{"id":1284,"date":"2015-09-15T18:45:30","date_gmt":"2015-09-15T18:45:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/intropsychmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1284"},"modified":"2017-05-03T02:48:19","modified_gmt":"2017-05-03T02:48:19","slug":"lifespan-theories-cognitive-development","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/chapter\/lifespan-theories-cognitive-development\/","title":{"raw":"Cognitive Development","rendered":"Cognitive Development"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Give examples of behavior and key vocabulary in\u00a0each of Piaget\u2019s stages of cognitive development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Cognitive Theory of Development<\/h2>\r\nJean Piaget (1896\u20131980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development (Figure 1). Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children\u2019s cognitive growth. He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932). His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"199\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49109\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Piaget.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Jean Piaget in his later years.\" width=\"199\" height=\"333\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 1. Jean Piaget spent over 50 years studying children and how their minds develop.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nPiaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. <strong>Schemata<\/strong> are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for almost everything. When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata through two processes: assimilation and accommodation. First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata: <strong>assimilation<\/strong> is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. <strong>Accommodation<\/strong> describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment.\r\n\r\nFor example, 2-year-old Blake learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever. When Blake sees other dogs in his picture books, he says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Thus, he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs. One day, Blake sees a sheep for the first time and says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Blake thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Blake\u2019s mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep, not a dog, Blake must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences. Blake\u2019s schema for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Xj0CUeyucJw\" target=\"_blank\">this short clip<\/a> to review the concepts of schema, assimilation and accommodation.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4468\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4473\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nLike Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.\r\n<table summary=\"A four columned table outlines Piaget's stages of cognitive development. From left to right, the rows are labeled \u201cAge (years); Stage; Description; and Developmental issues.\u201d The first row contains \u201c0-2; sensorimotor; world experienced through senses and actions; and object permanence, stranger anxiety.\u201d The second row contains \u201c2-6; preoperational; use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning; and pretend play, egocentrism, language development.\u201d The third row contains \u201c7-11; concrete operational; understand concrete events and analogies logically, perform arithmetical operations; and conservation, mathematical transformations\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c12-; formal operational; formal operations, utilize abstract reasoning; and abstract logic, moral reasoning.\u201d\"><caption>Table 1. Piaget\u2019s Stages of Cognitive Development<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th>Stage<\/th>\r\n<th>Description<\/th>\r\n<th>Developmental issues<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>0\u20132<\/td>\r\n<td>Sensorimotor<\/td>\r\n<td>World experienced through senses and actions<\/td>\r\n<td>Object permanence\r\nStranger anxiety<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td>Preoperational<\/td>\r\n<td>Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning<\/td>\r\n<td>Pretend play\r\nEgocentrism\r\nLanguage development<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\r\n<td>Concrete operational<\/td>\r\n<td>Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations<\/td>\r\n<td>Conservation\r\nMathematical transformations<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>12\u2013<\/td>\r\n<td>Formal operational<\/td>\r\n<td>Formal operations\r\nUtilize abstract reasoning<\/td>\r\n<td>Abstract logic\r\nMoral reasoning<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe first stage is the <strong>sensorimotor<\/strong> stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops <strong>object permanence<\/strong>, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, &amp; Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants\u2019 reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused.\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nPlease take a few minutes to view this brief video demonstrating different children\u2019s ability to understand object permanence:\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/NCdLNuP7OA8\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nIn Piaget\u2019s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can\u2019t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4471\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4469\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nPiaget\u2019s second stage is the <strong>preoperational stage<\/strong>, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child\u2019s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term <em data-effect=\"italics\">operational<\/em> refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be <em data-effect=\"italics\">pre<\/em>-operational). Children\u2019s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny\u2019s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of <strong>conservation<\/strong>, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nThis video shows a 4.5-year-old boy in the preoperational stage as he responds to Piaget\u2019s conservation tasks.\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/gnArvcWaH6I\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nDuring this stage, we also expect children to display <strong>egocentrism<\/strong>, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let\u2019s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko\u2019s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. At some point\u00a0during this stage and typically between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as <strong>theory-of-mind<\/strong> (TOM).\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nPiaget developed the Three-Mountain Task to determine the level of egocentrism displayed by children. Children view a 3-dimensional mountain scene from one viewpoint, and are asked what another person at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene. Watch the Three-Mountain Task in action in this short vide\u00a0from the University of Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota.\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/v4oYOjVDgo0\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4472\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4470\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nPiaget\u2019s third stage is the <strong>concrete operational stage<\/strong>, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nChildren in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of <strong>reversibility<\/strong>, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops).\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4474\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe fourth, and last, stage in Piaget\u2019s theory is the <strong>formal operational stage<\/strong>, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.\r\n\r\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Beyond Formal Operational Thought<\/h2>\r\nAs with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget\u2019s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget\u2019s discrete stages (Courage &amp; Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia &amp; Spelke, 2010).\r\n\r\nAccording to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons &amp; Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues.\r\n\r\nIt seems that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief &amp; Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4475\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm44143904\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp27791552\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm77932496\">Explain how you would use your understanding of one of the major developmental theories (psychosexual, psychosocial, or cognitive) to deal with each of the difficulties listed below:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm12318240\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm77632768\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Your infant daughter puts everything in her mouth, including the dog's food.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your eight-year-old son is failing math; all he cares about is baseball.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your two-year-old daughter refuses to wear the clothes you pick for her every morning, which makes getting dressed a twenty-minute battle.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your sixty-eight-year-old neighbor is chronically depressed and feels she has wasted her life.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your 18-year-old daughter has decided not to go to college. Instead she\u2019s moving to Colorado to become a ski instructor.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your 11-year-old son is the class bully.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm63810400\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp50657472\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>assimilation:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm158126288\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">accommodation:\u00a0<\/span><\/strong>adjustment of a schema by changing a scheme to accommodate new information different from what was already known<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp34931984\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>concrete operational stage:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>third stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from about 7 to 11 years old, children can think logically about real (concrete) events<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp13489808\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>conservation:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm103834160\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>egocentrism:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>preoperational child\u2019s difficulty in taking the perspective of others<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp25107232\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>formal operational stage:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>final stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from age 11 and up, children are able to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm76004144\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>object permanence:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp17154592\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>preoperational stage:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>second stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from ages 2 to 7, children learn to use symbols and language but do not understand mental operations and often think illogically\r\n<span data-type=\"term\"><strong>schema:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>(plural = schemata) concept (mental model) that is used to help us categorize and interpret information\r\n<span data-type=\"term\"><strong>sensorimotor stage:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>first stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from birth through age 2, a child learns about the world through senses and motor behavior<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>theory-of-mind:\u00a0<\/strong>the understanding that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from our\u00a0own<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Give examples of behavior and key vocabulary in\u00a0each of Piaget\u2019s stages of cognitive development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Cognitive Theory of Development<\/h2>\n<p>Jean Piaget (1896\u20131980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development (Figure 1). Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children\u2019s cognitive growth. He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932). His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 209px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49109\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Piaget.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Jean Piaget in his later years.\" width=\"199\" height=\"333\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Jean Piaget spent over 50 years studying children and how their minds develop.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. <strong>Schemata<\/strong> are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for almost everything. When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata through two processes: assimilation and accommodation. First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata: <strong>assimilation<\/strong> is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. <strong>Accommodation<\/strong> describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment.<\/p>\n<p>For example, 2-year-old Blake learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever. When Blake sees other dogs in his picture books, he says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Thus, he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs. One day, Blake sees a sheep for the first time and says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Blake thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Blake\u2019s mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep, not a dog, Blake must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences. Blake\u2019s schema for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Watch <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Xj0CUeyucJw\" target=\"_blank\">this short clip<\/a> to review the concepts of schema, assimilation and accommodation.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4468\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4468&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4468\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4473\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4473&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4473\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.<\/p>\n<table summary=\"A four columned table outlines Piaget's stages of cognitive development. From left to right, the rows are labeled \u201cAge (years); Stage; Description; and Developmental issues.\u201d The first row contains \u201c0-2; sensorimotor; world experienced through senses and actions; and object permanence, stranger anxiety.\u201d The second row contains \u201c2-6; preoperational; use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning; and pretend play, egocentrism, language development.\u201d The third row contains \u201c7-11; concrete operational; understand concrete events and analogies logically, perform arithmetical operations; and conservation, mathematical transformations\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c12-; formal operational; formal operations, utilize abstract reasoning; and abstract logic, moral reasoning.\u201d\">\n<caption>Table 1. Piaget\u2019s Stages of Cognitive Development<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\n<th>Stage<\/th>\n<th>Description<\/th>\n<th>Developmental issues<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>0\u20132<\/td>\n<td>Sensorimotor<\/td>\n<td>World experienced through senses and actions<\/td>\n<td>Object permanence<br \/>\nStranger anxiety<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2\u20136<\/td>\n<td>Preoperational<\/td>\n<td>Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning<\/td>\n<td>Pretend play<br \/>\nEgocentrism<br \/>\nLanguage development<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\n<td>Concrete operational<\/td>\n<td>Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations<\/td>\n<td>Conservation<br \/>\nMathematical transformations<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>12\u2013<\/td>\n<td>Formal operational<\/td>\n<td>Formal operations<br \/>\nUtilize abstract reasoning<\/td>\n<td>Abstract logic<br \/>\nMoral reasoning<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The first stage is the <strong>sensorimotor<\/strong> stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops <strong>object permanence<\/strong>, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, &amp; Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants\u2019 reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Please take a few minutes to view this brief video demonstrating different children\u2019s ability to understand object permanence:<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/NCdLNuP7OA8\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>In Piaget\u2019s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can\u2019t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4471\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4471&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4471\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4469\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4469&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4469\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Piaget\u2019s second stage is the <strong>preoperational stage<\/strong>, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child\u2019s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term <em data-effect=\"italics\">operational<\/em> refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be <em data-effect=\"italics\">pre<\/em>-operational). Children\u2019s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny\u2019s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of <strong>conservation<\/strong>, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>This video shows a 4.5-year-old boy in the preoperational stage as he responds to Piaget\u2019s conservation tasks.<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/gnArvcWaH6I\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>During this stage, we also expect children to display <strong>egocentrism<\/strong>, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let\u2019s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko\u2019s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. At some point\u00a0during this stage and typically between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as <strong>theory-of-mind<\/strong> (TOM).<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Piaget developed the Three-Mountain Task to determine the level of egocentrism displayed by children. Children view a 3-dimensional mountain scene from one viewpoint, and are asked what another person at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene. Watch the Three-Mountain Task in action in this short vide\u00a0from the University of Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota.<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/v4oYOjVDgo0\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4472\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4472&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4472\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4470\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4470&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4470\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Piaget\u2019s third stage is the <strong>concrete operational stage<\/strong>, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of <strong>reversibility<\/strong>, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4474\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4474&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4474\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget\u2019s theory is the <strong>formal operational stage<\/strong>, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.<\/p>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Beyond Formal Operational Thought<\/h2>\n<p>As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget\u2019s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget\u2019s discrete stages (Courage &amp; Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia &amp; Spelke, 2010).<\/p>\n<p>According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons &amp; Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues.<\/p>\n<p>It seems that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief &amp; Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4475\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4475&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4475\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-idm44143904\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp27791552\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm77932496\">Explain how you would use your understanding of one of the major developmental theories (psychosexual, psychosocial, or cognitive) to deal with each of the difficulties listed below:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm12318240\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm77632768\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<ol>\n<li>Your infant daughter puts everything in her mouth, including the dog&#8217;s food.<\/li>\n<li>Your eight-year-old son is failing math; all he cares about is baseball.<\/li>\n<li>Your two-year-old daughter refuses to wear the clothes you pick for her every morning, which makes getting dressed a twenty-minute battle.<\/li>\n<li>Your sixty-eight-year-old neighbor is chronically depressed and feels she has wasted her life.<\/li>\n<li>Your 18-year-old daughter has decided not to go to college. Instead she\u2019s moving to Colorado to become a ski instructor.<\/li>\n<li>Your 11-year-old son is the class bully.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idm63810400\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-idp50657472\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>assimilation:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm158126288\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">accommodation:\u00a0<\/span><\/strong>adjustment of a schema by changing a scheme to accommodate new information different from what was already known<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp34931984\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>concrete operational stage:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>third stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from about 7 to 11 years old, children can think logically about real (concrete) events<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp13489808\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>conservation:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm103834160\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>egocentrism:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>preoperational child\u2019s difficulty in taking the perspective of others<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp25107232\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>formal operational stage:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>final stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from age 11 and up, children are able to deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm76004144\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>object permanence:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp17154592\" data-type=\"definition\"><span data-type=\"term\"><strong>preoperational stage:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>second stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from ages 2 to 7, children learn to use symbols and language but do not understand mental operations and often think illogically<br \/>\n<span data-type=\"term\"><strong>schema:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>(plural = schemata) concept (mental model) that is used to help us categorize and interpret information<br \/>\n<span data-type=\"term\"><strong>sensorimotor stage:\u00a0<\/strong><\/span>first stage in Piaget\u2019s theory of cognitive development; from birth through age 2, a child learns about the world through senses and motor behavior<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>theory-of-mind:\u00a0<\/strong>the understanding that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from our\u00a0own<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1284\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification and adaptation, addition of video link. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Specific attribution<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Lifespan Theories. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:Edod3PQm@5\/Lifespan-Theories\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:Edod3PQm@5\/Lifespan-Theories<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Piaget - Stage 1 - Sensorimotor stage : Object Permanence. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Geert Stienissen. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>A typical child on Piaget&#039;s conservation tasks. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: munakatay. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Piaget&#039;s Mountains Task. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: UofMNCYFC. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v4oYOjVDgo0\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v4oYOjVDgo0<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc-attribution\",\"description\":\"Lifespan Theories\",\"author\":\"OpenStax\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:Edod3PQm@5\/Lifespan-Theories\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Piaget - 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