{"id":2036,"date":"2016-10-21T14:42:40","date_gmt":"2016-10-21T14:42:40","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2036"},"modified":"2017-05-20T02:59:50","modified_gmt":"2017-05-20T02:59:50","slug":"outcome-parts-of-the-brain","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/chapter\/outcome-parts-of-the-brain\/","title":{"raw":"Parts of the Brain","rendered":"Parts of the Brain"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>What you'll learn to do: identify and describe the parts of the brain<\/h2>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/15045703\/brainlobes.png\"><img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-2775\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/15045703\/brainlobes.png\" alt=\"Principal fissures and lobes of the cerebrum viewed laterally.\" width=\"388\" height=\"277\" \/><\/a>\r\n\r\nIn this section, you'll\u00a0learn about the specific parts of the brain and their roles and functions. While this is not an anatomy class, you'll see how important it is to understand the parts of the brain and what they do so that we can understand mental processes and behavior. Watch this CrashCourse Psychology video for an overview on the brain and the interesting topics we'll cover:\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/vHrmiy4W9C0\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the two hemispheres of the brain, lateralization and plasticity<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify the location and function of the lobes of the brain<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1>The Central Nervous System<\/h1>\r\nThe central nervous system (CNS), consists of the brain and the spinal cord.\r\n<h2>The Brain<\/h2>\r\nThe brain is a remarkably complex organ comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia. It is a bilateral, or two-sided, structure that can be separated into distinct lobes. Each lobe is associated with certain types of functions, but, ultimately, all of the areas of the brain interact with one another to provide the foundation for our thoughts and behaviors.\r\n\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>The Spinal Cord<\/h2>\r\nIt can be said that the spinal cord is what connects the brain to the outside world. Because of it, the brain can act. The spinal cord is like a relay station, but a very smart one. It not only routes messages to and from the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes.\r\n\r\nThe top of the spinal cord merges with the brain stem, where the basic processes of life are controlled, such as breathing and digestion. In the opposite direction, the spinal cord ends just below the ribs\u2014contrary to what we might expect, it does not extend all the way to the base of the spine.\r\n\r\nThe spinal cord is functionally organized in 30 segments, corresponding with the vertebrae. Each segment is connected to a specific part of the body through the peripheral nervous system. Nerves branch out from the spine at each vertebra. Sensory nerves bring messages in; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs. Messages travel to and from the brain through every segment.\r\n\r\nSome sensory messages are immediately acted on by the spinal cord, without any input from the brain. Withdrawal from heat and knee jerk are two examples. When a sensory message meets certain parameters, the spinal cord initiates an automatic reflex. The signal passes from the sensory nerve to a simple processing center, which initiates a motor command. Seconds are saved, because messages don\u2019t have to go the brain, be processed, and get sent back. In matters of survival, the spinal reflexes allow the body to react extraordinarily fast.\r\n\r\nThe spinal cord is protected by bony vertebrae and cushioned in cerebrospinal fluid, but injuries still occur. When the spinal cord is damaged in a particular segment, all lower segments are cut off from the brain, causing paralysis. Therefore, the lower on the spine damage is, the fewer functions an injured individual loses.\r\n\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\"><\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>The Two Hemispheres<\/h2>\r\nThe surface of the brain, known as the <strong>cerebral cortex<\/strong>, is very uneven, characterized by a distinctive pattern of folds or bumps, known as <strong>gyri<\/strong> (singular: gyrus), and grooves, known as <strong>sulci<\/strong> (singular: sulcus), shown in Figure 1. These gyri and sulci form important landmarks that allow us to separate the brain into functional centers. The most prominent sulcus, known as the longitudinal fissure, is the deep groove that separates the brain into two halves or hemispheres: the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"357\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224555\/CNX_Psych_03_04_Cortexn.jpg\" alt=\"An illustration of the brain\u2019s exterior surface shows the ridges and depressions, and the deep fissure that runs through the center.\" width=\"357\" height=\"243\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> Figure 1. The surface of the brain is covered with gyri and sulci. A deep sulcus is called a fissure, such as the longitudinal fissure that divides the brain into left and right hemispheres. (credit: modification of work by Bruce Blaus)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nThere is evidence of some specialization of function\u2014referred to as <strong>lateralization<\/strong>\u2014in each hemisphere, mainly regarding differences in language ability. Beyond that, however, the differences that have been found have been minor. What we do know is that the left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body.\r\n\r\nThe two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the <strong>corpus callosum<\/strong>, consisting of about 200 million axons. The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other and allows for information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other side.\r\n\r\nNormally, we are not aware of the different roles that our two hemispheres play in day-to-day functions, but there are people who come to know the capabilities and functions of their two hemispheres quite well. In some cases of severe epilepsy, doctors elect to sever the corpus callosum as a means of controlling the spread of seizures (Figure 2). While this is an effective treatment option, it results in individuals who have split brains. After surgery, these split-brain patients show a variety of interesting behaviors. For instance, a split-brain patient is unable to name a picture that is shown in the patient\u2019s left visual field because the information is only available in the largely nonverbal right hemisphere. However, they are able to recreate the picture with their left hand, which is also controlled by the right hemisphere. When the more verbal left hemisphere sees the picture that the hand drew, the patient is able to name it (assuming the left hemisphere can interpret what was drawn by the left hand).\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"975\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224557\/CNX_Psych_03_04_CorpusCall.jpg\" alt=\"Illustrations (a) and (b) show the corpus callosum\u2019s location in the brain in front and side views. Photograph (c) shows the corpus callosum in a dissected brain.\" width=\"975\" height=\"259\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> Figure 2. (a, b) The corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain. (c) A scientist spreads this dissected sheep brain apart to show the corpus callosum between the hemispheres. (credit c: modification of work by Aaron Bornstein)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nThis <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nobelprize.org\/educational\/medicine\/split-brain\/splitbrainexp.html\">interactive animation<\/a>\u00a0from the Nobel Prize website walks users through the hemispheres of the brain.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nMuch of what we know about the functions of different areas of the brain comes from studying changes in the behavior and ability of individuals who have suffered damage to the brain. For example, researchers study the behavioral changes caused by strokes to learn about the functions of specific brain areas. A stroke, caused by an interruption of blood flow to a region in the brain, causes a loss of brain function in the affected region. The damage can be in a small area, and, if it is, this gives researchers the opportunity to link any resulting behavioral changes to a specific area. The types of deficits displayed after a stroke will be largely dependent on where in the brain the damage occurred.\r\n\r\nConsider Theona, an intelligent, self-sufficient woman, who is 62 years old. Recently, she suffered a stroke in the front portion of her right hemisphere. As a result, she has great difficulty moving her left leg. (As you learned earlier, the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body; also, the brain\u2019s main motor centers are located at the front of the head, in the frontal lobe.) Theona has also experienced behavioral changes. For example, while in the produce section of the grocery store, she sometimes eats grapes, strawberries, and apples directly from their bins before paying for them. This behavior\u2014which would have been very embarrassing to her before the stroke\u2014is consistent with damage in another region in the frontal lobe\u2014the prefrontal cortex, which is associated with judgment, reasoning, and impulse control.\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video to see an incredible example of the challenges facing\u00a0a split-brain patient shortly following the surgery to sever\u00a0her\u00a0corpus callosum.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/8C8qu8FnuAo?t=7s\r\n\r\nWatch this\u00a0second\u00a0about another patient who underwent a dramatic surgery to prevent her seizures. You'll learn more about the brain's ability to change, adapt, and reorganize itself, also known as brain <strong>plasticity<\/strong>.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VaDlLD97CLM&amp;feature=youtu.be\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2771\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2772\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2773\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2>Forebrain Structures<\/h2>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are part of the <strong>forebrain<\/strong> (Figure 3), which is the largest part of the brain. The forebrain contains the cerebral cortex and a number of other structures that lie beneath the cortex (called subcortical structures): thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the limbic system (collection of structures). The cerebral cortex, which is the outer surface of the brain, is associated with higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory. Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each associated with different functions.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"313\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224559\/CNX_Psych_03_04_FMHBrain.jpg\" alt=\"An illustration shows the position and size of the forebrain (the largest portion), midbrain (a small central portion), and hindbrain (a portion in the lower back part of the brain).\" width=\"313\" height=\"228\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> Figure 3. The brain and its parts can be divided into three main categories: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Lobes of the Brain<\/h2>\r\nThe four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (Figure 4). The <strong>frontal lobe<\/strong> is located in the forward part of the brain, extending back to a fissure known as the central sulcus. The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language. It contains the <strong>motor cortex<\/strong>, which is involved in planning and coordinating movement; the <strong>prefrontal cortex<\/strong>, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and <strong>Broca\u2019s area<\/strong>, which is essential for language production.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"487\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224600\/CNX_Psych_03_04_Lobes.jpg\" alt=\"An illustration shows the four lobes of the brain.\" width=\"487\" height=\"355\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> Figure 4. The lobes of the brain are shown.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nPeople who suffer damage to Broca\u2019s area have great difficulty producing language of any form. For example, Padma was an electrical engineer who was socially active and a caring, involved mother. About twenty years ago, she was in a car accident and suffered damage to her Broca\u2019s area. She completely lost the ability to speak and form any kind of meaningful language. There is nothing wrong with her mouth or her vocal cords, but she is unable to produce words. She can follow directions but can\u2019t respond verbally, and she can read but no longer write. She can do routine tasks like running to the market to buy milk, but she could not communicate verbally if a situation called for it.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2774\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2775\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nProbably the most famous case of frontal lobe damage is that of a man by the name of Phineas Gage. On September 13, 1848, Gage (age 25) was working as a railroad foreman in Vermont. He and his crew were using an iron rod to tamp explosives down into a blasting hole to remove rock along the railway\u2019s path. Unfortunately, the iron rod created a spark and caused the rod to explode out of the blasting hole, into Gage\u2019s face, and through his skull (Figure 5). Although lying in a pool of his own blood with brain matter emerging from his head, Gage was conscious and able to get up, walk, and speak. But in the months following his accident, people noticed that his personality had changed. Many of his friends described him as no longer being himself. Before the accident, it was said that Gage was a well-mannered, soft-spoken man, but he began to behave in odd and inappropriate ways after the accident. Such changes in personality would be consistent with loss of impulse control\u2014a frontal lobe function.\r\n\r\nBeyond the damage to the frontal lobe itself, subsequent investigations into the rod's path also identified probable damage to pathways between the frontal lobe and other brain structures, including the limbic system. With connections between the planning functions of the frontal lobe and the emotional processes of the limbic system severed, Gage had difficulty controlling his emotional impulses.\r\n\r\nHowever, there is some evidence suggesting that the dramatic changes in Gage\u2019s personality were exaggerated and embellished. Gage's case occurred in the midst of a 19<sup>th<\/sup> century debate over localization\u2014regarding whether certain areas of the brain are associated with particular functions. On the basis of extremely limited information about Gage, the extent of his injury, and his life before and after the accident, scientists tended to find support for their own views, on whichever side of the debate they fell (Macmillan, 1999).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"440\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224602\/CNX_Psych_03_04_GageSkull.jpg\" alt=\"Image (a) is a photograph of Phineas Gage holding a metal rod. Image (b) is an illustration of a skull with a metal rod passing through it from the cheek area to the top of the skull.\" width=\"440\" height=\"354\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> Figure 5. (a) Phineas Gage holds the iron rod that penetrated his skull in an 1848 railroad construction accident. (b) Gage\u2019s prefrontal cortex was severely damaged in the left hemisphere. The rod entered Gage\u2019s face on the left side, passed behind his eye, and exited through the top of his skull, before landing about 80 feet away. (credit a: modification of work by Jack and Beverly Wilgus)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch this clip about Phineas Gage to learn more about his accident and injury.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_nikOxNfjqs\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<div class=\"mceTemp\"><\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3485\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"583\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/01\/20221528\/motorcortex.png\"><img class=\"wp-image-3485 \" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/01\/20221528\/motorcortex.png\" alt=\"Image of the motor cortex, detailing how specific areas correlate to distinct body parts, like the throat, tongue, jaw, lips, face, hands, and other body parts. \" width=\"583\" height=\"328\" \/><\/a> Figure 6: Specific body parts like the tongue or fingers are mapped onto certain areas of the brain including the primary motor cortex.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOne particularly fascinating area in the frontal lobe is called the \u201cprimary motor cortex\u201d. This strip running along the side of the brain is in charge of voluntary movements like waving goodbye, wiggling your eyebrows, and kissing. It is an excellent example of the way that the various regions of the brain are highly specialized. Interestingly, each of our various body parts has a unique portion of the primary motor cortex devoted to it (see Figure 6). Each individual finger has about as much dedicated brain space as your entire leg. Your lips, in turn, require about as much dedicated brain processing as all of your fingers and your hand combined!\r\n\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"368\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224603\/CNX_Psych_03_04_BrainOrg.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram shows the organization in the somatosensory cortex, with functions for these parts in this proximal sequential order: toes, ankles, knees, hips, trunk, shoulders, elbows, wrists, hands, fingers, thumbs, neck, eyebrows and eyelids, eyeballs, face, lips, jaw, tongue, salivation, chewing, and swallowing.\" width=\"368\" height=\"280\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> Figure 7. Spatial relationships in the body are mirrored in the organization of the somatosensory cortex.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBecause the cerebral cortex in general, and the frontal lobe in particular, are associated with such sophisticated functions as planning and being self-aware they are often thought of as a higher, less primal portion of the brain. Indeed, other animals such as rats and kangaroos while they do have frontal regions of their brain do not have the same level of development in the cerebral cortices. The closer an animal is to humans on the evolutionary tree\u2014think chimpanzees and gorillas, the more developed is this portion of their brain.\r\n\r\nThe brain\u2019s <strong>parietal lobe<\/strong> is located immediately behind the frontal lobe, and is involved in processing information from the body\u2019s senses. It contains the <strong>somatosensory cortex<\/strong>, which is essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. The somatosensory cortex is organized topographically, which means that spatial relationships that exist in the body are maintained on the surface of the somatosensory cortex. For example, the portion of the cortex that processes sensory information from the hand is adjacent to the portion that processes information from the wrist.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"367\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224605\/CNX_Psych_03_04_Broca.jpg\" alt=\"An illustration shows the locations of Broca\u2019s and Wernicke\u2019s areas.\" width=\"367\" height=\"227\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/> Figure 8. Damage to either Broca\u2019s area or Wernicke\u2019s area can result in language deficits. The types of deficits are very different, however, depending on which area is affected.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe <strong>temporal lobe<\/strong> is located on the side of the head (temporal means \u201cnear the temples\u201d), and is associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language. The <strong>auditory cortex<\/strong>, the main area responsible for processing auditory information, is located within the temporal lobe. <strong>Wernicke\u2019s area<\/strong>, important for speech comprehension, is also located here. Whereas individuals with damage to Broca\u2019s area have difficulty producing language, those with damage to Wernicke\u2019s area can produce sensible language, but they are unable to understand it (Figure 8).\r\n<figure><\/figure>\r\nThe <strong>occipital lobe<\/strong> is located at the very back of the brain, and contains the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information. The occipital cortex is organized retinotopically, which means there is a close relationship between the position of an object in a person\u2019s visual field and the position of that object\u2019s representation on the cortex. You will learn much more about how visual information is processed in the occipital lobe when you study sensation and perception.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2776\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2781\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2782\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2783\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2784\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Food for Thought<\/h3>\r\nConsider the following advice from\u00a0Joseph LeDoux, a professor of \u00a0neuroscience and\u00a0psychology at New York University, as you learn about the specific parts of the brain:\r\n<blockquote>Be suspicious of any statement that says a brain area is a center responsible for some function. The notion of functions being products of brain areas or centers is left over from the days when most evidence about brain function was based on the effects of brain lesions localized to specific areas. Today, we think of functions as products\u00a0of systems rather than of areas. Neurons in areas contribute because they are part of a system.\u00a0The amygdala, for example, contributes to threat detection because it is part of a threat detection system. And just because the amygdala contributes to threat detection does not mean that threat detection is the only function to which it contributes. Amygdala neurons, for example, are also components of systems that process the significance of stimuli related to eating, drinking, sex, and addictive drugs.<\/blockquote>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2780\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2777\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2778\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/2779\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<strong>auditory cortex:\u00a0<\/strong>strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information\r\n<strong>Broca\u2019s area:\u00a0<\/strong>region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production\r\n<strong>cerebral cortex:\u00a0<\/strong>surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities\r\n<strong>corpus callosum:\u00a0<\/strong>thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain\u2019s two hemispheres\r\n<strong>forebrain:\u00a0<\/strong>largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures\r\n<strong>frontal lobe:\u00a0<\/strong>part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex\r\n<strong>gyrus <\/strong>(plural: gyri): bump or ridge on the cerebral cortex\r\n<strong>hemisphere:\u00a0<\/strong>left or right half of the brain\r\n<strong>lateralization:\u00a0<\/strong>concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions\r\n<strong>longitudinal fissure:\u00a0<\/strong>deep groove in the brain\u2019s cortex\r\n<strong>motor cortex:\u00a0<\/strong>strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement\r\n<strong>occipital lobe:\u00a0<\/strong>part of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing; contains the primary visual cortex\r\n<strong>parietal lobe:\u00a0<\/strong>part of the cerebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information; contains the primary somatosensory cortex\r\n<strong>prefrontal cortex:\u00a0<\/strong>area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning\r\n<strong>somatosensory cortex:\u00a0<\/strong>essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain\r\n<strong>sulcus\u00a0<\/strong>(plural: sulci): depressions or grooves in the cerebral cortex\r\n<strong>temporal lobe:\u00a0<\/strong>part of cerebral cortex associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language; contains primary auditory cortex\r\n<strong>Wernicke\u2019s area:\u00a0<\/strong>important for speech comprehension\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>","rendered":"<h2>What you&#8217;ll learn to do: identify and describe the parts of the brain<\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/15045703\/brainlobes.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-2775\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/15045703\/brainlobes.png\" alt=\"Principal fissures and lobes of the cerebrum viewed laterally.\" width=\"388\" height=\"277\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>In this section, you&#8217;ll\u00a0learn about the specific parts of the brain and their roles and functions. While this is not an anatomy class, you&#8217;ll see how important it is to understand the parts of the brain and what they do so that we can understand mental processes and behavior. Watch this CrashCourse Psychology video for an overview on the brain and the interesting topics we&#8217;ll cover:<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/vHrmiy4W9C0\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the two hemispheres of the brain, lateralization and plasticity<\/li>\n<li>Identify the location and function of the lobes of the brain<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h1>The Central Nervous System<\/h1>\n<p>The central nervous system (CNS), consists of the brain and the spinal cord.<\/p>\n<h2>The Brain<\/h2>\n<p>The brain is a remarkably complex organ comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia. It is a bilateral, or two-sided, structure that can be separated into distinct lobes. Each lobe is associated with certain types of functions, but, ultimately, all of the areas of the brain interact with one another to provide the foundation for our thoughts and behaviors.<\/p>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>The Spinal Cord<\/h2>\n<p>It can be said that the spinal cord is what connects the brain to the outside world. Because of it, the brain can act. The spinal cord is like a relay station, but a very smart one. It not only routes messages to and from the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes.<\/p>\n<p>The top of the spinal cord merges with the brain stem, where the basic processes of life are controlled, such as breathing and digestion. In the opposite direction, the spinal cord ends just below the ribs\u2014contrary to what we might expect, it does not extend all the way to the base of the spine.<\/p>\n<p>The spinal cord is functionally organized in 30 segments, corresponding with the vertebrae. Each segment is connected to a specific part of the body through the peripheral nervous system. Nerves branch out from the spine at each vertebra. Sensory nerves bring messages in; motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs. Messages travel to and from the brain through every segment.<\/p>\n<p>Some sensory messages are immediately acted on by the spinal cord, without any input from the brain. Withdrawal from heat and knee jerk are two examples. When a sensory message meets certain parameters, the spinal cord initiates an automatic reflex. The signal passes from the sensory nerve to a simple processing center, which initiates a motor command. Seconds are saved, because messages don\u2019t have to go the brain, be processed, and get sent back. In matters of survival, the spinal reflexes allow the body to react extraordinarily fast.<\/p>\n<p>The spinal cord is protected by bony vertebrae and cushioned in cerebrospinal fluid, but injuries still occur. When the spinal cord is damaged in a particular segment, all lower segments are cut off from the brain, causing paralysis. Therefore, the lower on the spine damage is, the fewer functions an injured individual loses.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\"><\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>The Two Hemispheres<\/h2>\n<p>The surface of the brain, known as the <strong>cerebral cortex<\/strong>, is very uneven, characterized by a distinctive pattern of folds or bumps, known as <strong>gyri<\/strong> (singular: gyrus), and grooves, known as <strong>sulci<\/strong> (singular: sulcus), shown in Figure 1. These gyri and sulci form important landmarks that allow us to separate the brain into functional centers. The most prominent sulcus, known as the longitudinal fissure, is the deep groove that separates the brain into two halves or hemispheres: the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 367px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224555\/CNX_Psych_03_04_Cortexn.jpg\" alt=\"An illustration of the brain\u2019s exterior surface shows the ridges and depressions, and the deep fissure that runs through the center.\" width=\"357\" height=\"243\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. The surface of the brain is covered with gyri and sulci. A deep sulcus is called a fissure, such as the longitudinal fissure that divides the brain into left and right hemispheres. (credit: modification of work by Bruce Blaus)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>There is evidence of some specialization of function\u2014referred to as <strong>lateralization<\/strong>\u2014in each hemisphere, mainly regarding differences in language ability. Beyond that, however, the differences that have been found have been minor. What we do know is that the left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half of the body.<\/p>\n<p>The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the <strong>corpus callosum<\/strong>, consisting of about 200 million axons. The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other and allows for information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other side.<\/p>\n<p>Normally, we are not aware of the different roles that our two hemispheres play in day-to-day functions, but there are people who come to know the capabilities and functions of their two hemispheres quite well. In some cases of severe epilepsy, doctors elect to sever the corpus callosum as a means of controlling the spread of seizures (Figure 2). While this is an effective treatment option, it results in individuals who have split brains. After surgery, these split-brain patients show a variety of interesting behaviors. For instance, a split-brain patient is unable to name a picture that is shown in the patient\u2019s left visual field because the information is only available in the largely nonverbal right hemisphere. However, they are able to recreate the picture with their left hand, which is also controlled by the right hemisphere. When the more verbal left hemisphere sees the picture that the hand drew, the patient is able to name it (assuming the left hemisphere can interpret what was drawn by the left hand).<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 985px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224557\/CNX_Psych_03_04_CorpusCall.jpg\" alt=\"Illustrations (a) and (b) show the corpus callosum\u2019s location in the brain in front and side views. Photograph (c) shows the corpus callosum in a dissected brain.\" width=\"975\" height=\"259\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. (a, b) The corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain. (c) A scientist spreads this dissected sheep brain apart to show the corpus callosum between the hemispheres. (credit c: modification of work by Aaron Bornstein)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>This <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nobelprize.org\/educational\/medicine\/split-brain\/splitbrainexp.html\">interactive animation<\/a>\u00a0from the Nobel Prize website walks users through the hemispheres of the brain.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Much of what we know about the functions of different areas of the brain comes from studying changes in the behavior and ability of individuals who have suffered damage to the brain. For example, researchers study the behavioral changes caused by strokes to learn about the functions of specific brain areas. A stroke, caused by an interruption of blood flow to a region in the brain, causes a loss of brain function in the affected region. The damage can be in a small area, and, if it is, this gives researchers the opportunity to link any resulting behavioral changes to a specific area. The types of deficits displayed after a stroke will be largely dependent on where in the brain the damage occurred.<\/p>\n<p>Consider Theona, an intelligent, self-sufficient woman, who is 62 years old. Recently, she suffered a stroke in the front portion of her right hemisphere. As a result, she has great difficulty moving her left leg. (As you learned earlier, the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body; also, the brain\u2019s main motor centers are located at the front of the head, in the frontal lobe.) Theona has also experienced behavioral changes. For example, while in the produce section of the grocery store, she sometimes eats grapes, strawberries, and apples directly from their bins before paying for them. This behavior\u2014which would have been very embarrassing to her before the stroke\u2014is consistent with damage in another region in the frontal lobe\u2014the prefrontal cortex, which is associated with judgment, reasoning, and impulse control.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video to see an incredible example of the challenges facing\u00a0a split-brain patient shortly following the surgery to sever\u00a0her\u00a0corpus callosum.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Split Brain mpeg1video\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/8C8qu8FnuAo?start=7&#38;feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>Watch this\u00a0second\u00a0about another patient who underwent a dramatic surgery to prevent her seizures. You&#8217;ll learn more about the brain&#8217;s ability to change, adapt, and reorganize itself, also known as brain <strong>plasticity<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Brain Plasticity - the story of Jody\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/VaDlLD97CLM?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2771\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2771&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2771\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2772\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2772&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2772\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2773\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2773&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2773\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<h2>Forebrain Structures<\/h2>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are part of the <strong>forebrain<\/strong> (Figure 3), which is the largest part of the brain. The forebrain contains the cerebral cortex and a number of other structures that lie beneath the cortex (called subcortical structures): thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the limbic system (collection of structures). The cerebral cortex, which is the outer surface of the brain, is associated with higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory. Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each associated with different functions.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 323px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224559\/CNX_Psych_03_04_FMHBrain.jpg\" alt=\"An illustration shows the position and size of the forebrain (the largest portion), midbrain (a small central portion), and hindbrain (a portion in the lower back part of the brain).\" width=\"313\" height=\"228\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3. The brain and its parts can be divided into three main categories: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Lobes of the Brain<\/h2>\n<p>The four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (Figure 4). The <strong>frontal lobe<\/strong> is located in the forward part of the brain, extending back to a fissure known as the central sulcus. The frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language. It contains the <strong>motor cortex<\/strong>, which is involved in planning and coordinating movement; the <strong>prefrontal cortex<\/strong>, which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning; and <strong>Broca\u2019s area<\/strong>, which is essential for language production.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 497px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224600\/CNX_Psych_03_04_Lobes.jpg\" alt=\"An illustration shows the four lobes of the brain.\" width=\"487\" height=\"355\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4. The lobes of the brain are shown.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>People who suffer damage to Broca\u2019s area have great difficulty producing language of any form. For example, Padma was an electrical engineer who was socially active and a caring, involved mother. About twenty years ago, she was in a car accident and suffered damage to her Broca\u2019s area. She completely lost the ability to speak and form any kind of meaningful language. There is nothing wrong with her mouth or her vocal cords, but she is unable to produce words. She can follow directions but can\u2019t respond verbally, and she can read but no longer write. She can do routine tasks like running to the market to buy milk, but she could not communicate verbally if a situation called for it.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2774\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2774&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2774\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2775\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2775&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2775\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Probably the most famous case of frontal lobe damage is that of a man by the name of Phineas Gage. On September 13, 1848, Gage (age 25) was working as a railroad foreman in Vermont. He and his crew were using an iron rod to tamp explosives down into a blasting hole to remove rock along the railway\u2019s path. Unfortunately, the iron rod created a spark and caused the rod to explode out of the blasting hole, into Gage\u2019s face, and through his skull (Figure 5). Although lying in a pool of his own blood with brain matter emerging from his head, Gage was conscious and able to get up, walk, and speak. But in the months following his accident, people noticed that his personality had changed. Many of his friends described him as no longer being himself. Before the accident, it was said that Gage was a well-mannered, soft-spoken man, but he began to behave in odd and inappropriate ways after the accident. Such changes in personality would be consistent with loss of impulse control\u2014a frontal lobe function.<\/p>\n<p>Beyond the damage to the frontal lobe itself, subsequent investigations into the rod&#8217;s path also identified probable damage to pathways between the frontal lobe and other brain structures, including the limbic system. With connections between the planning functions of the frontal lobe and the emotional processes of the limbic system severed, Gage had difficulty controlling his emotional impulses.<\/p>\n<p>However, there is some evidence suggesting that the dramatic changes in Gage\u2019s personality were exaggerated and embellished. Gage&#8217;s case occurred in the midst of a 19<sup>th<\/sup> century debate over localization\u2014regarding whether certain areas of the brain are associated with particular functions. On the basis of extremely limited information about Gage, the extent of his injury, and his life before and after the accident, scientists tended to find support for their own views, on whichever side of the debate they fell (Macmillan, 1999).<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 450px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224602\/CNX_Psych_03_04_GageSkull.jpg\" alt=\"Image (a) is a photograph of Phineas Gage holding a metal rod. Image (b) is an illustration of a skull with a metal rod passing through it from the cheek area to the top of the skull.\" width=\"440\" height=\"354\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5. (a) Phineas Gage holds the iron rod that penetrated his skull in an 1848 railroad construction accident. (b) Gage\u2019s prefrontal cortex was severely damaged in the left hemisphere. The rod entered Gage\u2019s face on the left side, passed behind his eye, and exited through the top of his skull, before landing about 80 feet away. (credit a: modification of work by Jack and Beverly Wilgus)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to learning<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this clip about Phineas Gage to learn more about his accident and injury.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Phineas Gage (LEGO Stop-Motion Music Video)\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/_nikOxNfjqs?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<div class=\"mceTemp\"><\/div>\n<div id=\"attachment_3485\" style=\"width: 593px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/01\/20221528\/motorcortex.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-3485\" class=\"wp-image-3485\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2017\/01\/20221528\/motorcortex.png\" alt=\"Image of the motor cortex, detailing how specific areas correlate to distinct body parts, like the throat, tongue, jaw, lips, face, hands, and other body parts.\" width=\"583\" height=\"328\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-3485\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 6: Specific body parts like the tongue or fingers are mapped onto certain areas of the brain including the primary motor cortex.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>One particularly fascinating area in the frontal lobe is called the \u201cprimary motor cortex\u201d. This strip running along the side of the brain is in charge of voluntary movements like waving goodbye, wiggling your eyebrows, and kissing. It is an excellent example of the way that the various regions of the brain are highly specialized. Interestingly, each of our various body parts has a unique portion of the primary motor cortex devoted to it (see Figure 6). Each individual finger has about as much dedicated brain space as your entire leg. Your lips, in turn, require about as much dedicated brain processing as all of your fingers and your hand combined!<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<div style=\"width: 378px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224603\/CNX_Psych_03_04_BrainOrg.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram shows the organization in the somatosensory cortex, with functions for these parts in this proximal sequential order: toes, ankles, knees, hips, trunk, shoulders, elbows, wrists, hands, fingers, thumbs, neck, eyebrows and eyelids, eyeballs, face, lips, jaw, tongue, salivation, chewing, and swallowing.\" width=\"368\" height=\"280\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 7. Spatial relationships in the body are mirrored in the organization of the somatosensory cortex.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Because the cerebral cortex in general, and the frontal lobe in particular, are associated with such sophisticated functions as planning and being self-aware they are often thought of as a higher, less primal portion of the brain. Indeed, other animals such as rats and kangaroos while they do have frontal regions of their brain do not have the same level of development in the cerebral cortices. The closer an animal is to humans on the evolutionary tree\u2014think chimpanzees and gorillas, the more developed is this portion of their brain.<\/p>\n<p>The brain\u2019s <strong>parietal lobe<\/strong> is located immediately behind the frontal lobe, and is involved in processing information from the body\u2019s senses. It contains the <strong>somatosensory cortex<\/strong>, which is essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. The somatosensory cortex is organized topographically, which means that spatial relationships that exist in the body are maintained on the surface of the somatosensory cortex. For example, the portion of the cortex that processes sensory information from the hand is adjacent to the portion that processes information from the wrist.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 377px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224605\/CNX_Psych_03_04_Broca.jpg\" alt=\"An illustration shows the locations of Broca\u2019s and Wernicke\u2019s areas.\" width=\"367\" height=\"227\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 8. Damage to either Broca\u2019s area or Wernicke\u2019s area can result in language deficits. The types of deficits are very different, however, depending on which area is affected.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The <strong>temporal lobe<\/strong> is located on the side of the head (temporal means \u201cnear the temples\u201d), and is associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language. The <strong>auditory cortex<\/strong>, the main area responsible for processing auditory information, is located within the temporal lobe. <strong>Wernicke\u2019s area<\/strong>, important for speech comprehension, is also located here. Whereas individuals with damage to Broca\u2019s area have difficulty producing language, those with damage to Wernicke\u2019s area can produce sensible language, but they are unable to understand it (Figure 8).<\/p>\n<figure><\/figure>\n<p>The <strong>occipital lobe<\/strong> is located at the very back of the brain, and contains the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information. The occipital cortex is organized retinotopically, which means there is a close relationship between the position of an object in a person\u2019s visual field and the position of that object\u2019s representation on the cortex. You will learn much more about how visual information is processed in the occipital lobe when you study sensation and perception.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2776\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2776&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2776\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2781\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2781&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2781\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2782\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2782&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2782\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2783\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2783&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2783\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2784\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2784&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2784\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Food for Thought<\/h3>\n<p>Consider the following advice from\u00a0Joseph LeDoux, a professor of \u00a0neuroscience and\u00a0psychology at New York University, as you learn about the specific parts of the brain:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Be suspicious of any statement that says a brain area is a center responsible for some function. The notion of functions being products of brain areas or centers is left over from the days when most evidence about brain function was based on the effects of brain lesions localized to specific areas. Today, we think of functions as products\u00a0of systems rather than of areas. Neurons in areas contribute because they are part of a system.\u00a0The amygdala, for example, contributes to threat detection because it is part of a threat detection system. And just because the amygdala contributes to threat detection does not mean that threat detection is the only function to which it contributes. Amygdala neurons, for example, are also components of systems that process the significance of stimuli related to eating, drinking, sex, and addictive drugs.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2780\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2780&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2780\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2777\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2777&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2777\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2778\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2778&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2778\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_2779\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=2779&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_2779\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<p><strong>auditory cortex:\u00a0<\/strong>strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information<br \/>\n<strong>Broca\u2019s area:\u00a0<\/strong>region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production<br \/>\n<strong>cerebral cortex:\u00a0<\/strong>surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities<br \/>\n<strong>corpus callosum:\u00a0<\/strong>thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain\u2019s two hemispheres<br \/>\n<strong>forebrain:\u00a0<\/strong>largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures<br \/>\n<strong>frontal lobe:\u00a0<\/strong>part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex<br \/>\n<strong>gyrus <\/strong>(plural: gyri): bump or ridge on the cerebral cortex<br \/>\n<strong>hemisphere:\u00a0<\/strong>left or right half of the brain<br \/>\n<strong>lateralization:\u00a0<\/strong>concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions<br \/>\n<strong>longitudinal fissure:\u00a0<\/strong>deep groove in the brain\u2019s cortex<br \/>\n<strong>motor cortex:\u00a0<\/strong>strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement<br \/>\n<strong>occipital lobe:\u00a0<\/strong>part of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing; contains the primary visual cortex<br \/>\n<strong>parietal lobe:\u00a0<\/strong>part of the cerebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information; contains the primary somatosensory cortex<br \/>\n<strong>prefrontal cortex:\u00a0<\/strong>area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning<br \/>\n<strong>somatosensory cortex:\u00a0<\/strong>essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain<br \/>\n<strong>sulcus\u00a0<\/strong>(plural: sulci): depressions or grooves in the cerebral cortex<br \/>\n<strong>temporal lobe:\u00a0<\/strong>part of cerebral cortex associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language; contains primary auditory cortex<br \/>\n<strong>Wernicke\u2019s area:\u00a0<\/strong>important for speech comprehension<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2036\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Introduction. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>The Brain and Spinal Cord. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.49:_Io4zP0c@7\/The-Brain-and-Spinal-Cord\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.49:_Io4zP0c@7\/The-Brain-and-Spinal-Cord<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.<\/li><li>Modification, adaptation, and original content. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>The Amygdala Is Not The Brains Fear Center. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Joseph LeDoux. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/thepsychreport.com\/science\/the-amygdala-is-not-the-brains-fear-center\/\">http:\/\/thepsychreport.com\/science\/the-amygdala-is-not-the-brains-fear-center\/<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Psych Report. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Motor cortex paragraphs and image. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Robert Biswas-Diener. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Portland State University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-brain-and-nervous-system\">http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-brain-and-nervous-system<\/a>. <strong>Project<\/strong>: The Noba Project. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Meet Your Master: Getting to Know Your Brain - Crash Course Psychology #4. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: CrashCourse . <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=vHrmiy4W9C0\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=vHrmiy4W9C0<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Split Brain mpeg1video. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: mrsrooboy. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8C8qu8FnuAo&#038;feature=youtu.be\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8C8qu8FnuAo&#038;feature=youtu.be<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Brain Plasticity - the story of Jody. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Streetwisdom Billy. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VaDlLD97CLM&#038;feature=youtu.be\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VaDlLD97CLM&#038;feature=youtu.be<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Phineas Gage (LEGO Stop-Motion Music Video). <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Brad Wray. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_nikOxNfjqs\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_nikOxNfjqs<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>brain image. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Henry Gray. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Wikimedia. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lobes_of_the_brain_NL.svg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lobes_of_the_brain_NL.svg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"brain image\",\"author\":\"Henry Gray\",\"organization\":\"Wikimedia\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Lobes_of_the_brain_NL.svg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Meet Your Master: Getting to Know Your Brain - Crash Course Psychology #4\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"CrashCourse 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License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Brain Plasticity - the story of Jody\",\"author\":\"Streetwisdom Billy\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VaDlLD97CLM&feature=youtu.be\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Phineas Gage (LEGO Stop-Motion Music Video)\",\"author\":\"Brad Wray\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=_nikOxNfjqs\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The Amygdala Is Not The Brains Fear Center\",\"author\":\"Joseph LeDoux\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/thepsychreport.com\/science\/the-amygdala-is-not-the-brains-fear-center\/\",\"project\":\"The Psych Report\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Motor cortex paragraphs and image\",\"author\":\"Robert Biswas-Diener\",\"organization\":\"Portland State University\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/the-brain-and-nervous-system\",\"project\":\"The Noba Project\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"5ee0f1d3-f7fe-4423-b182-23efe83a8683, 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