{"id":2509,"date":"2016-11-08T21:43:29","date_gmt":"2016-11-08T21:43:29","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/?post_type=chapter&p=2509"},"modified":"2017-05-24T14:35:56","modified_gmt":"2017-05-24T14:35:56","slug":"introduction-motivation","status":"web-only","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/chapter\/introduction-motivation\/","title":{"raw":"Motivation","rendered":"Motivation"},"content":{"raw":"

What you'll learn to do: explain motivation, how it is influenced, and major theories about motivation<\/h2>\r\n\"Photo<\/a>\r\n\r\nMotivation to engage in a given behavior can come from internal and\/or external factors. There are multiple theories have been put forward regarding motivation\u2014biologically oriented theories that say the need to maintain bodily homeostasis motivates behavior, Bandura's idea\u00a0that our sense of self-efficacy motivates behavior, and others focusing on social aspects of motivation. In this section, you'll learn about these theories as well as the well-known work of Abraham Maslow\u2019s and his hierarchy of needs.\r\n
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Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n
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  • Illustrate\u00a0intrinsic and extrinsic motivation<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Describe basic theories of motivation, including concepts such as instincts, drive reduction, and self-efficacy<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Explain the basic concepts associated with Maslow\u2019s hierarchy of needs<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
    \r\n\r\nWhy do we do the things we do? What motivations underlie our behaviors? Motivation<\/strong> describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal. In addition to biological motives, motivations can be intrinsic<\/strong> (arising from internal factors) or extrinsic<\/strong> (arising from external factors) (Figure 1). Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring, while extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
    \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"425\"]\"An Figure 1. Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual, while extrinsic motivation comes from outside the individual.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nThink about why you are currently in college. Are you here because you enjoy learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more well-rounded individual? If so, then you are intrinsically motivated. However, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents, then your motivation is more extrinsic in nature.\r\n
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    Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4626\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nIn reality, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, but the nature of the mix of these factors might change over time (often in ways that seem counter-intuitive). There is an old adage: \u201cChoose a job that you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life,\u201d meaning that if you enjoy your occupation, work doesn\u2019t seem like . . . well, work. Some research suggests that this isn\u2019t necessarily the case (Daniel & Esser, 1980; Deci, 1972; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). According to this research, receiving some sort of extrinsic reinforcement (i.e., getting paid) for engaging in behaviors that we enjoy leads to those behaviors being thought of as work no longer providing that same enjoyment. As a result, we might spend less time engaging in these reclassified behaviors in the absence of any extrinsic reinforcement. For example, Odessa loves baking, so in her free time, she bakes for fun. Oftentimes, after stocking shelves at her grocery store job, she often whips up pastries in the evenings because she enjoys baking. When a coworker in the store\u2019s bakery department leaves his job, Odessa applies for his position and gets transferred to the bakery department. Although she enjoys what she does in her new job, after a few months, she no longer has much desire to concoct tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in a way that changes her motivation to do it (Figure 2). What Odessa has experienced is called the overjustification effect\u2014intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead to extinguishing the intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance (Deci et al., 1999).\r\n
    \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"325\"]\"A Figure 2. Research suggests that when something we love to do, like icing cakes, becomes our job, our intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to do it may change. (credit: Agust\u00edn Ruiz)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nOther studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so vulnerable to the effects of extrinsic reinforcements, and in fact, reinforcements such as verbal praise might actually increase intrinsic motivation (Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994). In that case, Odessa\u2019s motivation to bake in her free time might remain high if, for example, customers regularly compliment her baking or cake decorating skills.\r\n\r\nThese apparent discrepancies in the researchers\u2019 findings may be understood by considering several factors. For one, physical reinforcement (such as money) and verbal reinforcement (such as praise) may affect an individual in very different ways. In fact, tangible rewards (i.e., money) tend to have more negative effects on intrinsic motivation than do intangible rewards (i.e., praise). Furthermore, the expectation of the extrinsic motivator by an individual is crucial: If the person expects to receive an extrinsic reward, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to be reduced. If, however, there is no such expectation, and the extrinsic motivation is presented as a surprise, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to persist (Deci et al., 1999).\r\n\r\nIn educational settings, students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the classroom. This internalization can be enhanced if the evaluative aspects of the classroom are de-emphasized and if students feel that they exercise some control over the learning environment. Furthermore, providing students with activities that are challenging, yet doable, along with a rationale for engaging in various learning activities can enhance intrinsic motivation for those tasks (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). Consider Hakim, a first-year law student with two courses this semester: Family Law and Criminal Law. The Family Law professor has a rather intimidating classroom: He likes to put students on the spot with tough questions, which often leaves students feeling belittled or embarrassed. Grades are based exclusively on quizzes and exams, and the instructor posts results of each test on the classroom door. In contrast, the Criminal Law professor facilitates classroom discussions and respectful debates in small groups. The majority of the course grade is not exam-based, but centers on a student-designed research project on a crime issue of the student\u2019s choice. Research suggests that Hakim will be less intrinsically motivated in his Family Law course, where students are intimidated in the classroom setting, and there is an emphasis on teacher-driven evaluations. Hakim is likely to experience a higher level of intrinsic motivation in his Criminal Law course, where the class setting encourages inclusive collaboration and a respect for ideas, and where students have more influence over their learning activities.\r\n
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    Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4627\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4628\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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    Theories about Motivation<\/h1>\r\n
    William James (1842\u20131910) was an important contributor to early research into motivation, and he is often referred to as the father of psychology in the United States. James theorized that behavior was driven by a number of instincts, which aid survival (Figure 3). From a biological perspective, an instinct<\/strong> is a species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned. There was, however, considerable controversy among James and his contemporaries over the exact definition of instinct. James proposed several dozen special human instincts, but many of his contemporaries had their own lists that differed. A mother\u2019s protection of her baby, the urge to lick sugar, and hunting prey were among the human behaviors proposed as true instincts during James\u2019s era. This view\u2014that human behavior is driven by instincts\u2014received a fair amount of criticism because of the undeniable role of learning in shaping all sorts of human behavior. In fact, as early as the 1900s, some instinctive behaviors were experimentally demonstrated to result from associative learning (recall when you learned about Watson\u2019s conditioning of fear response in \u201cLittle Albert\u201d) (Faris, 1921).\r\n
    \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"446\"]\"Photograph Figure 3. (a) William James proposed the instinct theory of motivation, asserting that behavior is driven by instincts. (b) In humans, instincts may include behaviors such as an infant\u2019s rooting for a nipple and sucking. (credit b: modification of work by \"Mothering Touch\"\/Flickr)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nAnother early theory of motivation proposed that the maintenance of homeostasis is particularly important in directing behavior. You may recall from your earlier reading that homeostasis is the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. In a body system, a control center (which is often part of the brain) receives input from receptors (which are often complexes of neurons). The control center directs effectors (which may be other neurons) to correct any imbalance detected by the control center.\r\n\r\nAccording to the drive theory<\/strong> of motivation, deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs. These needs result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and, ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis. For example, if it\u2019s been a while since you ate, your blood sugar levels will drop below normal. This low blood sugar will induce a physiological need and a corresponding drive state (i.e., hunger) that will direct you to seek out and consume food (Figure 4). Eating will eliminate the hunger, and, ultimately, your blood sugar levels will return to normal. Interestingly, drive theory also emphasizes the role that habits play in the type of behavioral response in which we engage. A habit<\/strong> is a pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage. Once we have engaged in a behavior that successfully reduces a drive, we are more likely to engage in that behavior whenever faced with that drive in the future (Graham & Weiner, 1996).\r\n
    \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"703\"]\"Photograph Figure 4. Hunger and subsequent eating are the result of complex physiological processes that maintain homeostasis. (credit \"left\": modification of work by \"Gracie and Viv\"\/Flickr; credit \"center\": modification of work by Steven Depolo; credit \"right\": modification of work by Monica Renata)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nExtensions of drive theory take into account levels of arousal as potential motivators. Just as drive theory aims to return the body to homeostasis, arousal theory aims to find the optimal level of arousal.\u00a0If we are underaroused, we become bored and will seek out some sort of stimulation. On the other hand, if we are overaroused, we will engage in behaviors to reduce our arousal (Berlyne, 1960). Most students have experienced this need to maintain optimal levels of arousal over the course of their academic career. Think about how much stress students experience toward the end of spring semester. They feel overwhelmed with seemingly endless exams, papers, and major assignments that must be completed on time. They probably yearn for the rest and relaxation that awaits them over the extended summer break. However, once they finish the semester, it doesn\u2019t take too long before they begin to feel bored. Generally, by the time the next semester is beginning in the fall, many students are quite happy to return to school. This is an example of how arousal theory works.\r\n
    \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"527\"]\"A Figure 5. The concept of optimal arousal in relation to performance on a task is depicted here. Performance is maximized at the optimal level of arousal, and it tapers off during under- and overarousal.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nSo what is the optimal level of arousal? What level leads to the best performance? Research shows that moderate arousal is generally best; when arousal is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). Think of your arousal level regarding taking an exam for this class. If your level is very low, such as boredom and apathy, your performance will likely suffer. Similarly, a very high level, such as extreme anxiety, can be paralyzing and hinder performance. Consider the example of a softball team facing a tournament. They are favored to win their first game by a large margin, so they go into the game with a lower level of arousal and get beat by a less skilled team.\r\n\r\nBut optimal arousal level is more complex than a simple answer that the middle level is always best. Researchers Robert Yerkes (pronounced \u201cYerk-EES\u201d) and John Dodson discovered that the optimal arousal level depends on the complexity and difficulty of the task to be performed (Figure 6). This relationship is known as Yerkes-Dodson law<\/strong>, which holds that a simple task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower.\r\n
    \r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"615\"]\"A Figure 6. Task performance is best when arousal levels are in a middle range, with difficult tasks best performed under lower levels of arousal and simple tasks best performed under higher levels of arousal.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n
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    Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4630\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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    Self-efficacy and Social Motives<\/h2>\r\nSelf-efficacy<\/strong> is an individual\u2019s belief in her own capability to complete a task, which may include a previous successful completion of the exact task or a similar task. Albert Bandura (1994) theorized that an individual\u2019s sense of self-efficacy plays a pivotal role in motivating behavior. Bandura argues that motivation derives from expectations that we have about the consequences of our behaviors, and ultimately, it is the appreciation of our capacity to engage in a given behavior that will determine what we do and the future goals that we set for ourselves. For example, if you have a sincere belief in your ability to achieve at the highest level, you are more likely to take on challenging tasks and to not let setbacks dissuade you from seeing the task through to the end.\r\n\r\nA number of theorists have focused their research on understanding social motives (McAdams & Constantian, 1983; McClelland & Liberman, 1949; Murray et al., 1938). Among the motives they describe are needs for achievement, affiliation, and intimacy. It is the need for achievement that drives accomplishment and performance. The need for affiliation encourages positive interactions with others, and the need for intimacy causes us to seek deep, meaningful relationships. Henry Murray et al. (1938) categorized these needs into domains. For example, the need for achievement and recognition falls under the domain of ambition. Dominance and aggression were recognized as needs under the domain of human power, and play was a recognized need in the domain of interpersonal affection.\r\n
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    Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch this\u00a0video from Dan Pink's Ted talk on \"The surprising truth about what motivates us.\" Think about what things motivate you<\/em>, and how you\u00a0anticipate that\u00a0you might\u00a0respond to the types of incentives\u00a0explained in the talk.\r\n\r\n