{"id":2257,"date":"2016-11-01T02:59:30","date_gmt":"2016-11-01T02:59:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=2257"},"modified":"2017-04-29T13:15:55","modified_gmt":"2017-04-29T13:15:55","slug":"reading-storage","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/chapter\/reading-storage\/","title":{"raw":"Storage","rendered":"Storage"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the three stages of memory storage<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe and distinguish between implicit\u00a0and explicit\u00a0memory and semantic and episodic memory<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nOnce the information has been encoded, we have to somehow have to retain it. Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage. <strong>Storage<\/strong> is the creation of a permanent record of information.\r\n\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to pass through three distinct stages: <strong>Sensory Memory<\/strong>, <strong>Short-Term Memory<\/strong>, and finally <strong>Long-Term Memory<\/strong>. These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968). Their model of human memory (Figure 1), called Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S), is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"649\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224848\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Atkinson.jpg\" alt=\"A flow diagram consists of four boxes with connecting arrows. The first box is labeled \u201csensory input.\u201d An arrow leads to the second box, which is labeled \u201csensory memory.\u201d An arrow leads to the third box which is labeled \u201cshort-term memory (STM).\u201d An arrow points to the fourth box, labeled \u201clong-term memory (LTM),\u201d and an arrow points in the reverse direction from the fourth to the third box. Above the short-term memory box, an arrow leaves the top-right of the box and curves around to point back to the top-left of the box; this arrow is labeled \u201crehearsal.\u201d Both the \u201csensory memory\u201d and \u201cshort-term memory\u201d boxes have an arrow beneath them pointing to the text \u201cinformation not transferred is lost.\u201d\" width=\"649\" height=\"335\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 1. According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nBut A-S is just one model of memory. Others, such as Baddeley and Hitch (1974), have proposed a model where short-term memory itself has different forms. In this model, storing memories in short-term memory is like opening different files on a computer and adding information. The type of short-term memory (or computer file) depends on the type of information received. There are memories in visual-spatial form, as well as memories of spoken or written material, and they are stored in three short-term systems: a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a phonological loop. According to Baddeley and Hitch, a central executive part of memory supervises or controls the flow of information to and from the three short-term systems.\r\n\r\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Sensory Memory<\/h2>\r\nIn the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed first in <strong>sensory memory<\/strong>: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage\u2014up to a couple of seconds. We are constantly bombarded with sensory information. We cannot absorb all of it, or even most of it. And most of it has no impact on our lives. For example, what was your professor wearing the last class period? As long as the professor was dressed appropriately, it does not really matter what she was wearing. Sensory information about sights, sounds, smells, and even textures, which we do not view as valuable information, we discard. If we view something as valuable, the information will move into our short-term memory system.\r\n\r\nOne study of sensory memory researched the significance of valuable information on short-term memory storage. J. R. Stroop discovered a memory phenomenon in the 1930s: you will name a color more easily if it appears printed in that color, which is called the <strong>Stroop effect<\/strong>. In other words, the word \u201cred\u201d will be named more quickly, regardless of the color the word appears in, than any word that is colored red. Try an experiment: name the colors of the words you are given in Figure 2. Do not read the words, but say the color the word is printed in. For example, upon seeing the word \u201cyellow\u201d in green print, you should say \u201cgreen,\u201d not \u201cyellow.\u201d This experiment is fun, but it\u2019s not as easy as it seems.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"649\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224849\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Stroop.jpg\" alt=\"Several names of colors appear in a font color that is different from the name of the color. For example, the word \u201cred\u201d is colored blue.\" width=\"649\" height=\"347\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 2. The Stroop effect describes why it is difficult for us to name a color when the word and the color of the word are different.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Short-Term Memory<\/h2>\r\n<strong>Short-term memory (STM)<\/strong> is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; sometimes it is called working memory. Short-term memory takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something already in long-term memory. Short-term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds. George Miller (1956), in his research on the capacity of memory, found that most people can retain about 7 items in STM. Some remember 5, some 9, so he called the capacity of STM 7 plus or minus 2.\r\n\r\nThink of short-term memory as the information you have displayed on your computer screen\u2014a document, a spreadsheet, or a web page. Then, information in short-term memory goes to long-term memory (you save it to your hard drive), or it is discarded (you delete a document or close a web browser). This step of <strong>rehearsal<\/strong>, the conscious repetition of information to be remembered, to move STM into long-term memory is called <strong>memory consolidation<\/strong>.\r\n\r\nYou may find yourself asking, \u201cHow much information can our memory handle at once?\u201d To explore the capacity and duration of your short-term memory, have a partner read the strings of random numbers (Figure 3) out loud to you, beginning each string by saying, \u201cReady?\u201d and ending each by saying, \u201cRecall,\u201d at which point you should try to write down the string of numbers from memory.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"487\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224851\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Numbers.jpg\" alt=\"A series of numbers includes two rows, with six numbers in each row. From left to right, the numbers increase from four digits to five, six, seven, eight, and nine digits. The first row includes \u201c9754,\u201d \u201c68259,\u201d \u201c913825,\u201d \u201c5316842,\u201d \u201c86951372,\u201d and \u201c719384273,\u201d and the second row includes \u201c6419,\u201d \u201c67148,\u201d \u201c648327,\u201d \u201c5963827,\u201d \u201c51739826,\u201d and \u201c163875942.\u201d\" width=\"487\" height=\"67\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 3. Work through this series of numbers using the recall exercise explained above to determine the longest string of digits that you can store.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nNote the longest string at which you got the series correct. For most people, this will be close to 7, Miller\u2019s famous 7 plus or minus 2. Recall is somewhat better for random numbers than for random letters (Jacobs, 1887), and also often slightly better for information we hear (acoustic encoding) rather than see (visual encoding) (Anderson, 1969).\r\n\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Long-term Memory<\/h2>\r\n<strong>Long-term memory (LTM)<\/strong> is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, the storage capacity of LTM has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days, weeks, and years ago. In keeping with the computer analogy, the information in your LTM would be like the information you have saved on the hard drive. It isn\u2019t there on your desktop (your short-term memory), but you can pull up this information when you want it, at least most of the time. Not all long-term memories are strong memories. Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. For example, you might easily recall a fact\u2014 \u201cWhat is the capital of the United States?\u201d\u2014or a procedure\u2014\u201cHow do you ride a bike?\u201d\u2014but you might struggle to recall the name of the restaurant you had dinner when you were on vacation in France last summer. A prompt, such as that the restaurant was named after its owner, who spoke to you about your shared interest in soccer, may help you recall the name of the restaurant.\r\n\r\nLong-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit (Figure 4). Understanding the different types is important because a person\u2019s age or particular types of brain trauma or disorders can leave certain types of LTM intact while having disastrous consequences for other types. <strong>Explicit memories<\/strong> are those we consciously try to remember and recall. For example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam, the material you are learning will be part of your explicit memory. (Note: Sometimes, but not always, the terms explicit memory and declarative memory are used interchangeably.)\r\n\r\n<strong>Implicit memories<\/strong> are memories that are not part of our consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviors. Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory.\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4376\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"580\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224852\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Explicit.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram consists of three rows of boxes. The box in the top row is labeled \u201clong-term memory\u201d; a line from the box separates into two lines leading to two boxes on the second row, labeled \u201cexplicit (declarative)\u201d and \u201cimplicit (non-declarative).\u201d From each of the second row boxes, lines split and lead to two additional boxes. From the \u201cexplicit\u201d box are two boxes labeled \u201cepisodic (experienced events)\u201d and \u201csemantic (knowledge and concepts).\u201d From the \u201cimplicit\u201d box are two boxes labeled \u201cprocedural (skills and actions)\u201d and \u201cemotional conditioning.\u201d\" width=\"580\" height=\"440\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 4. There are two components of long-term memory: explicit and implicit. Explicit memory includes episodic and semantic memory. Implicit memory includes procedural memory and things learned through conditioning.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<strong>Procedural memory<\/strong> is a type of implicit memory: it stores information about how to do things. It is the memory for skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, how to swim the crawl (freestyle) stroke. If you are learning how to swim freestyle, you practice the stroke: how to move your arms, how to turn your head to alternate breathing from side to side, and how to kick your legs. You would practice this many times until you become good at it. Once you learn how to swim freestyle and your body knows how to move through the water, you will never forget how to swim freestyle, even if you do not swim for a couple of decades. Similarly, if you present an accomplished guitarist with a guitar, even if he has not played in a long time, he will still be able to play quite well.\r\n\r\nExplicit\u00a0memory has to do with the storage of facts and events we personally experienced. Explicit (declarative) memory has two parts: semantic memory and episodic memory. Semantic means having to do with language and knowledge about language. An example would be the question \u201cwhat does <em data-effect=\"italics\">argumentative<\/em> mean?\u201d Stored in our semantic memory is knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts. For example, answers to the following questions are stored in your semantic memory:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Who was the first President of the United States?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is democracy?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>What is the longest river in the world?<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Episodic memory<\/strong> is information about events we have personally experienced. The concept of episodic memory was first proposed about 40 years ago (Tulving, 1972). Since then, Tulving and others have looked at scientific evidence and reformulated the theory. Currently, scientists believe that episodic memory is memory about happenings in particular places at particular times, the what, where, and when of an event (Tulving, 2002). It involves recollection of visual imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity (Hassabis &amp; Maguire, 2007).\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Everyday Connection\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Everyday Connection: Can You Remember Everything You Ever Did or Said?<\/h3>\r\nEpisodic memories are also called autobiographical memories. Let\u2019s quickly test your autobiographical memory. What were you wearing exactly five years ago today? What did you eat for lunch on April 10, 2009? You probably find it difficult, if not impossible, to answer these questions. Can you remember every event you have experienced over the course of your life\u2014meals, conversations, clothing choices, weather conditions, and so on? Most likely none of us could even come close to answering these questions; however, American actress Marilu Henner, best known for the television show <em data-effect=\"italics\">Taxi,<\/em> can remember. She has an amazing and highly superior autobiographical memory (Figure 7).\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"325\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224854\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Marilu.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows Marilu Henner.\" width=\"325\" height=\"244\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 7. Marilu Henner\u2019s super autobiographical memory is known as hyperthymesia. (credit: Mark Richardson)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nVery few people can recall events in this way; right now, only 12 known individuals have this ability, and only a few have been studied (Parker, Cahill &amp; McGaugh 2006). And although hyperthymesia normally appears in adolescence, two children in the United States appear to have memories from well before their tenth birthdays.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch these <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=oHeEQ85m79I\" target=\"_blank\">Part 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=en23bCvp-Fw\" target=\"_blank\">Part 2<\/a> video clips on superior autobiographical memory from the television news show <em data-effect=\"italics\">60 Minutes<\/em>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4372\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4373\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4374\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4375\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe something you have learned that is now in your procedural memory. Discuss how you learned this information.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe something you learned in high school that is now in your semantic memory.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>Atkinson-Shiffrin model (A-S):\u00a0<\/strong>memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>automatic processing:\u00a0<\/strong>encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>declarative memory:\u00a0<\/strong>type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>effortful processing:\u00a0<\/strong>encoding of information that takes effort and attention<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>episodic memory:\u00a0<\/strong>type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>explicit memory:\u00a0<\/strong>memories we consciously try to remember and recall<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>implicit memory:\u00a0<\/strong>memories that are not part of our consciousness<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>memory:\u00a0<\/strong>system or process that stores what we learn for future use<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>memory consolidation:\u00a0<\/strong>active rehearsal to move information from short-term memory into long-term memory<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>procedural memory:\u00a0<\/strong>type of long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>retrieval:\u00a0<\/strong>act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>self-reference effect:\u00a0<\/strong>tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>semantic encoding:\u00a0<\/strong>input of words and their meaning<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>semantic memory:\u00a0<\/strong>type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>sensory memory:\u00a0<\/strong>storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>short-term memory (STM):\u00a0<\/strong>(also, working memory) holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>storage:\u00a0<\/strong>creation of a permanent record of information<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the three stages of memory storage<\/li>\n<li>Describe and distinguish between implicit\u00a0and explicit\u00a0memory and semantic and episodic memory<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Once the information has been encoded, we have to somehow have to retain it. Our brains take the encoded information and place it in storage. <strong>Storage<\/strong> is the creation of a permanent record of information.<\/p>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to pass through three distinct stages: <strong>Sensory Memory<\/strong>, <strong>Short-Term Memory<\/strong>, and finally <strong>Long-Term Memory<\/strong>. These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968). Their model of human memory (Figure 1), called Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S), is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 659px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224848\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Atkinson.jpg\" alt=\"A flow diagram consists of four boxes with connecting arrows. The first box is labeled \u201csensory input.\u201d An arrow leads to the second box, which is labeled \u201csensory memory.\u201d An arrow leads to the third box which is labeled \u201cshort-term memory (STM).\u201d An arrow points to the fourth box, labeled \u201clong-term memory (LTM),\u201d and an arrow points in the reverse direction from the fourth to the third box. Above the short-term memory box, an arrow leaves the top-right of the box and curves around to point back to the top-left of the box; this arrow is labeled \u201crehearsal.\u201d Both the \u201csensory memory\u201d and \u201cshort-term memory\u201d boxes have an arrow beneath them pointing to the text \u201cinformation not transferred is lost.\u201d\" width=\"649\" height=\"335\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>But A-S is just one model of memory. Others, such as Baddeley and Hitch (1974), have proposed a model where short-term memory itself has different forms. In this model, storing memories in short-term memory is like opening different files on a computer and adding information. The type of short-term memory (or computer file) depends on the type of information received. There are memories in visual-spatial form, as well as memories of spoken or written material, and they are stored in three short-term systems: a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a phonological loop. According to Baddeley and Hitch, a central executive part of memory supervises or controls the flow of information to and from the three short-term systems.<\/p>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Sensory Memory<\/h2>\n<p>In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed first in <strong>sensory memory<\/strong>: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage\u2014up to a couple of seconds. We are constantly bombarded with sensory information. We cannot absorb all of it, or even most of it. And most of it has no impact on our lives. For example, what was your professor wearing the last class period? As long as the professor was dressed appropriately, it does not really matter what she was wearing. Sensory information about sights, sounds, smells, and even textures, which we do not view as valuable information, we discard. If we view something as valuable, the information will move into our short-term memory system.<\/p>\n<p>One study of sensory memory researched the significance of valuable information on short-term memory storage. J. R. Stroop discovered a memory phenomenon in the 1930s: you will name a color more easily if it appears printed in that color, which is called the <strong>Stroop effect<\/strong>. In other words, the word \u201cred\u201d will be named more quickly, regardless of the color the word appears in, than any word that is colored red. Try an experiment: name the colors of the words you are given in Figure 2. Do not read the words, but say the color the word is printed in. For example, upon seeing the word \u201cyellow\u201d in green print, you should say \u201cgreen,\u201d not \u201cyellow.\u201d This experiment is fun, but it\u2019s not as easy as it seems.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 659px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224849\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Stroop.jpg\" alt=\"Several names of colors appear in a font color that is different from the name of the color. For example, the word \u201cred\u201d is colored blue.\" width=\"649\" height=\"347\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. The Stroop effect describes why it is difficult for us to name a color when the word and the color of the word are different.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Short-Term Memory<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Short-term memory (STM)<\/strong> is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; sometimes it is called working memory. Short-term memory takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something already in long-term memory. Short-term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds. George Miller (1956), in his research on the capacity of memory, found that most people can retain about 7 items in STM. Some remember 5, some 9, so he called the capacity of STM 7 plus or minus 2.<\/p>\n<p>Think of short-term memory as the information you have displayed on your computer screen\u2014a document, a spreadsheet, or a web page. Then, information in short-term memory goes to long-term memory (you save it to your hard drive), or it is discarded (you delete a document or close a web browser). This step of <strong>rehearsal<\/strong>, the conscious repetition of information to be remembered, to move STM into long-term memory is called <strong>memory consolidation<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>You may find yourself asking, \u201cHow much information can our memory handle at once?\u201d To explore the capacity and duration of your short-term memory, have a partner read the strings of random numbers (Figure 3) out loud to you, beginning each string by saying, \u201cReady?\u201d and ending each by saying, \u201cRecall,\u201d at which point you should try to write down the string of numbers from memory.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 497px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224851\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Numbers.jpg\" alt=\"A series of numbers includes two rows, with six numbers in each row. From left to right, the numbers increase from four digits to five, six, seven, eight, and nine digits. The first row includes \u201c9754,\u201d \u201c68259,\u201d \u201c913825,\u201d \u201c5316842,\u201d \u201c86951372,\u201d and \u201c719384273,\u201d and the second row includes \u201c6419,\u201d \u201c67148,\u201d \u201c648327,\u201d \u201c5963827,\u201d \u201c51739826,\u201d and \u201c163875942.\u201d\" width=\"487\" height=\"67\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3. Work through this series of numbers using the recall exercise explained above to determine the longest string of digits that you can store.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>Note the longest string at which you got the series correct. For most people, this will be close to 7, Miller\u2019s famous 7 plus or minus 2. Recall is somewhat better for random numbers than for random letters (Jacobs, 1887), and also often slightly better for information we hear (acoustic encoding) rather than see (visual encoding) (Anderson, 1969).<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Long-term Memory<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Long-term memory (LTM)<\/strong> is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, the storage capacity of LTM has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days, weeks, and years ago. In keeping with the computer analogy, the information in your LTM would be like the information you have saved on the hard drive. It isn\u2019t there on your desktop (your short-term memory), but you can pull up this information when you want it, at least most of the time. Not all long-term memories are strong memories. Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. For example, you might easily recall a fact\u2014 \u201cWhat is the capital of the United States?\u201d\u2014or a procedure\u2014\u201cHow do you ride a bike?\u201d\u2014but you might struggle to recall the name of the restaurant you had dinner when you were on vacation in France last summer. A prompt, such as that the restaurant was named after its owner, who spoke to you about your shared interest in soccer, may help you recall the name of the restaurant.<\/p>\n<p>Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit (Figure 4). Understanding the different types is important because a person\u2019s age or particular types of brain trauma or disorders can leave certain types of LTM intact while having disastrous consequences for other types. <strong>Explicit memories<\/strong> are those we consciously try to remember and recall. For example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam, the material you are learning will be part of your explicit memory. (Note: Sometimes, but not always, the terms explicit memory and declarative memory are used interchangeably.)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Implicit memories<\/strong> are memories that are not part of our consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviors. Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4376\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4376&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4376\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 590px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224852\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Explicit.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram consists of three rows of boxes. The box in the top row is labeled \u201clong-term memory\u201d; a line from the box separates into two lines leading to two boxes on the second row, labeled \u201cexplicit (declarative)\u201d and \u201cimplicit (non-declarative).\u201d From each of the second row boxes, lines split and lead to two additional boxes. From the \u201cexplicit\u201d box are two boxes labeled \u201cepisodic (experienced events)\u201d and \u201csemantic (knowledge and concepts).\u201d From the \u201cimplicit\u201d box are two boxes labeled \u201cprocedural (skills and actions)\u201d and \u201cemotional conditioning.\u201d\" width=\"580\" height=\"440\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4. There are two components of long-term memory: explicit and implicit. Explicit memory includes episodic and semantic memory. Implicit memory includes procedural memory and things learned through conditioning.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p><strong>Procedural memory<\/strong> is a type of implicit memory: it stores information about how to do things. It is the memory for skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, how to swim the crawl (freestyle) stroke. If you are learning how to swim freestyle, you practice the stroke: how to move your arms, how to turn your head to alternate breathing from side to side, and how to kick your legs. You would practice this many times until you become good at it. Once you learn how to swim freestyle and your body knows how to move through the water, you will never forget how to swim freestyle, even if you do not swim for a couple of decades. Similarly, if you present an accomplished guitarist with a guitar, even if he has not played in a long time, he will still be able to play quite well.<\/p>\n<p>Explicit\u00a0memory has to do with the storage of facts and events we personally experienced. Explicit (declarative) memory has two parts: semantic memory and episodic memory. Semantic means having to do with language and knowledge about language. An example would be the question \u201cwhat does <em data-effect=\"italics\">argumentative<\/em> mean?\u201d Stored in our semantic memory is knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts. For example, answers to the following questions are stored in your semantic memory:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Who was the first President of the United States?<\/li>\n<li>What is democracy?<\/li>\n<li>What is the longest river in the world?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Episodic memory<\/strong> is information about events we have personally experienced. The concept of episodic memory was first proposed about 40 years ago (Tulving, 1972). Since then, Tulving and others have looked at scientific evidence and reformulated the theory. Currently, scientists believe that episodic memory is memory about happenings in particular places at particular times, the what, where, and when of an event (Tulving, 2002). It involves recollection of visual imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity (Hassabis &amp; Maguire, 2007).<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Everyday Connection\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Everyday Connection: Can You Remember Everything You Ever Did or Said?<\/h3>\n<p>Episodic memories are also called autobiographical memories. Let\u2019s quickly test your autobiographical memory. What were you wearing exactly five years ago today? What did you eat for lunch on April 10, 2009? You probably find it difficult, if not impossible, to answer these questions. Can you remember every event you have experienced over the course of your life\u2014meals, conversations, clothing choices, weather conditions, and so on? Most likely none of us could even come close to answering these questions; however, American actress Marilu Henner, best known for the television show <em data-effect=\"italics\">Taxi,<\/em> can remember. She has an amazing and highly superior autobiographical memory (Figure 7).<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 335px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224854\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Marilu.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows Marilu Henner.\" width=\"325\" height=\"244\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 7. Marilu Henner\u2019s super autobiographical memory is known as hyperthymesia. (credit: Mark Richardson)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>Very few people can recall events in this way; right now, only 12 known individuals have this ability, and only a few have been studied (Parker, Cahill &amp; McGaugh 2006). And although hyperthymesia normally appears in adolescence, two children in the United States appear to have memories from well before their tenth birthdays.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Watch these <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=oHeEQ85m79I\" target=\"_blank\">Part 1<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=en23bCvp-Fw\" target=\"_blank\">Part 2<\/a> video clips on superior autobiographical memory from the television news show <em data-effect=\"italics\">60 Minutes<\/em>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4372\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4372&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4372\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4373\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4373&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4373\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4374\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4374&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4374\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4375\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4375&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4375\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\">\n<ul>\n<li>Describe something you have learned that is now in your procedural memory. Discuss how you learned this information.<\/li>\n<li>Describe something you learned in high school that is now in your semantic memory.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>Atkinson-Shiffrin model (A-S):\u00a0<\/strong>memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>automatic processing:\u00a0<\/strong>encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>declarative memory:\u00a0<\/strong>type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>effortful processing:\u00a0<\/strong>encoding of information that takes effort and attention<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>episodic memory:\u00a0<\/strong>type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>explicit memory:\u00a0<\/strong>memories we consciously try to remember and recall<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>implicit memory:\u00a0<\/strong>memories that are not part of our consciousness<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>memory:\u00a0<\/strong>system or process that stores what we learn for future use<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>memory consolidation:\u00a0<\/strong>active rehearsal to move information from short-term memory into long-term memory<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>procedural memory:\u00a0<\/strong>type of long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>retrieval:\u00a0<\/strong>act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>self-reference effect:\u00a0<\/strong>tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>semantic encoding:\u00a0<\/strong>input of words and their meaning<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>semantic memory:\u00a0<\/strong>type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>sensory memory:\u00a0<\/strong>storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>short-term memory (STM):\u00a0<\/strong>(also, working memory) holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>storage:\u00a0<\/strong>creation of a permanent record of information<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-2257\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>How Memory Functions. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:-RwqQWzt@6\/How-Memory-Functions\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:-RwqQWzt@6\/How-Memory-Functions<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.48<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"How Memory Functions\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:-RwqQWzt@6\/How-Memory-Functions\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.48\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"50862132-d891-4ee6-b835-27aecf8d3678, 56621a83-8ebd-478d-b002-9bc458619f6a, 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