/strong>: the objects or belongings of a group of people<\/p>\r\n

matrilineal descent<\/strong>: a type of unilateral descent that follows the mother\u2019s side only<\/p>\r\n

matrilocal residence<\/strong>: a system in which it is customary for a husband to live with the his wife\u2019s family<\/p>\r\n

McDonaldization of society<\/strong>: the increasing presence of the fast food business model in common social institutions<\/p>\r\n

mechanical solidarity<\/strong>: a form of social cohesion that comes from sharing similar work, education, and religion, as might be found in simpler societies<\/p>\r\n

mechanical solidarity<\/strong>: a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture<\/p>\r\n

media consolidation<\/strong>: a process by which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets<\/p>\r\n

media globalization<\/strong>: the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas<\/p>\r\n

media<\/strong>: all print, digital, and electronic means of communication<\/p>\r\n

medical sociology<\/strong>: the systematic study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and the healthy<\/p>\r\n

medicalization of deviance<\/strong>: the process that changes \u201cbad\u201d behavior into \u201csick\u201d behavior<\/p>\r\n

medicalization<\/strong>: the process by which aspects of life that were considered bad or deviant are redefined as sickness and needing medical attention to remedy<\/p>\r\n

megachurch<\/strong>: a christian church that has a very large congregation averaging more than 2,000 people who attend regular weekly services<\/p>\r\n

megalopolis<\/strong>: a large urban corridor that encompasses several cities and their surrounding suburbs and exurbs<\/p>\r\n

mercantilism<\/strong>: an economic policy based on national policies of accumulating silver and gold by controlling markets with colonies and other countries through taxes and customs charges<\/p>\r\n

meritocracy<\/strong>: a bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit\u2014proven and documented skills<\/p>\r\n

meta-analysis<\/strong>: a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together<\/p>\r\n

metropolis<\/strong>: the area that includes a city and its suburbs and exurbs<\/p>\r\n

micro-level theories<\/strong>: the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups<\/p>\r\n

minority group<\/strong>: any group of people who are singled out from the others for differential and unequal treatment<\/p>\r\n

model minority<\/strong>: the stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment<\/p>\r\n

modernization theory<\/strong>: a theory that low-income countries can improve their global economic standing by industrialization of infrastructure and a shift in cultural attitudes towards work\u00a0 OR<\/strong> a theory which suggests that the primary cause of the elderly losing power and influence in society are the parallel forces of industrialization and modernization<\/p>\r\n

modernization<\/strong>: the process that increases the amount of specialization and differentiation of structure in societies<\/p>\r\n

monarchy<\/strong>: a form of government in which a single person (a monarch) rules until that individual dies or abdicates the throne<\/p>\r\n

money<\/strong>: an object that a society agrees to assign a value to so it can be exchanged as payment<\/p>\r\n

monogamy<\/strong>: the act of being married to only one person at a time<\/p>\r\n

monotheism<\/strong>: a religion based on belief in a single deity<\/p>\r\n

mood disorders<\/strong>: long-term, debilitating illnesses like depression and bipolar disorder<\/p>\r\n

moral development<\/strong>: the way people learn what is \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad\u201d in society<\/p>\r\n

morbidity<\/strong>: the incidence of disease<\/p>\r\n

mores<\/strong>: the moral views and principles of a group<\/p>\r\n

mortality rate<\/strong>: a measure of the number of people in a population who die<\/p>\r\n

mortality<\/strong>: the number of deaths in a given time or place<\/p>\r\n

motivational framing<\/strong>: a call to action<\/p>\r\n

mutualism<\/strong>: a form of socialism under which individuals and cooperative groups exchange products with one another on the basis of mutually satisfactory contracts<\/p>\r\n

nature<\/strong>: the influence of our genetic makeup on self-development<\/p>\r\n

negative sanctions<\/strong>: punishments for violating norms<\/p>\r\n

neo-luddites<\/strong>: those who see technology as a symbol of the coldness of modern life<\/p>\r\n

net neutrality<\/strong>: the principle that all internet data should be treated equally by internet service providers<\/p>\r\n

new media<\/strong>: all interactive forms of information exchange<\/p>\r\n

new social movement theory<\/strong>: a theory that attempts to explain the proliferation of postindustrial and postmodern movements that are difficult to understand using traditional social movement theories<\/p>\r\n

NGO<\/strong>: nongovernmental organizations working globally for numerous humanitarian and environmental causes<\/p>\r\n

NIMBY<\/strong>: \u201cnot in my back yard,\u201d the tendency of people to protest poor environmental practices when those practices will affect them directly<\/p>\r\n

No Child Left Behind Act<\/strong>: an act that requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding<\/p>\r\n

nonmaterial culture<\/strong>: the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society<\/p>\r\n

nonreactive research<\/strong>: using secondary data, does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people\u2019s behaviors<\/p>\r\n

nonviolent crimes<\/strong>: crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force<\/p>\r\n

normative or voluntary organizations<\/strong>: organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards<\/p>\r\n

norms<\/strong>: the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured<\/p>\r\n

nuclear family<\/strong>: two parents (traditionally a married husband and wife) and children living in the same household<\/p>\r\n

nurture<\/strong>: the role that our social environment plays in self-development<\/p>\r\n

oligarchy<\/strong>: a form of government in which power is held by a small, elite group<\/p>\r\n

oligopoly<\/strong>: a situation in which a few firms dominate a marketplace<\/p>\r\n

one person, one vote<\/strong>: a concept holding that each person\u2019s vote should be counted equally<\/p>\r\n

operational definitions<\/strong>: specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study<\/p>\r\n

organic solidarity<\/strong>: a form of social cohesion that arises out of the mutual interdependence created by the specialization of work<\/p>\r\n

out-group<\/strong>: a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with<\/p>\r\n

outsourcing<\/strong>: a practice where jobs are contracted to an outside source, often in another country<\/p>\r\n

panoptic surveillance<\/strong>: a form of constant monitoring in which the observation posts are decentralized and the observed is never communicated with directly<\/p>\r\n

paradigms<\/strong>: philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them<\/p>\r\n

participant observation<\/strong>: when a researcher immerses herself in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an \u201cinsider\u201d perspective<\/p>\r\n

pastoral societies<\/strong>: societies based around the domestication of animals<\/p>\r\n

patrilineal descent<\/strong>: a type of unilateral descent that follows the father\u2019s line only<\/p>\r\n

patrilocal residence<\/strong>: a system in which it is customary for the a wife to live with (or near) the her husband\u2019s family<\/p>\r\n

patrimonialism<\/strong>: a type of authority wherein military and administrative factions enforce the power of the master<\/p>\r\n

peer group<\/strong>: a group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests<\/p>\r\n

peripheral nations<\/strong>: nations on the fringes of the global economy, dominated by core nations, with very little industrialization<\/p>\r\n

personality disorders<\/strong>: disorders that cause people to behave in ways that are seen as abnormal to society but seem normal to them<\/p>\r\n

physician-assisted suicide<\/strong>: the voluntary use of lethal medication provided by a medical doctor to end one\u2019s life<\/p>\r\n

planned obsolescence<\/strong>: the act of a technology company planning for a product to be obsolete or unable from the time it\u2019s created<\/p>\r\n

plant patents<\/strong>: patents that recognize the discovery of new plant types that can be asexually reproduced<\/p>\r\n

pluralism<\/strong>: the ideal of the united states as a \u201csalad bowl:\u201d a mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the \u201cflavor\u201d of the whole<\/p>\r\n

polarization: a practice where the differences between low-end and high-end jobs become greater and the number of people in the middle levels decreases<\/p>\r\n

police<\/strong>: a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level<\/p>\r\n

politics<\/strong>: a means of studying a nation\u2019s or group\u2019s underlying social norms as values as evidenced through its political structure and practices<\/p>\r\n

pollution<\/strong>: the introduction of contaminants into an environment at levels that are damaging<\/p>\r\n

polyandry: a form of marriage in which one woman is married to more than one man at one time<\/p>\r\n

polygamy<\/strong>: the state of being committed or married to more than one person at a time<\/p>\r\n

polygyny:<\/strong> a form of marriage in which one man is married to more than one woman at one time<\/p>\r\n

polytheism<\/strong>: a religion based on belief in multiple deities<\/p>\r\n

popular culture<\/strong>: mainstream, widespread patterns among a society\u2019s population<\/p>\r\n

population composition<\/strong>: a snapshot of the demographic profile of a population based on fertility, mortality, and migration rates<\/p>\r\n

population pyramid<\/strong>: a graphic representation that depicts population distribution according to age and sex<\/p>\r\n

population<\/strong>: a defined group serving as the subject of a study<\/p>\r\n

positive sanctions<\/strong>: rewards given for conforming to norms<\/p>\r\n

positivism<\/strong>: the scientific study of social patterns<\/p>\r\n

power elite<\/strong>: a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources<\/p>\r\n

power<\/strong>: the ability to exercise one\u2019s will over others<\/p>\r\n

prejudice<\/strong>: biased thought based on flawed assumptions about a group of people<\/p>\r\n

primary aging<\/strong>: biological factors such as molecular and cellular changes<\/p>\r\n

primary data<\/strong>: data that are collected directly from firsthand experience<\/p>\r\n

primary deviance<\/strong>: a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual\u2019s self-image or interactions with others<\/p>\r\n

primary groups<\/strong>: small, informal groups of people who are closest to us<\/p>\r\n

primogeniture<\/strong>: a law stating that all property passes to the firstborn son<\/p>\r\n

private healthcare<\/strong>: health insurance that a person buys from a private company; private healthcare can either be employer-sponsored or direct-purchase<\/p>\r\n

prognostic framing<\/strong>: social movements that state a clear solution and a means of implementation<\/p>\r\n

proletariat<\/strong>: the laborers in a society<\/p>\r\n

public healthcare<\/strong>: health insurance that is funded or provided by the government<\/p>\r\n

public<\/strong>: an unorganized, relatively diffuse group of people who share ideas<\/p>\r\n

qualitative data<\/strong>: comprise information that is subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting<\/p>\r\n

qualitative sociology<\/strong>: in-depth interviews, focus groups, and\/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data<\/p>\r\n

quantitative data<\/strong>: represent research collected in numerical form that can be counted<\/p>\r\n

quantitative sociology<\/strong>: statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants<\/p>\r\n

queer theory<\/strong>: an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies western society\u2019s rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and questions its appropriateness<\/p>\r\n

racial profiling<\/strong>: the use by law enforcement of race alone to determine whether to stop and detain someone<\/p>\r\n

racial steering<\/strong>: the act of real estate agents directing prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race<\/p>\r\n

racism<\/strong>: a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that are used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others<\/p>\r\n

random sample<\/strong>: a study\u2019s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population<\/p>\r\n

rationalization<\/strong>: a belief that modern society should be built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition<\/p>\r\n

rational-legal authority<\/strong>: power that is legitimized by rules, regulations, and laws<\/p>\r\n

real culture<\/strong>: the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists<\/p>\r\n

recession<\/strong>: two or more consecutive quarters of economic decline<\/p>\r\n

redlining<\/strong>: the practice of routinely refusing mortgages for households and business located in predominately minority communities<\/p>\r\n

reference group<\/strong>s: groups to which an individual compares herself<\/p>\r\n

reform movements<\/strong>: movements that seek to change something specific about the social structure<\/p>\r\n

refugee<\/strong>: an individual who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster<\/p>\r\n

reification<\/strong>: an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence<\/p>\r\n

relative poverty<\/strong>: the state of poverty where one is unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in the country<\/p>\r\n

reliability<\/strong>: a measure of a study\u2019s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced<\/p>\r\n

religion<\/strong>: a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant<\/p>\r\n

religious\/redemptive movements<\/strong>: movements that work to promote inner change or spiritual growth in individuals<\/p>\r\n

representative democracy<\/strong>: a government wherein citizens elect officials to represent their interests<\/p>\r\n

resistance movements<\/strong>: those who seek to prevent or undo change to the social structure<\/p>\r\n

resocialization<\/strong>: the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their place<\/p>\r\n

resource mobilization theory<\/strong>: a theory that explains social movements\u2019 success in terms of their ability to acquire resources and mobilize individuals<\/p>\r\n

revolutionary movements<\/strong>: movements that seek to completely change every aspect of society<\/p>\r\n

role conflict<\/strong>: a situation when one or more of an individual\u2019s roles clash<\/p>\r\n

role performance<\/strong>: the expression of a role<\/p>\r\n

role strain: stress that occurs when too much is required of a single role<\/p>\r\n

roles<\/strong>: patterns of behavior that are representative of a person\u2019s social status<\/p>\r\n

role-set<\/strong>: an array of roles attached to a particular status<\/p>\r\n

samples<\/strong>: small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population<\/p>\r\n

sanctions<\/strong>: a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors<\/p>\r\n

sanctions<\/strong>: the means of enforcing rules<\/p>\r\n

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis<\/strong>: the way that people understand the world based on their form of language<\/p>\r\n

scapegoat theory<\/strong>: a theory that suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group<\/p>\r\n

scientific method<\/strong>: an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions<\/p>\r\n

second world<\/strong>: a term from the cold war era that describes nations with moderate economies and standards of living<\/p>\r\n

secondary aging<\/strong>: aging that occurs due to controllable factors like exercise and diet<\/p>\r\n

secondary data analysis<\/strong>: using data collected by others but applying new interpretations<\/p>\r\n

secondary deviance<\/strong>: deviance that occurs when a person\u2019s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society<\/p>\r\n

secondary groups<\/strong>: larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited<\/p>\r\n

sect<\/strong>:a small, new offshoot of a denomination<\/p>\r\n

sedimentation of racial inequality<\/strong>: the intergenerational impact of de facto and de jure racism that limits the abilities of black people to accumulate wealth<\/p>\r\n

segregation<\/strong>: the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions<\/p>\r\n

selective optimization with compensation theory<\/strong>: a theory based on the idea that successful personal development throughout the life course and subsequent mastery of the challenges associated with everyday life are based on the components of selection, optimization, and compensation<\/p>\r\n

self<\/strong>: a person\u2019s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction<\/p>\r\n

self-fulfilling prophecy<\/strong>: an idea that becomes true when acted upon<\/p>\r\n

self-report study<\/strong>: a collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews<\/p>\r\n

semi-peripheral nations<\/strong>: in-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but acting as a major source of raw materials and an expanding middle class marketplace<\/p>\r\n

senescence<\/strong>: the aging process, including biological, intellectual, emotional, social, and spiritual changes<\/p>\r\n

sex ratio<\/strong>: the ratio of men to women in a given population<\/p>\r\n

sex<\/strong>: a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females<\/p>\r\n

sexism<\/strong>: the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another<\/p>\r\n

sexual orientation<\/strong>: a person\u2019s physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female)<\/p>\r\n

sexuality<\/strong>: a person\u2019s capacity for sexual feelings<\/p>\r\n

shaken-baby syndrome<\/strong>: a group of medical symptoms such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage resulting from forcefully shaking or impacting an infant\u2019s head<\/p>\r\n

sick role<\/strong>: the pattern of expectations that define appropriate behavior for the sick and for those who take care of them<\/p>\r\n

significant others<\/strong>: specific individuals that impact a person\u2019s life<\/p>\r\n

social change<\/strong>: the change in a society created through social movements as well as through external factors like environmental shifts or technological innovation<\/p>\r\n

social construction of race<\/strong>: the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable<\/p>\r\n

social construction of sexuality<\/strong>: socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness of sex-linked behavior which shape how people see and experience sexuality<\/p>\r\n

social control<\/strong>: a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms<\/p>\r\n

social control<\/strong>: the regulation and enforcement of norms<\/p>\r\n

social disorganization theory<\/strong>: a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control<\/p>\r\n

social epidemiology<\/strong>: the study of the causes and distribution of diseases<\/p>\r\n

social facts<\/strong>: the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life<\/p>\r\n

social gerontology<\/strong>: a specialized field of gerontology that examines the social (and sociological) aspects of aging<\/p>\r\n

social institutions<\/strong>: patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs<\/p>\r\n

social integration<\/strong>: how strongly a person is connected to his or her social group<\/p>\r\n

social mobility<\/strong>: the ability to change positions within a social stratification system<\/p>\r\n

social movement industry<\/strong>: the collection of the social movement organizations that are striving toward similar goals<\/p>\r\n

social movement organization<\/strong>: a single social movement group<\/p>\r\n

social movement sector<\/strong>: the multiple social movement industries in a society, even if they have widely varying constituents and goals<\/p>\r\n

social movement<\/strong>: a purposeful organized group hoping to work toward a common social goal<\/p>\r\n

social order<\/strong>: an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society\u2019s members base their daily lives<\/p>\r\n

social placement<\/strong>: the use of education to improve one\u2019s social standing<\/p>\r\n

social solidarity: the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion<\/p>\r\n

social stratification<\/strong>: a socioeconomic system that divides society\u2019s members into categories ranking from high to low, based on things like wealth, power, and prestige<\/p>\r\n

socialism<\/strong>: an economic system in which there is government ownership (often referred to as \u201cstate run\u201d) of goods and their production, with an impetus to share work and wealth equally among the members of a society<\/p>\r\n

socialization<\/strong>: the process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society\u2019s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values<\/p>\r\n

socialized medicine<\/strong>: when the government owns and runs the entire healthcare system<\/p>\r\n

society: a group of people who live in a defined geographical area who interact with one another and who share a common culture<\/p>\r\n

sociological imagination<\/strong>: the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular<\/p>\r\n

sociology<\/strong>: the systematic study of society and social interaction<\/p>\r\n

sorting<\/strong>: classifying students based on academic merit or potential<\/p>\r\n

standard of living<\/strong>: the level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle<\/p>\r\n

status consistency<\/strong>: the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual\u2019s rank across social categories like income, education, and occupation<\/p>\r\n

status<\/strong>: the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to his or her rank and role in society<\/p>\r\n

stereotype interchangeability<\/strong>: stereotypes that don\u2019t change and that get recycled for application to a new subordinate group<\/p>\r\n

stereotypes:<\/strong> oversimplified ideas about groups of people<\/p>\r\n

stigmatization of illness<\/strong>: illnesses that are discriminated against and whose sufferers are looked down upon or even shunned by society<\/p>\r\n

stigmatization<\/strong>: the act of spoiling someone\u2019s identity; they are labeled as different, discriminated against, and sometimes even shunned due to an illness or disability<\/p>\r\n

strain theory<\/strong>: a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals<\/p>\r\n

street crime<\/strong>: crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces<\/p>\r\n

structural mobility<\/strong>: a societal change that enables a whole group of people to move up or down the class ladder<\/p>\r\n

structural unemployment<\/strong>: a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the jobs that are available<\/p>\r\n

subculture of aging theory<\/strong>: a theory that focuses on the shared community created by the elderly when they are excluded (due to age), voluntarily or involuntarily, from participating in other groups<\/p>\r\n

subcultures<\/strong>: groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society\u2019s majority, even as the members exist within a larger society<\/p>\r\n

subjective poverty<\/strong>: a state of poverty composed of many dimensions, subjectively present when one\u2019s actual income does not meet one\u2019s expectations<\/p>\r\n

subordinate group: a group of people who have less power than the dominant group<\/p>\r\n

subsistence farming<\/strong>: farming where farmers grow only enough to feed themselves and their families<\/p>\r\n

suburbs<\/strong>: the communities surrounding cities, typically close enough for a daily commute<\/p>\r\n

supercentenarians<\/strong>: people 110 of age or older<\/p>\r\n

surveys<\/strong>: collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire<\/p>\r\n

sustainable development: development that occurs without depleting or damaging the natural environment<\/p>\r\n

symbolic interactionism<\/strong>: a theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)<\/p>\r\n

symbols<\/strong>: gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture<\/p>\r\n

technological diffusion<\/strong>: the spread of technology across borders<\/p>\r\n

technological globalization<\/strong>: the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology<\/p>\r\n

technology<\/strong>: the application of science to solve problems in daily life<\/p>\r\n

technophiles<\/strong>: those who see technology as symbolizing the potential for a brighter future<\/p>\r\n

thanatology<\/strong>: the systematic study of death and dying<\/p>\r\n

theory<\/strong>: a proposed explanation about social interactions or society<\/p>\r\n

third world<\/strong>: a term from the cold war era that refers to poor, unindustrialized countries<\/p>\r\n

Thomas theorem<\/strong>: how a subjective reality can drive events to develop in accordance with that reality, despite being originally unsupported by objective reality<\/p>\r\n

total institution<\/strong>: an organization in which participants live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization occurs<\/p>\r\n

totalitarian dictatorship<\/strong>: an extremely oppressive form of dictatorship in which most aspects of citizens\u2019 lives are controlled by the leader<\/p>\r\n

totemism<\/strong>: the belief in a divine connection between humans and other natural beings<\/p>\r\n

tracking<\/strong>: a formalized sorting system that places students on \u201ctracks\u201d (advanced, low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities<\/p>\r\n

traditional authority<\/strong>: power legitimized on the basis of long-standing customs<\/p>\r\n

transgende<\/strong>r: an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex<\/p>\r\n

transsexuals<\/strong>: transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy<\/p>\r\n

triad<\/strong>: a three-member group<\/p>\r\n

underemployment<\/strong>: a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than his or her education and experience qualifies him or her to perform<\/p>\r\n

underground economy<\/strong>: an unregulated economy of labor and goods that operates outside of governance, regulatory systems, or human protections<\/p>\r\n

underinsured<\/strong>: people who spend at least 10 percent of their income on healthcare costs that are not covered by insurance<\/p>\r\n

unilateral descent<\/strong>: the tracing of kinship through one parent only.<\/p>\r\n

universal access<\/strong>: the equal ability of all people to participate in an education system<\/p>\r\n

universal healthcare<\/strong>: a system that guarantees healthcare coverage for everyone<\/p>\r\n

upward mobility<\/strong>: an increase\u2014or upward shift\u2014in social class<\/p>\r\n

urban sociology<\/strong>: the subfield of sociology that focuses on the study of urbanization<\/p>\r\n

urbanization<\/strong>: the study of the social, political and economic relationships of cities<\/p>\r\n

utilitarian organizations<\/strong>: organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need<\/p>\r\n

utility patents<\/strong>: patents that are granted for the invention or discovery of any new and useful process, product, or machine<\/p>\r\n

validity<\/strong>: the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study<\/p>\r\n

value neutrality<\/strong>: a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment during the course of a study and in publishing results<\/p>\r\n

value-added theory<\/strong>: a functionalist perspective theory that posits that several preconditions must be in place for collective behavior to occur<\/p>\r\n

values<\/strong>: a culture\u2019s standard for discerning what is good and just in society<\/p>\r\n

victimless crime<\/strong>: activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them<\/p>\r\n

violent crimes<\/strong>: crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force<\/p>\r\n

wealth<\/strong>: the value of money and assets a person has from, for example, inheritance<\/p>\r\n

white flight<\/strong>: the migration of economically secure white people from racially mixed urban areas toward the suburbs<\/p>\r\n

white privilege<\/strong>: the benefits people receive simply by being part of the dominant group<\/p>\r\n

xenocentrism<\/strong>: a belief that another culture is superior to one\u2019s own<\/p>\r\nxenophobia<\/strong>: an illogical fear and even hatred of foreigners and foreign goods\r\n\r\nzero population growth<\/strong>: a theoretical goal in which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n ","rendered":"

Glossary<\/strong><\/h1>\n
\n

absolute monarchies<\/strong>: governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated powerabsolute poverty<\/strong>: the state where one is barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities<\/p>\n

achieved status<\/strong>: the status a person chooses, such as a level of education or income<\/p>\n

acting crowds<\/strong>: crowds of people who are focused on a specific action or goal<\/p>\n

activity theory<\/strong>: a theory which suggests that for individuals to enjoy old age and feel satisfied, they must maintain activities and find a replacement for the statuses and associated roles they have left behind as they aged<\/p>\n

age stratification theory<\/strong>: a theory which states that members of society are stratified by age, just as they are stratified by race, class, and gender<\/p>\n

ageism<\/strong>: discrimination based on age<\/p>\n

aggregate<\/strong>: a collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don\u2019t interact or share a sense of identity<\/p>\n

agricultural societies<\/strong>: societies that rely on farming as a way of life<\/p>\n

alienation<\/strong>: an individual\u2019s isolation from his society, his work, and his sense of self<\/p>\n

alternative movements<\/strong>: social movements that limit themselves to self-improvement changes in individuals<\/p>\n

amalgamation<\/strong>: the process by which a minority group and a majority group combine to form a new group<\/p>\n

ambilineal<\/strong>: a type of unilateral descent that follows either the father\u2019s or the mother\u2019s side exclusively<\/p>\n

anarchy<\/strong>: the absence of any organized government<\/p>\n

animism<\/strong>: the religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world<\/p>\n

anomie<\/strong>: a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness<\/p>\n

anticipatory socialization<\/strong>: the way we prepare for future life roles<\/p>\n

antipositivism<\/strong>: the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values<\/p>\n

anxiety disorders<\/strong>: feelings of worry and fearfulness that last for months at a time<\/p>\n

ascribed status<\/strong>: the status outside of an individual\u2019s control, such as sex or race<\/p>\n

assembling perspective<\/strong>: a theory that credits individuals in crowds as behaving as rational thinkers and views crowds as engaging in purposeful behavior and collective action<\/p>\n

assimilation<\/strong>: the process by which a minority individual or group takes on the characteristics of the dominant culture<\/p>\n

asylum-seekers<\/strong>: those whose claim to refugee status have not been validated<\/p>\n

atheism<\/strong>: the belief in no deities<\/p>\n

authoritarian leader<\/strong>: a leader who issues orders and assigns tasks<\/p>\n

authority<\/strong>: power that people accept because it comes from a source that is perceived as legitimate<\/p>\n

automation: workers being replaced by technology<\/p>\n

baby boomers<\/strong>: people in the united states born between approximately 1946 and 1964<\/p>\n

bartering<\/strong>: a process where people exchange one form of goods or services for another<\/p>\n

beliefs<\/strong>: tenets or convictions that people hold to be true<\/p>\n

bigamy<\/strong>: the act of entering into marriage while still married to another person<\/p>\n

bilateral descent<\/strong>: the tracing of kinship through both parents\u2019 ancestral lines<\/p>\n

biological determinism<\/strong>: the belief that men and women behave differently due to inherent sex differences related to their biology<\/p>\n

bourgeoisie<\/strong>: the owners of the means of production in a society<\/p>\n

bureaucracies<\/strong>: formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality.<\/p>\n

cancer cluster<\/strong>: a geographic area with high levels of cancer within its population<\/p>\n

capital flight<\/strong>: the movement (flight) of capital from one nation to another, via jobs and resources<\/p>\n

capitalism<\/strong>: a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and companies rather than by the government<\/p>\n

career inheritance<\/strong>: a practice where children tend to enter the same or similar occupation as their parents<\/p>\n

carrying capacity<\/strong>: the amount of people that can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources<\/p>\n

case study<\/strong>: in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual<\/p>\n

caste system<\/strong>: a system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives<\/p>\n

casual crowds<\/strong>: people who share close proximity without really interacting<\/p>\n

category<\/strong>: people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way<\/p>\n

centenarians<\/strong>: people 100 years old or older<\/p>\n

charismatic authority<\/strong>: power legitimized on the basis of a leader\u2019s exceptional personal qualities<\/p>\n

chattel slavery<\/strong>: a form of slavery in which one person owns another<\/p>\n

class consciousness<\/strong>: the awareness of one\u2019s rank in society<\/p>\n

class system<\/strong>: social standing based on social factors and individual accomplishments<\/p>\n

class traits<\/strong>: the typical behaviors, customs, and norms that define each class (also called class markers)<\/p>\n

class<\/strong>: a group who shares a common social status based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation<\/p>\n

clear division of labor<\/strong>: the fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform<\/p>\n

climate change<\/strong>: long-term shifts in temperature and climate due to human activity<\/p>\n

code of ethics<\/strong>: a set of guidelines that the American Sociological Association has established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology<\/p>\n

coercive organizations<\/strong>: organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital<\/p>\n

cohabitation<\/strong>: the act of a couple sharing a residence while they are not married<\/p>\n

cohort<\/strong>: a group of people who share a statistical or demographic trait<\/p>\n

collective behavior<\/strong>: a noninstitutionalized activity in which several people voluntarily engage<\/p>\n

collective conscience<\/strong>: the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society<\/p>\n

colorism<\/strong>: the belief that one type of skin tone is superior or inferior to another within a racial group<\/p>\n

commodification<\/strong>: the changing of something not generally thought of as a commodity into something that can be bought and sold in a marketplace<\/p>\n

concentric zone model<\/strong>: a model of human ecology that views cities as a series of circular rings or zones<\/p>\n

conflict theory<\/strong>: a theory that examines social and economic factors as the causes of criminal deviance<\/p>\n

conformity<\/strong>: the extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms<\/p>\n

conspicuous consumption<\/strong>: the act of buying and using products to make a statement about social standing<\/p>\n

constitutional monarchies<\/strong>: national governments that recognize monarchs but require these figures to abide by the laws of a greater constitution<\/p>\n

constructivism<\/strong>: an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be<\/p>\n

content analysi<\/strong>s: applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand<\/p>\n

contested illnesses<\/strong>: illnesses that are questioned or considered questionable by some medical professionals<\/p>\n

continuity theory<\/strong>: a theory which states that the elderly make specific choices to maintain consistency in internal (personality structure, beliefs) and external structures (relationships), remaining active and involved throughout their elder years<\/p>\n

control theory<\/strong>: a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society<\/p>\n

conventional crowds<\/strong>: people who come together for a regularly scheduled event<\/p>\n

convergence theory<\/strong>: a sociological theory to explain how and why societies move toward similarity over time as their economies develop<\/p>\n

core nations<\/strong>: dominant capitalist countries<\/p>\n

cornucopian theory<\/strong>: a theory that asserts human ingenuity will rise to the challenge of providing adequate resources for a growing population<\/p>\n

corporate crime<\/strong>: crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment<\/p>\n

corrections system<\/strong>: the system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested for, convicted of, or sentenced for criminal offenses<\/p>\n

correlation<\/strong>: when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation<\/p>\n

countercultures<\/strong>: groups that reject and oppose society\u2019s widely accepted cultural patterns<\/p>\n

court<\/strong>: a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law<\/p>\n

credentialism<\/strong>: the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications<\/p>\n

crime<\/strong>: a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions<\/p>\n

criminal justice system<\/strong>: an organization that exists to enforce a legal code<\/p>\n

crowd<\/strong>: a fairly large number of people who share close proximity<\/p>\n

crowdsourcing<\/strong>: the process of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people<\/p>\n

cults<\/strong>: religious groups that are small, secretive, and highly controlling of members and have a charismatic leader<\/p>\n

cultural capital<\/strong>: cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency to help one navigate a culture<\/p>\n

cultural deviance theory<\/strong>: a theory that suggests conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime<\/p>\n

cultural imperialism<\/strong>: the deliberate imposition of one\u2019s own cultural values on another culture<\/p>\n

cultural relativism<\/strong>: the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards, and not in comparison to another culture<\/p>\n

cultural transmission<\/strong>: the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture<\/p>\n

cultural universals<\/strong>: patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies<\/p>\n

culture lag<\/strong>: the gap of time between the introduction of material culture and nonmaterial culture\u2019s acceptance of it<\/p>\n

culture of prejudice<\/strong>: the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture<\/p>\n

culture shock<\/strong>: an experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life<\/p>\n

culture<\/strong>: shared beliefs, values, and practices<\/p>\n

cyberfeminism: the application to and promotion of feminism online<\/p>\n

Davis-Moore thesis<\/strong>: a thesis that argues some social stratification is a social necessity<\/p>\n

debt accumulation<\/strong>: the buildup of external debt, wherein countries borrow money from other nations to fund their expansion or growth goals<\/p>\n

debt bondage<\/strong>: the act of people pledging themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage, and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom<\/p>\n

degradation ceremony<\/strong>: the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identities and are given new ones<\/p>\n

deindustrialization<\/strong>: the loss of industrial production, usually to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations where the costs are lower<\/p>\n

demedicalization<\/strong>: the social process that normalizes \u201csick\u201d behavior<\/p>\n

democracy<\/strong>: a form of government that provides all citizens with an equal voice or vote in determining state policy<\/p>\n

democratic leader<\/strong>: a leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before moving into action<\/p>\n

demographic transition theory<\/strong>: a theory that describes four stages of population growth, following patterns that connect birth and death rates with stages of industrial development<\/p>\n

demography<\/strong>: the study of population<\/p>\n

denomination<\/strong>: a large, mainstream religion that is not sponsored by the state<\/p>\n

dependency ratio<\/strong>: the number of nonproductive citizens (young, disabled, elderly) to productive working citizens<\/p>\n

dependency theory<\/strong>: a theory which states that global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations<\/p>\n

dependent variables<\/strong>: a variable changed by other variables<\/p>\n

depression<\/strong>: a sustained recession across several economic sectors<\/p>\n

design patents<\/strong>: patents that are granted when someone has invented a new and original design for a manufactured product<\/p>\n

deviance<\/strong>: a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms<\/p>\n

diagnostic framing<\/strong>: a the social problem that is stated in a clear, easily understood manner<\/p>\n

dictatorship<\/strong>: a form of government in which a single person (or a very small group) wields complete and absolute authority over a government or populace after the dictator rises to power, usually through economic or military might<\/p>\n

differential association theory<\/strong>: a theory that states individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them who provide models of and opportunities for deviance<\/p>\n

diffusion<\/strong>: the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another<\/p>\n

digital divide<\/strong>: the uneven access to technology around race, class, and geographic lines<\/p>\n

disability<\/strong>: a reduction in one\u2019s ability to perform everyday tasks; the world health organization notes that this is a social limitation<\/p>\n

discoveries: things and ideas found from what already exists<\/p>\n

discrimination<\/strong>: prejudiced action against a group of people<\/p>\n

disengagement theory<\/strong>: a theory which suggests that withdrawing from society and social relationships is a natural part of growing old<\/p>\n

doing gender<\/strong>: the performance of tasks based upon the gender assigned to us by society and, in turn, ourselves<\/p>\n

DOMA<\/strong>: defense of marriage act, a 1996 u.s. law explicitly limiting the definition of \u201cmarriage\u201d to a union between one man and one woman and allowing each individual state to recognize or deny same-sex marriages performed in other states<\/p>\n

dominant group<\/strong>: a group of people who have more power in a society than any of the subordinate groups<\/p>\n

double standard<\/strong>: the concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men<\/p>\n

downward mobility<\/strong>: a lowering of one\u2019s social class<\/p>\n

dramaturgical analysis<\/strong>: a technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance<\/p>\n

dyad<\/strong>:a two-member group<\/p>\n

dynamic equilibrium<\/strong>: a stable state in which all parts of a healthy society work together properly<\/p>\n

dysfunctions<\/strong>: social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society<\/p>\n

ecclesia<\/strong>: a religion that is considered the state religion<\/p>\n

economy<\/strong>: the social institution through which a society\u2019s resources (goods and services) are managed<\/p>\n

education<\/strong>: a social institution through which a society\u2019s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms<\/p>\n

elder abuse<\/strong>: the act of a caretaker intentionally depriving an older person of care or harming the person in their charge<\/p>\n

emergent norm theory<\/strong>: a perspective that emphasizes the importance of social norms in crowd behavior<\/p>\n

empirical evidence<\/strong>: evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation<\/p>\n

endogamous marriages<\/strong>: unions of people within the same social category<\/p>\n

environmental racism<\/strong>: the burdening of economically and socially disadvantaged communities with a disproportionate share of environmental hazards<\/p>\n

environmental sociology<\/strong>: the sociological subfield that addresses the relationship between humans and the environment<\/p>\n

epidemiology<\/strong>: the study of the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases<\/p>\n

e-readiness<\/strong>: the ability to sort through, interpret, and process digital knowledge<\/p>\n

established sects<\/strong>: sects that last but do not become denominations<\/p>\n

ethnicity<\/strong>: shared culture, which may include heritage, language, religion, and more<\/p>\n

ethnocentrism<\/strong>: the practice of evaluating another culture according to the standards of one\u2019s own culture<\/p>\n

ethnography<\/strong>: observing a complete social setting and all that it entails<\/p>\n

evolutionary model of technological chang<\/strong>e: a breakthrough in one form of technology that leads to a number of variations, from which a prototype emerges, followed by a period of slight adjustments to the technology, interrupted by a breakthrough<\/p>\n

e-waste<\/strong>: the disposal of broken, obsolete, and worn-out electronics<\/p>\n

exchange theory<\/strong>: a theory which suggests that we experience an increased dependence as we age and must increasingly submit to the will of others, because we have fewer ways of compelling others to submit to us<\/p>\n

exogamous unions<\/strong>: unions of spouses from different social categories<\/p>\n

experiment<\/strong>: the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions<\/p>\n

explicit rules<\/strong>: the types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized<\/p>\n

expressive crowds<\/strong>: crowds who share opportunities to express emotions<\/p>\n

expressive function<\/strong>: a group function that serves an emotional need<\/p>\n

expressive leader<\/strong>: a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone\u2019s emotional wellbeing<\/p>\n

expulsion: the act of a dominant group forcing a subordinate group to leave a certain area or even the country<\/p>\n

extended family<\/strong>: a household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins<\/p>\n

exurbs<\/strong>: communities that arise farther out than the suburbs and are typically populated by residents of high socioeconomic status<\/p>\n

false consciousness<\/strong>: a person\u2019s beliefs and ideology that are in conflict with her best interests<\/p>\n

family life course<\/strong>: a sociological model of family that sees the progression of events as fluid rather than as occurring in strict stages<\/p>\n

family life cycle<\/strong>: a set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time<\/p>\n

family of orientation<\/strong>: the family into which one is born<\/p>\n

family of procreation<\/strong>: a family that is formed through marriage<\/p>\n

family<\/strong>: socially recognized groups of individuals who may be joined by blood, marriage, or adoption and who form an emotional connection and an economic unit of society<\/p>\n

fertility rate<\/strong>: a measure noting the actual number of children born<\/p>\n

feudal societies<\/strong>: societies that operate on a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection<\/p>\n

field research<\/strong>: gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey<\/p>\n

figuration<\/strong>: the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of an individual and the society that shapes that behavior<\/p>\n

filial piety<\/strong>: deference and respect to one\u2019s parents and ancestors in all things<\/p>\n

first world<\/strong>: a term from the cold war era that is used to describe industrialized capitalist democracies<\/p>\n

flash mob<\/strong>: a large group of people who gather together in a spontaneous activity that lasts a limited amount of time<\/p>\n

folkways<\/strong>: direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture<\/p>\n

formal education<\/strong>: the learning of academic facts and concepts<\/p>\n

formal norms<\/strong>: established, written rules<\/p>\n

formal organizations<\/strong>: large, impersonal organizations<\/p>\n

formal sanctions<\/strong>: sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced<\/p>\n

fourth world<\/strong>: a term that describes stigmatized minority groups who have no voice or representation on the world stage<\/p>\n

fracking<\/strong>: hydraulic fracturing, a method used to recover gas and oil from shale by drilling down into the earth and directing a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and proprietary chemicals into the rock<\/p>\n

frame alignment process<\/strong>: using bridging, amplification, extension, and transformation as an ongoing and intentional means of recruiting participants to a movement<\/p>\n

function<\/strong>: the part a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity<\/p>\n

functionalism<\/strong>: a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society<\/p>\n

gatekeeping<\/strong>: the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media-appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount<\/p>\n

gender dysphoria<\/strong>: a condition listed in the dsm-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. this condition replaces \u201cgender identity disorder\u201d<\/p>\n

gender identity<\/strong>: a person\u2019s deeply held internal perception of his or her gender<\/p>\n

gender role<\/strong>: society\u2019s concept of how men and women should behave<\/p>\n

gender<\/strong>: a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female<\/p>\n

generalized other<\/strong>: the common behavioral expectations of general society<\/p>\n

generalized others<\/strong>: the organized and generalized attitude of a social group<\/p>\n

genocide<\/strong>: the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group<\/p>\n

gentrification<\/strong>: the entry of upper- and middle-class residents to city areas or communities that have been historically less affluent<\/p>\n

geriatrics<\/strong>: a medical specialty focusing on the elderly<\/p>\n

gerontocracy<\/strong>: a type of social structure wherein the power is held by a society\u2019s oldest members<\/p>\n

gerontology<\/strong>: a field of science that seeks to understand the process of aging and the challenges encountered as seniors grow older<\/p>\n

gerotranscendence<\/strong>: the idea that as people age, they transcend limited views of life they held in earlier times<\/p>\n

gini coefficient<\/strong>: a measure of income inequality between countries using a 100-point scale, in which 1 represents complete equality and 100 represents the highest possible inequality<\/p>\n

global assembly lines<\/strong>: a practice where products are assembled over the course of several international transactions<\/p>\n

global commodity chains<\/strong>: internationally integrated economic links that connect workers and corporations for the purpose of manufacture and marketing<\/p>\n

global feminization of poverty<\/strong>: a pattern that occurs when women bear a disproportionate percentage of the burden of poverty<\/p>\n

global inequality<\/strong>: the concentration of resources in core nations and in the hands of a wealthy minority<\/p>\n

global stratification<\/strong>: a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole<\/p>\n

global stratification<\/strong>: the unequal distribution of resources between countries<\/p>\n

globalization<\/strong>: the integration of international trade and finance markets<\/p>\n

grade inflation<\/strong>: the idea that the achievement level associated with an a today is notably lower than the achievement level associated with a-level work a few decades ago<\/p>\n

grand theories<\/strong>: an attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change<\/p>\n

grief<\/strong>: a psychological, emotional, and social response to the feelings of loss that accompanies death or a similar event<\/p>\n

gross national income (gni)<\/strong>: the income of a nation calculated based on goods and services produced, plus income earned by citizens and corporations headquartered in that country<\/p>\n

group<\/strong>: any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity<\/p>\n

habitualization<\/strong>: the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit<\/p>\n

hate crimes<\/strong>: attacks based on a person\u2019s race, religion, or other characteristics<\/p>\n

Hawthorne effec<\/strong>t: when study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher<\/p>\n

Head Start program<\/strong>: a federal program that provides academically focused preschool to students of low socioeconomic status<\/p>\n

heterosexism<\/strong>: an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations<\/p>\n

hidden curriculum<\/strong>: the informal teaching done in schools that socializes children to societal norms<\/p>\n

hierarchy of authority<\/strong>: a clear chain of command found in a bureaucracy<\/p>\n

high culture<\/strong>: the cultural patterns of a society\u2019s elite<\/p>\n

homophobia<\/strong>: an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals<\/p>\n

horticultural societies<\/strong>: societies based around the cultivation of plants<\/p>\n

hospice<\/strong>: healthcare that treats terminally ill people by providing comfort during the dying process<\/p>\n

human ecology<\/strong>: a functional perspective that looks at the relationship between people and their built and natural environment<\/p>\n

hunter-gatherer societies<\/strong>: societies that depend on hunting wild animals and gathering uncultivated plants for survival<\/p>\n

hypothesis<\/strong>: a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables<\/p>\n

ideal culture<\/strong>: the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to<\/p>\n

impairment<\/strong>: the physical limitations a less-able person faces<\/p>\n

impersonality<\/strong>: the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation<\/p>\n

income<\/strong>: the money a person earns from work or investments<\/p>\n

independent variables<\/strong>: variables that cause changes in dependent variables<\/p>\n

individual mandate<\/strong>: a government rule that requires everyone to have insurance coverage or they will have to pay a penalty<\/p>\n

industrial societies<\/strong>: societies characterized by a reliance on mechanized labor to create material goods<\/p>\n

informal education<\/strong>: education that involves learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors through participation in a society<\/p>\n

informal norms<\/strong>: casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to<\/p>\n

informal sanctions<\/strong>: sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions<\/p>\n

information societies<\/strong>: societies based on the production of nonmaterial goods and services<\/p>\n

in-group<\/strong>: a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of his identity<\/p>\n

innovations<\/strong>: new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time<\/p>\n

institutional racism<\/strong>: racism embedded in social institutions<\/p>\n

institutionalization<\/strong>: the act of implanting a convention or norm into society<\/p>\n

instrumental function<\/strong>: being oriented toward a task or goal<\/p>\n

instrumental leader<\/strong>: a leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks<\/p>\n

intergenerational mobility<\/strong>: a difference in social class between different generations of a family<\/p>\n

internally displaced person<\/strong>: someone who fled his or her home while remaining inside the country\u2019s borders<\/p>\n

interpretive framework<\/strong>: a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing<\/p>\n

intersection theory<\/strong>: theory that suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other attributes<\/p>\n

interview<\/strong>: a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject<\/p>\n

intimate partner violence (ipv)<\/strong>: violence that occurs between individuals who maintain a romantic or sexual relationship<\/p>\n

intragenerational mobility:<\/strong> a difference in social class between different members of the same generation<\/p>\n

inventions<\/strong>: a combination of pieces of existing reality into new forms<\/p>\n

iron cage<\/strong>: a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions<\/p>\n

iron rule of oligarchy<\/strong>: the theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration<\/p>\n

kinship<\/strong>: a person\u2019s traceable ancestry (by blood, marriage, and\/or adoption)<\/p>\n

knowledge gap<\/strong>: the gap in information that builds as groups grow up without access to technology<\/p>\n

labeling theory<\/strong>: the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society<\/p>\n

laissez-faire leader: a hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions<\/p>\n

language<\/strong>: a symbolic system of communication<\/p>\n

latent functions<\/strong>: the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process<\/p>\n

leadership function<\/strong>: the main focus or goal of a leader<\/p>\n

leadership style<\/strong>: the style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members<\/p>\n

legal codes<\/strong>: codes that maintain formal social control through laws<\/p>\n

legitimation<\/strong>: the act of a physician certifying that an illness is genuine<\/p>\n

liberation theology<\/strong>: the use of a church to promote social change via the political arena<\/p>\n

life course<\/strong>: the period from birth to death, including a sequence of predictable life events<\/p>\n

life expectancy<\/strong>: the number of years a newborn is expected to live<\/p>\n

literature review<\/strong>: a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research<\/p>\n

macro-level<\/strong>: a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society<\/p>\n

malthusian theory<\/strong>: a theory asserting that population is controlled through positive checks (war, famine, disease) and preventive checks (measures to reduce fertility)<\/p>\n

manifest functions<\/strong>: sought consequences of a social process<\/p>\n

market socialism<\/strong>: a subtype of socialism that adopts certain traits of capitalism, like allowing limited private ownership or consulting market demand<\/p>\n

marriage<\/strong>: a legally recognized contract between two or more people in a sexual relationship who have an expectation of permanence about their relationship<\/p>\n

mass<\/strong>: a relatively large group with a common interest, even if they may not be in close proximity<\/p>\n

master status<\/strong>: a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual<\/p>\n

material culture<\/strong>: the objects or belongings of a group of people<\/p>\n

matrilineal descent<\/strong>: a type of unilateral descent that follows the mother\u2019s side only<\/p>\n

matrilocal residence<\/strong>: a system in which it is customary for a husband to live with the his wife\u2019s family<\/p>\n

McDonaldization of society<\/strong>: the increasing presence of the fast food business model in common social institutions<\/p>\n

mechanical solidarity<\/strong>: a form of social cohesion that comes from sharing similar work, education, and religion, as might be found in simpler societies<\/p>\n

mechanical solidarity<\/strong>: a type of social order maintained by the collective consciousness of a culture<\/p>\n

media consolidation<\/strong>: a process by which fewer and fewer owners control the majority of media outlets<\/p>\n

media globalization<\/strong>: the worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas<\/p>\n

media<\/strong>: all print, digital, and electronic means of communication<\/p>\n

medical sociology<\/strong>: the systematic study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and the healthy<\/p>\n

medicalization of deviance<\/strong>: the process that changes \u201cbad\u201d behavior into \u201csick\u201d behavior<\/p>\n

medicalization<\/strong>: the process by which aspects of life that were considered bad or deviant are redefined as sickness and needing medical attention to remedy<\/p>\n

megachurch<\/strong>: a christian church that has a very large congregation averaging more than 2,000 people who attend regular weekly services<\/p>\n

megalopolis<\/strong>: a large urban corridor that encompasses several cities and their surrounding suburbs and exurbs<\/p>\n

mercantilism<\/strong>: an economic policy based on national policies of accumulating silver and gold by controlling markets with colonies and other countries through taxes and customs charges<\/p>\n

meritocracy<\/strong>: a bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit\u2014proven and documented skills<\/p>\n

meta-analysis<\/strong>: a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together<\/p>\n

metropolis<\/strong>: the area that includes a city and its suburbs and exurbs<\/p>\n

micro-level theories<\/strong>: the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups<\/p>\n

minority group<\/strong>: any group of people who are singled out from the others for differential and unequal treatment<\/p>\n

model minority<\/strong>: the stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment<\/p>\n

modernization theory<\/strong>: a theory that low-income countries can improve their global economic standing by industrialization of infrastructure and a shift in cultural attitudes towards work\u00a0 OR<\/strong> a theory which suggests that the primary cause of the elderly losing power and influence in society are the parallel forces of industrialization and modernization<\/p>\n

modernization<\/strong>: the process that increases the amount of specialization and differentiation of structure in societies<\/p>\n

monarchy<\/strong>: a form of government in which a single person (a monarch) rules until that individual dies or abdicates the throne<\/p>\n

money<\/strong>: an object that a society agrees to assign a value to so it can be exchanged as payment<\/p>\n

monogamy<\/strong>: the act of being married to only one person at a time<\/p>\n

monotheism<\/strong>: a religion based on belief in a single deity<\/p>\n

mood disorders<\/strong>: long-term, debilitating illnesses like depression and bipolar disorder<\/p>\n

moral development<\/strong>: the way people learn what is \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad\u201d in society<\/p>\n

morbidity<\/strong>: the incidence of disease<\/p>\n

mores<\/strong>: the moral views and principles of a group<\/p>\n

mortality rate<\/strong>: a measure of the number of people in a population who die<\/p>\n

mortality<\/strong>: the number of deaths in a given time or place<\/p>\n

motivational framing<\/strong>: a call to action<\/p>\n

mutualism<\/strong>: a form of socialism under which individuals and cooperative groups exchange products with one another on the basis of mutually satisfactory contracts<\/p>\n

nature<\/strong>: the influence of our genetic makeup on self-development<\/p>\n

negative sanctions<\/strong>: punishments for violating norms<\/p>\n

neo-luddites<\/strong>: those who see technology as a symbol of the coldness of modern life<\/p>\n

net neutrality<\/strong>: the principle that all internet data should be treated equally by internet service providers<\/p>\n

new media<\/strong>: all interactive forms of information exchange<\/p>\n

new social movement theory<\/strong>: a theory that attempts to explain the proliferation of postindustrial and postmodern movements that are difficult to understand using traditional social movement theories<\/p>\n

NGO<\/strong>: nongovernmental organizations working globally for numerous humanitarian and environmental causes<\/p>\n

NIMBY<\/strong>: \u201cnot in my back yard,\u201d the tendency of people to protest poor environmental practices when those practices will affect them directly<\/p>\n

No Child Left Behind Act<\/strong>: an act that requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding<\/p>\n

nonmaterial culture<\/strong>: the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society<\/p>\n

nonreactive research<\/strong>: using secondary data, does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people\u2019s behaviors<\/p>\n

nonviolent crimes<\/strong>: crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force<\/p>\n

normative or voluntary organizations<\/strong>: organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards<\/p>\n

norms<\/strong>: the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured<\/p>\n

nuclear family<\/strong>: two parents (traditionally a married husband and wife) and children living in the same household<\/p>\n

nurture<\/strong>: the role that our social environment plays in self-development<\/p>\n

oligarchy<\/strong>: a form of government in which power is held by a small, elite group<\/p>\n

oligopoly<\/strong>: a situation in which a few firms dominate a marketplace<\/p>\n

one person, one vote<\/strong>: a concept holding that each person\u2019s vote should be counted equally<\/p>\n

operational definitions<\/strong>: specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study<\/p>\n

organic solidarity<\/strong>: a form of social cohesion that arises out of the mutual interdependence created by the specialization of work<\/p>\n

out-group<\/strong>: a group that an individual is not a member of, and may even compete with<\/p>\n

outsourcing<\/strong>: a practice where jobs are contracted to an outside source, often in another country<\/p>\n

panoptic surveillance<\/strong>: a form of constant monitoring in which the observation posts are decentralized and the observed is never communicated with directly<\/p>\n

paradigms<\/strong>: philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them<\/p>\n

participant observation<\/strong>: when a researcher immerses herself in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an \u201cinsider\u201d perspective<\/p>\n

pastoral societies<\/strong>: societies based around the domestication of animals<\/p>\n

patrilineal descent<\/strong>: a type of unilateral descent that follows the father\u2019s line only<\/p>\n

patrilocal residence<\/strong>: a system in which it is customary for the a wife to live with (or near) the her husband\u2019s family<\/p>\n

patrimonialism<\/strong>: a type of authority wherein military and administrative factions enforce the power of the master<\/p>\n

peer group<\/strong>: a group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests<\/p>\n

peripheral nations<\/strong>: nations on the fringes of the global economy, dominated by core nations, with very little industrialization<\/p>\n

personality disorders<\/strong>: disorders that cause people to behave in ways that are seen as abnormal to society but seem normal to them<\/p>\n

physician-assisted suicide<\/strong>: the voluntary use of lethal medication provided by a medical doctor to end one\u2019s life<\/p>\n

planned obsolescence<\/strong>: the act of a technology company planning for a product to be obsolete or unable from the time it\u2019s created<\/p>\n

plant patents<\/strong>: patents that recognize the discovery of new plant types that can be asexually reproduced<\/p>\n

pluralism<\/strong>: the ideal of the united states as a \u201csalad bowl:\u201d a mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the \u201cflavor\u201d of the whole<\/p>\n

polarization: a practice where the differences between low-end and high-end jobs become greater and the number of people in the middle levels decreases<\/p>\n

police<\/strong>: a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level<\/p>\n

politics<\/strong>: a means of studying a nation\u2019s or group\u2019s underlying social norms as values as evidenced through its political structure and practices<\/p>\n

pollution<\/strong>: the introduction of contaminants into an environment at levels that are damaging<\/p>\n

polyandry: a form of marriage in which one woman is married to more than one man at one time<\/p>\n

polygamy<\/strong>: the state of being committed or married to more than one person at a time<\/p>\n

polygyny:<\/strong> a form of marriage in which one man is married to more than one woman at one time<\/p>\n

polytheism<\/strong>: a religion based on belief in multiple deities<\/p>\n

popular culture<\/strong>: mainstream, widespread patterns among a society\u2019s population<\/p>\n

population composition<\/strong>: a snapshot of the demographic profile of a population based on fertility, mortality, and migration rates<\/p>\n

population pyramid<\/strong>: a graphic representation that depicts population distribution according to age and sex<\/p>\n

population<\/strong>: a defined group serving as the subject of a study<\/p>\n

positive sanctions<\/strong>: rewards given for conforming to norms<\/p>\n

positivism<\/strong>: the scientific study of social patterns<\/p>\n

power elite<\/strong>: a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources<\/p>\n

power<\/strong>: the ability to exercise one\u2019s will over others<\/p>\n

prejudice<\/strong>: biased thought based on flawed assumptions about a group of people<\/p>\n

primary aging<\/strong>: biological factors such as molecular and cellular changes<\/p>\n

primary data<\/strong>: data that are collected directly from firsthand experience<\/p>\n

primary deviance<\/strong>: a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual\u2019s self-image or interactions with others<\/p>\n

primary groups<\/strong>: small, informal groups of people who are closest to us<\/p>\n

primogeniture<\/strong>: a law stating that all property passes to the firstborn son<\/p>\n

private healthcare<\/strong>: health insurance that a person buys from a private company; private healthcare can either be employer-sponsored or direct-purchase<\/p>\n

prognostic framing<\/strong>: social movements that state a clear solution and a means of implementation<\/p>\n

proletariat<\/strong>: the laborers in a society<\/p>\n

public healthcare<\/strong>: health insurance that is funded or provided by the government<\/p>\n

public<\/strong>: an unorganized, relatively diffuse group of people who share ideas<\/p>\n

qualitative data<\/strong>: comprise information that is subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting<\/p>\n

qualitative sociology<\/strong>: in-depth interviews, focus groups, and\/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data<\/p>\n

quantitative data<\/strong>: represent research collected in numerical form that can be counted<\/p>\n

quantitative sociology<\/strong>: statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants<\/p>\n

queer theory<\/strong>: an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies western society\u2019s rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and questions its appropriateness<\/p>\n

racial profiling<\/strong>: the use by law enforcement of race alone to determine whether to stop and detain someone<\/p>\n

racial steering<\/strong>: the act of real estate agents directing prospective homeowners toward or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race<\/p>\n

racism<\/strong>: a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that are used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others<\/p>\n

random sample<\/strong>: a study\u2019s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population<\/p>\n

rationalization<\/strong>: a belief that modern society should be built around logic and efficiency rather than morality or tradition<\/p>\n

rational-legal authority<\/strong>: power that is legitimized by rules, regulations, and laws<\/p>\n

real culture<\/strong>: the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists<\/p>\n

recession<\/strong>: two or more consecutive quarters of economic decline<\/p>\n

redlining<\/strong>: the practice of routinely refusing mortgages for households and business located in predominately minority communities<\/p>\n

reference group<\/strong>s: groups to which an individual compares herself<\/p>\n

reform movements<\/strong>: movements that seek to change something specific about the social structure<\/p>\n

refugee<\/strong>: an individual who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster<\/p>\n

reification<\/strong>: an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence<\/p>\n

relative poverty<\/strong>: the state of poverty where one is unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in the country<\/p>\n

reliability<\/strong>: a measure of a study\u2019s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced<\/p>\n

religion<\/strong>: a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant<\/p>\n

religious\/redemptive movements<\/strong>: movements that work to promote inner change or spiritual growth in individuals<\/p>\n

representative democracy<\/strong>: a government wherein citizens elect officials to represent their interests<\/p>\n

resistance movements<\/strong>: those who seek to prevent or undo change to the social structure<\/p>\n

resocialization<\/strong>: the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their place<\/p>\n

resource mobilization theory<\/strong>: a theory that explains social movements\u2019 success in terms of their ability to acquire resources and mobilize individuals<\/p>\n

revolutionary movements<\/strong>: movements that seek to completely change every aspect of society<\/p>\n

role conflict<\/strong>: a situation when one or more of an individual\u2019s roles clash<\/p>\n

role performance<\/strong>: the expression of a role<\/p>\n

role strain: stress that occurs when too much is required of a single role<\/p>\n

roles<\/strong>: patterns of behavior that are representative of a person\u2019s social status<\/p>\n

role-set<\/strong>: an array of roles attached to a particular status<\/p>\n

samples<\/strong>: small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population<\/p>\n

sanctions<\/strong>: a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors<\/p>\n

sanctions<\/strong>: the means of enforcing rules<\/p>\n

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis<\/strong>: the way that people understand the world based on their form of language<\/p>\n

scapegoat theory<\/strong>: a theory that suggests that the dominant group will displace its unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group<\/p>\n

scientific method<\/strong>: an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions<\/p>\n

second world<\/strong>: a term from the cold war era that describes nations with moderate economies and standards of living<\/p>\n

secondary aging<\/strong>: aging that occurs due to controllable factors like exercise and diet<\/p>\n

secondary data analysis<\/strong>: using data collected by others but applying new interpretations<\/p>\n

secondary deviance<\/strong>: deviance that occurs when a person\u2019s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society<\/p>\n

secondary groups<\/strong>: larger and more impersonal groups that are task-focused and time limited<\/p>\n

sect<\/strong>:a small, new offshoot of a denomination<\/p>\n

sedimentation of racial inequality<\/strong>: the intergenerational impact of de facto and de jure racism that limits the abilities of black people to accumulate wealth<\/p>\n

segregation<\/strong>: the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions<\/p>\n

selective optimization with compensation theory<\/strong>: a theory based on the idea that successful personal development throughout the life course and subsequent mastery of the challenges associated with everyday life are based on the components of selection, optimization, and compensation<\/p>\n

self<\/strong>: a person\u2019s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction<\/p>\n

self-fulfilling prophecy<\/strong>: an idea that becomes true when acted upon<\/p>\n

self-report study<\/strong>: a collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews<\/p>\n

semi-peripheral nations<\/strong>: in-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but acting as a major source of raw materials and an expanding middle class marketplace<\/p>\n

senescence<\/strong>: the aging process, including biological, intellectual, emotional, social, and spiritual changes<\/p>\n

sex ratio<\/strong>: the ratio of men to women in a given population<\/p>\n

sex<\/strong>: a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females<\/p>\n

sexism<\/strong>: the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another<\/p>\n

sexual orientation<\/strong>: a person\u2019s physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female)<\/p>\n

sexuality<\/strong>: a person\u2019s capacity for sexual feelings<\/p>\n

shaken-baby syndrome<\/strong>: a group of medical symptoms such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage resulting from forcefully shaking or impacting an infant\u2019s head<\/p>\n

sick role<\/strong>: the pattern of expectations that define appropriate behavior for the sick and for those who take care of them<\/p>\n

significant others<\/strong>: specific individuals that impact a person\u2019s life<\/p>\n

social change<\/strong>: the change in a society created through social movements as well as through external factors like environmental shifts or technological innovation<\/p>\n

social construction of race<\/strong>: the school of thought that race is not biologically identifiable<\/p>\n

social construction of sexuality<\/strong>: socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness of sex-linked behavior which shape how people see and experience sexuality<\/p>\n

social control<\/strong>: a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms<\/p>\n

social control<\/strong>: the regulation and enforcement of norms<\/p>\n

social disorganization theory<\/strong>: a theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control<\/p>\n

social epidemiology<\/strong>: the study of the causes and distribution of diseases<\/p>\n

social facts<\/strong>: the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life<\/p>\n

social gerontology<\/strong>: a specialized field of gerontology that examines the social (and sociological) aspects of aging<\/p>\n

social institutions<\/strong>: patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs<\/p>\n

social integration<\/strong>: how strongly a person is connected to his or her social group<\/p>\n

social mobility<\/strong>: the ability to change positions within a social stratification system<\/p>\n

social movement industry<\/strong>: the collection of the social movement organizations that are striving toward similar goals<\/p>\n

social movement organization<\/strong>: a single social movement group<\/p>\n

social movement sector<\/strong>: the multiple social movement industries in a society, even if they have widely varying constituents and goals<\/p>\n

social movement<\/strong>: a purposeful organized group hoping to work toward a common social goal<\/p>\n

social order<\/strong>: an arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society\u2019s members base their daily lives<\/p>\n

social placement<\/strong>: the use of education to improve one\u2019s social standing<\/p>\n

social solidarity: the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion<\/p>\n

social stratification<\/strong>: a socioeconomic system that divides society\u2019s members into categories ranking from high to low, based on things like wealth, power, and prestige<\/p>\n

socialism<\/strong>: an economic system in which there is government ownership (often referred to as \u201cstate run\u201d) of goods and their production, with an impetus to share work and wealth equally among the members of a society<\/p>\n

socialization<\/strong>: the process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society\u2019s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values<\/p>\n

socialized medicine<\/strong>: when the government owns and runs the entire healthcare system<\/p>\n

society: a group of people who live in a defined geographical area who interact with one another and who share a common culture<\/p>\n

sociological imagination<\/strong>: the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular<\/p>\n

sociology<\/strong>: the systematic study of society and social interaction<\/p>\n

sorting<\/strong>: classifying students based on academic merit or potential<\/p>\n

standard of living<\/strong>: the level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle<\/p>\n

status consistency<\/strong>: the consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual\u2019s rank across social categories like income, education, and occupation<\/p>\n

status<\/strong>: the responsibilities and benefits that a person experiences according to his or her rank and role in society<\/p>\n

stereotype interchangeability<\/strong>: stereotypes that don\u2019t change and that get recycled for application to a new subordinate group<\/p>\n

stereotypes:<\/strong> oversimplified ideas about groups of people<\/p>\n

stigmatization of illness<\/strong>: illnesses that are discriminated against and whose sufferers are looked down upon or even shunned by society<\/p>\n

stigmatization<\/strong>: the act of spoiling someone\u2019s identity; they are labeled as different, discriminated against, and sometimes even shunned due to an illness or disability<\/p>\n

strain theory<\/strong>: a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals<\/p>\n

street crime<\/strong>: crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces<\/p>\n

structural mobility<\/strong>: a societal change that enables a whole group of people to move up or down the class ladder<\/p>\n

structural unemployment<\/strong>: a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the jobs that are available<\/p>\n

subculture of aging theory<\/strong>: a theory that focuses on the shared community created by the elderly when they are excluded (due to age), voluntarily or involuntarily, from participating in other groups<\/p>\n

subcultures<\/strong>: groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society\u2019s majority, even as the members exist within a larger society<\/p>\n

subjective poverty<\/strong>: a state of poverty composed of many dimensions, subjectively present when one\u2019s actual income does not meet one\u2019s expectations<\/p>\n

subordinate group: a group of people who have less power than the dominant group<\/p>\n

subsistence farming<\/strong>: farming where farmers grow only enough to feed themselves and their families<\/p>\n

suburbs<\/strong>: the communities surrounding cities, typically close enough for a daily commute<\/p>\n

supercentenarians<\/strong>: people 110 of age or older<\/p>\n

surveys<\/strong>: collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire<\/p>\n

sustainable development: development that occurs without depleting or damaging the natural environment<\/p>\n

symbolic interactionism<\/strong>: a theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)<\/p>\n

symbols<\/strong>: gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture<\/p>\n

technological diffusion<\/strong>: the spread of technology across borders<\/p>\n

technological globalization<\/strong>: the cross-cultural development and exchange of technology<\/p>\n

technology<\/strong>: the application of science to solve problems in daily life<\/p>\n

technophiles<\/strong>: those who see technology as symbolizing the potential for a brighter future<\/p>\n

thanatology<\/strong>: the systematic study of death and dying<\/p>\n

theory<\/strong>: a proposed explanation about social interactions or society<\/p>\n

third world<\/strong>: a term from the cold war era that refers to poor, unindustrialized countries<\/p>\n

Thomas theorem<\/strong>: how a subjective reality can drive events to develop in accordance with that reality, despite being originally unsupported by objective reality<\/p>\n

total institution<\/strong>: an organization in which participants live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization occurs<\/p>\n

totalitarian dictatorship<\/strong>: an extremely oppressive form of dictatorship in which most aspects of citizens\u2019 lives are controlled by the leader<\/p>\n

totemism<\/strong>: the belief in a divine connection between humans and other natural beings<\/p>\n

tracking<\/strong>: a formalized sorting system that places students on \u201ctracks\u201d (advanced, low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities<\/p>\n

traditional authority<\/strong>: power legitimized on the basis of long-standing customs<\/p>\n

transgende<\/strong>r: an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex<\/p>\n

transsexuals<\/strong>: transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy<\/p>\n

triad<\/strong>: a three-member group<\/p>\n

underemployment<\/strong>: a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than his or her education and experience qualifies him or her to perform<\/p>\n

underground economy<\/strong>: an unregulated economy of labor and goods that operates outside of governance, regulatory systems, or human protections<\/p>\n

underinsured<\/strong>: people who spend at least 10 percent of their income on healthcare costs that are not covered by insurance<\/p>\n

unilateral descent<\/strong>: the tracing of kinship through one parent only.<\/p>\n

universal access<\/strong>: the equal ability of all people to participate in an education system<\/p>\n

universal healthcare<\/strong>: a system that guarantees healthcare coverage for everyone<\/p>\n

upward mobility<\/strong>: an increase\u2014or upward shift\u2014in social class<\/p>\n

urban sociology<\/strong>: the subfield of sociology that focuses on the study of urbanization<\/p>\n

urbanization<\/strong>: the study of the social, political and economic relationships of cities<\/p>\n

utilitarian organizations<\/strong>: organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need<\/p>\n

utility patents<\/strong>: patents that are granted for the invention or discovery of any new and useful process, product, or machine<\/p>\n

validity<\/strong>: the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study<\/p>\n

value neutrality<\/strong>: a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment during the course of a study and in publishing results<\/p>\n

value-added theory<\/strong>: a functionalist perspective theory that posits that several preconditions must be in place for collective behavior to occur<\/p>\n

values<\/strong>: a culture\u2019s standard for discerning what is good and just in society<\/p>\n

victimless crime<\/strong>: activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them<\/p>\n

violent crimes<\/strong>: crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force<\/p>\n

wealth<\/strong>: the value of money and assets a person has from, for example, inheritance<\/p>\n

white flight<\/strong>: the migration of economically secure white people from racially mixed urban areas toward the suburbs<\/p>\n

white privilege<\/strong>: the benefits people receive simply by being part of the dominant group<\/p>\n

xenocentrism<\/strong>: a belief that another culture is superior to one\u2019s own<\/p>\n

xenophobia<\/strong>: an illogical fear and even hatred of foreigners and foreign goods<\/p>\n

zero population growth<\/strong>: a theoretical goal in which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n<\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"parent":0,"menu_order":219,"template":"","meta":{"pb_part_invisible":false,"pb_part_invisible_string":""},"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-910","part","type-part","status-web-only","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intro-to-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/910","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intro-to-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intro-to-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/part"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intro-to-sociology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/910\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intro-to-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=910"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intro-to-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=910"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intro-to-sociology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=910"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}