{"id":3918,"date":"2017-03-11T16:31:41","date_gmt":"2017-03-11T16:31:41","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/waymaker-psychology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=3918"},"modified":"2017-05-23T12:43:05","modified_gmt":"2017-05-23T12:43:05","slug":"childhood-emotional-and-social-development","status":"web-only","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/chapter\/childhood-emotional-and-social-development\/","title":{"raw":"Childhood","rendered":"Childhood"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the physical development that occurs from infancy through childhood<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the cognitive\u00a0development that occurs from infancy through childhood<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the emotional development that occurs from infancy through childhood, including attachment, the development of a self-concept, and parenting styles<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Physical Development<\/h2>\r\nIn infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body\u2019s physical development is rapid (Figure 1). On average, newborns weigh between 5 and 10 pounds, and a newborn\u2019s weight typically doubles in six months and triples in one year. By 2 years old the weight will have quadrupled, so we can expect that a 2 year old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds. The average length of a newborn is 19.5 inches, increasing to 29.5 inches by 12 months and 34.4 inches by 2 years old (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, 2006).\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"975\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Growth.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A collage of four photographs depicting babies is shown. From left to right they get progressively older. The far left photograph is a bundled up sleeping newborn. To the right is a picture of a toddler next to a toy giraffe. To the right is a baby blowing out a single candle. To the far right is a child on a swing set.\" width=\"975\" height=\"244\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 1. Children experience rapid physical changes through infancy and early childhood. (credit \"left\": modification of work by Kerry Ceszyk; credit \"middle-left\": modification of work by Kristi Fausel; credit \"middle-right\": modification of work by \"devinf\"\/Flickr; credit \"right\": modification of work by Rose Spielman)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nDuring infancy and childhood, growth does not occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, &amp; Chaussain, 2004). Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time children gain 5\u20137 pounds and grow about 2\u20133 inches per year. Once girls reach 8\u20139 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle. By 10 years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and the average boy weighs 85 pounds.\r\n\r\nWe are born with all of the brain cells that we will ever have\u2014about 100\u2013200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose function is to store and transmit information (Huttenlocher &amp; Dabholkar, 1997). However, the nervous system continues to grow and develop. Each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period of rapid neural growth is called blooming. Neural pathways continue to develop through puberty. The blooming period of neural growth is then followed by a period of pruning, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning causes the brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Blooming occurs during the first few years of life, and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain.\r\n\r\nThe size of our brains increases rapidly. For example, the brain of a 2-year-old is 55% of its adult size, and by 6 years old the brain is about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). During early childhood (ages 3\u20136), the frontal lobes grow rapidly. Recalling our discussion of the 4 lobes of the brain earlier in this book, the frontal lobes are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control. Therefore, by the time children reach school age, they are developmentally capable of controlling their attention and behavior. Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size. The brain growth spurts experienced in childhood tend to follow Piaget\u2019s sequence of cognitive development, so that significant changes in neural functioning account for cognitive advances (Kolb &amp; Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, &amp; Peuster, 1992).\r\n\r\nMotor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and then walking.\r\n\r\n<strong>Motor skills<\/strong> refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects. <strong>Fine motor skills<\/strong> focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon). <strong>Gross motor skill<\/strong>s focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping).\r\n\r\nAs motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve (Table 1). For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old. In another example, babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old. If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is reason for concern, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child\u2019s pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.\r\n<table summary=\"A five column table describes developmental milestones from the ages of two through five. From left to right, the columns are labeled \u201cage (years), physical, personal\/social, language, and cognitive.\u201d The contents of the first row, respectively, are \u201c2; kicks a ball, walks up and down stairs; plays alongside other children, copies adults; points to objects when named, puts 2-4 words together in a sentence; and sorts shapes and colors, follows 2-step instructions.\u201d The second row contains \u201c3; climbs and runs, pedals tricycle; takes turns, expresses many emotions, dresses self; names familiar things, uses pronouns; and plays make believe, works toys with parts (levers, handles).\u201d The third row contains \u201c4; catches balls, uses scissors; prefers social play to solo play, knows likes and interests; knows songs and rhymes by memory; and names colors and numbers, begins writing letters.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c5; hops and swings, uses fork and spoon; distinguishes real from pretend, likes to please friends; speaks clearly, uses full sentences; and counts to 10 or higher, prints some letters and copies basic shapes.\u201d\"><caption>Table 1. Developmental Milestones, Ages 2\u20135 Years<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th>Physical<\/th>\r\n<th>Personal\/Social<\/th>\r\n<th>Language<\/th>\r\n<th>Cognitive<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs<\/td>\r\n<td>Plays alongside other children; copies adults<\/td>\r\n<td>Points to objects when named; puts 2\u20134 words together in a sentence<\/td>\r\n<td>Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle<\/td>\r\n<td>Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self<\/td>\r\n<td>Names familiar things; uses pronouns<\/td>\r\n<td>Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>Catches balls; uses scissors<\/td>\r\n<td>Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests<\/td>\r\n<td>Knows songs and rhymes by memory<\/td>\r\n<td>Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon<\/td>\r\n<td>Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends<\/td>\r\n<td>Speaks clearly; uses full sentences<\/td>\r\n<td>Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4495\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4496\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4498\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4497\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Cognitive Development<\/h2>\r\nIn addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant development of their cognitive abilities. Piaget thought that children\u2019s ability to understand objects\u2014such as learning that a rattle makes a noise when shaken\u2014was a cognitive skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment. Today, developmental psychologists think Piaget was incorrect. Researchers have found that even very young children understand objects and how they work long before they have experience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987; Baillargeon, Li, Gertner, &amp; Wu, 2011). For example, children as young as 3 months old demonstrated knowledge of the properties of objects that they had only viewed and did not have prior experience with them. In one study, 3-month-old infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was actually hollow, was placed next to the track. The truck rolled past the box as would be expected. Then the box was placed on the track to block the path of the truck. When the truck was rolled down the track this time, it continued unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more time looking at this impossible event (Figure 2). Baillargeon (1987) concluded that they knew solid objects cannot pass through each other. Baillargeon\u2019s findings suggest that very young children have an understanding of objects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"975\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_TruckBox.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"Image A shows a toy truck coasting along a track unobstructed. Image B shows a toy truck coasting along a track with a box in the background. Image C shows a truck coasting along a track and going through what appears to be an obstruction.\" width=\"975\" height=\"188\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 2. In Baillargeon\u2019s study, infants observed a truck (a) roll down an unobstructed track, (b) roll down an unobstructed track with an obstruction (box) beside it, and (c) roll down and pass through what appeared to be an obstruction.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nJust as there are physical milestones that we expect children to reach, there are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. For example, infants shake their head \u201cno\u201d around 6\u20139 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like \u201cwave bye-bye\u201d or \u201cblow a kiss\u201d around 9\u201312 months. Remember Piaget\u2019s ideas about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12\u201324 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.\r\n\r\nPreschool-age children (i.e., 3\u20135 years old) also make steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name colors, and tell you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to enjoy the use of humor in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask \u201cWhy?\u201d\r\n\r\nAn important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2\u20133 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others\u2019 points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM). Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n\r\nFalse-belief tasks are useful in determining a child\u2019s acquisition of theory-of-mind (TOM). Take a look at this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/crayons\">video clip<\/a> showing a false-belief task involving a box of crayons.\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/8hLubgpY2_w\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4499\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nCognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6\u201311 years old). Thought processes become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information (Figure 3). Children at this age understand concepts such as the past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals. Additionally, they can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships. However, children\u2019s attention spans tend to be very limited until they are around 11 years old. After that point, it begins to improve through adulthood.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"325\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Game.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph of children playing baseball is shown. Five children are in the picture, two on one team, and three on the other.\" width=\"325\" height=\"215\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 3. Because they understand luck and fairness, children in middle and late childhood (6\u201311 years old) are able to follow rules for games. (credit: Edwin Martinez)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nOne well-researched aspect of cognitive development is language acquisition. As mentioned earlier, the order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures (Hatch, 1983). You\u2019ve also learned that some psychological researchers have proposed that children possess a biological predisposition for language acquisition.\r\n\r\nStarting before birth, babies begin to develop language and communication skills. At birth, babies apparently recognize their mother\u2019s voice and can discriminate between the language(s) spoken by their mothers and foreign languages, and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom &amp; Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke &amp; Cortelyou, 1981).\r\n\r\nChildren communicate information through gesturing long before they speak, and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development (Iverson &amp; Goldin-Meadow, 2005). In terms of producing spoken language, babies begin to coo almost immediately. Cooing is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.g., coo or ba). Interestingly, babies replicate sounds from their own languages. A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or Urdu. After cooing, the baby starts to babble. Babbling begins with repeating a syllable, such as ma-ma, da-da, or ba-ba. When a baby is about 12 months old, we expect her to say her first word for meaning, and to start combining words for meaning at about 18 months.\r\n\r\nAt about 2 years old, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences. During the early childhood years, children's vocabulary increases at a rapid pace. This is sometimes referred to as the \u201cvocabulary spurt\u201d and has been claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of 10\u201320 new words per week. Recent research may indicate that while some children experience these spurts, it is far from universal (as discussed in Ganger &amp; Brent, 2004). It has been estimated that, 5 year olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and name the days of the week. Seven year olds speak fluently and use slang and clich\u00e9s (Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).\r\n\r\nWhat accounts for such dramatic language learning by children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn language in response to reinforcement or feedback, such as through parental approval or through being understood. For example, when a two-year-old child asks for juice, he might say, \u201cme juice,\u201d to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice. Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner\u2019s theory and proposed that we are all born with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky called this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment (Gleitman &amp; Newport, 1995; Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Everyday Connection\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Everyday Connection: The Importance of Play and Recess<\/h3>\r\nAccording to the American Academy of Pediatrics (2007), unstructured play is an integral part of a child\u2019s development. It builds creativity, problem solving skills, and social relationships. Play also allows children to develop a theory-of-mind as they imaginatively take on the perspective of others.\r\n\r\nOutdoor play allows children the opportunity to directly experience and sense the world around them. While doing so, they may collect objects that they come across and develop lifelong interests and hobbies. They also benefit from increased exercise, and engaging in outdoor play can actually increase how much they enjoy physical activity. This helps support the development of a healthy heart and brain. Unfortunately, research suggests that today\u2019s children are engaging in less and less outdoor play (Clements, 2004). Perhaps, it is no surprise to learn that lowered levels of physical activity in conjunction with easy access to calorie-dense foods with little nutritional value are contributing to alarming levels of childhood obesity (Karnik &amp; Kanekar, 2012).\r\n\r\nDespite the adverse consequences associated with reduced play, some children are over scheduled and have little free time to engage in unstructured play. In addition, some schools have taken away recess time for children in a push for students to do better on standardized tests, and many schools commonly use loss of recess as a form of punishment. Do you agree with these practices? Why or why not?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"2\"><\/section><section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Attachment<\/h2>\r\nPsychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their feelings. In social and emotional development, forming healthy attachments is very important and is the major social milestone of infancy. <strong>Attachment<\/strong> is a long-standing connection or bond with others. Developmental psychologists are interested in how infants reach this milestone. They ask such questions as: How do parent and infant attachment bonds form? How does neglect affect these bonds? What accounts for children\u2019s attachment differences?\r\n\r\nResearchers Harry Harlow, John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth conducted studies designed to answer these questions. In the 1950s, Harlow conducted a series of experiments on monkeys. He separated newborn monkeys from their mothers. Each monkey was presented with two surrogate mothers. One surrogate monkey was made out of wire mesh, and she could dispense milk. The other monkey was softer and made from cloth: This monkey did not dispense milk. Research shows that the monkeys preferred the soft, cuddly cloth monkey, even though she did not provide any nourishment. The baby monkeys spent their time clinging to the cloth monkey and only went to the wire monkey when they needed to be feed. Prior to this study, the medical and scientific communities generally thought that babies become attached to the people who provide their nourishment. However, Harlow (1958) concluded that there was more to the mother-child bond than nourishment. Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development.\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nHarlow\u2019s studies of monkeys were performed before modern ethics guidelines were in place, and today his experiments are widely considered to be unethical and even cruel. Watch this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">video<\/a> to see actual footage of Harlow\u2019s monkey studies.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nBuilding on the work of Harlow and others, John Bowlby developed the concept of attachment theory. He defined attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother (Bowlby, 1969). An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life. He used the concept of secure base to define a healthy attachment between parent and child (1988). A <strong>secure base<\/strong> is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings. Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment: The caregiver must be responsive to the child\u2019s physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969) (Figure 4).\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"325\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_BabySmile.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A person is shown holding an infant.\" width=\"325\" height=\"244\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 4. Mutually enjoyable interactions promote the mother-infant bond. (credit: Peter Shanks)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nWhile Bowlby thought attachment was an all-or-nothing process, Mary Ainsworth\u2019s (1970) research showed otherwise. Ainsworth wanted to know if children differ in the ways they bond, and if so, why. To find the answers, she used the Strange Situation procedure to study attachment between mothers and their infants (1970). In the Strange Situation, the mother (or primary caregiver) and the infant (age 12-18 months) are placed in a room together. There are toys in the room, and the caregiver and child spend some time alone in the room. After the child has had time to explore her surroundings, a stranger enters the room. The mother then leaves her baby with the stranger. After a few minutes, she returns to comfort her child.\r\n\r\nBased on how the infants\/toddlers responded to the separation and reunion, Ainsworth identified three types of parent-child attachments: secure, avoidant, and resistant (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970). A fourth style, known as disorganized attachment, was later described (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990). The most common type of attachment\u2014also considered the healthiest\u2014is called <strong>secure attachment<\/strong> (Figure 5). In this type of attachment, the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress. Securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room in the Strange Situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to see them. Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs.\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"488\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Secure.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person squatting down next to a small child who is standing up.\" width=\"488\" height=\"365\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Figure 5. In secure attachment, the parent provides a secure base for the toddler, allowing him to securely explore his environment. (credit: Kerry Ceszyk)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\nWith <strong>avoidant attachment (sometimes called insecure or anxious-avoidant)<\/strong>, the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, &amp; Wall, 1978).\r\n\r\nIn cases of <strong>resistant attachment (also called ambivalent or anxious-ambivalent\/resistant)<\/strong>, children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure\u2019s attempts to interact with them (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970). These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is the result of the caregivers\u2019 inconsistent level of response to their child.\r\n\r\nFinally, children with <strong>disorganized attachment<\/strong> behaved oddly in the Strange Situation. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990). This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused. Research has shown that abuse disrupts a child\u2019s ability to regulate their emotions.\r\n\r\nWhile Ainsworth\u2019s research has found support in subsequent studies, it has also met criticism. Some researchers have pointed out that a child\u2019s temperament may have a strong influence on attachment (Gervai, 2009; Harris, 2009), and others have noted that attachment varies from culture to culture, a factor not accounted for in Ainsworth\u2019s research (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, &amp; Morelli, 2000; van Ijzendoorn &amp; Sagi-Schwartz, 2008).\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/strangesitu\">video<\/a> to view a clip of the Strange Situation. Try to identify which type of attachment baby Lisa exhibits.\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/QTsewNrHUHU\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4503\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4504\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4505\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4506\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4501\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4502\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Self-Concept<\/h2>\r\nJust as attachment is the main psychosocial milestone of infancy, the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self. How does self-awareness develop? Infants don\u2019t have a self-concept, which is an understanding of who they are. If you place a baby in front of a mirror, she will reach out to touch her image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror is herself. How do we know this? In a well-known experiment, a researcher placed a red dot of paint on children\u2019s noses before putting them in front of a mirror (Amsterdam, 1972). Commonly known as the mirror test, this behavior is demonstrated by humans and a few other species and is considered evidence of self-recognition (Archer, 1992). At 18 months old they would touch their own noses when they saw the paint, surprised to see a spot on their faces. By 24\u201336 months old children can name and\/or point to themselves in pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition.\r\n\r\nChildren from 2\u20134 years old display a great increase in social behavior once they have established a self-concept. They enjoy playing with other children, but they have difficulty sharing their possessions. Also, through play children explore and come to understand their gender roles and can label themselves as a girl or boy (Chick, Heilman-Houser, &amp; Hunter, 2002). By 4 years old, children can cooperate with other children, share when asked, and separate from parents with little anxiety. Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans. Success in these areas contributes to a positive sense of self. Once children reach 6 years old, they can identify themselves in terms of group memberships: \u201cI\u2019m a first grader!\u201d School-age children compare themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent in some areas and less so in others (recall Erikson\u2019s task of industry versus inferiority). At this age, children recognize their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have. For example, 10-year-old Layla says, \u201cI\u2019m kind of shy. I wish I could be more talkative like my friend Alexa.\u201d\r\n\r\nDevelopment of a positive self-concept is important to healthy development. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, do better in school, act more independently, and are more willing to try new activities (Maccoby, 1980; Ferrer &amp; Fugate, 2003). Formation of a positive self-concept begins in Erikson\u2019s toddlerhood stage, when children establish autonomy and become confident in their abilities. Development of self-concept continues in elementary school, when children compare themselves to others. When the comparison is favorable, children feel a sense of competence and are motivated to work harder and accomplish more. Self-concept is re-evaluated in Erikson\u2019s adolescence stage, as teens form an identity. They internalize the messages they have received regarding their strengths and weaknesses, keeping some messages and rejecting others. Adolescents who have achieved identity formation are capable of contributing positively to society (Erikson, 1968).\r\n\r\nWhat can parents do to nurture a healthy self-concept? Diana Baumrind (1971, 1991) thinks parenting style may be a factor. The way we parent is an important factor in a child\u2019s socioemotional growth. Baumrind developed and refined a theory describing four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. With the <strong>authoritative<\/strong> <strong>style<\/strong>, the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child\u2019s point of view. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases\u2014for example, temporarily relaxing bedtime rules to allow for a nighttime swim during a family vacation. Of the four parenting styles, the authoritative style is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society. American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. However, effective parenting styles vary as a function of culture and, as Small (1999) points out, the authoritative style is not necessarily preferred or appropriate in all cultures.\r\n\r\nIn <strong>authoritarian style<\/strong>, the parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. In contrast to the authoritative style, authoritarian parents probably would not relax bedtime rules during a vacation because they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. However, it is important to point out that authoritarian parenting is as beneficial as the authoritative style in some ethnic groups (Russell, Crockett, &amp; Chao, 2010). For instance, first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian parents did just as well in school as their peers who were raised by authoritative parents (Russell et al., 2010).\r\n\r\nFor parents who employ the <strong>permissive style<\/strong> of parenting, the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent. In terms of our example of vacation bedtimes, permissive parents might not have bedtime rules at all\u2014instead they allow the child to choose his bedtime whether on vacation or not. Not surprisingly, children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, &amp; Fraleigh, 1987). The permissive style may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse (Bahr &amp; Hoffman, 2010), risky sexual behavior especially among female children (Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson, &amp; Bryant, 2002), and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children (Parent et al., 2011). However, there are some positive outcomes associated with children raised by permissive parents. They tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression (Darling, 1999).\r\n\r\nWith the <strong>uninvolved style<\/strong> of parenting, the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don\u2019t respond to the child\u2019s needs and make relatively few demands. This could be because of severe depression or substance abuse, or other factors such as the parents\u2019 extreme focus on work. These parents may provide for the child\u2019s basic needs, but little else. The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse (Darling, 1999).\r\n\r\nAs you can see, parenting styles influence childhood adjustment, but could a child\u2019s temperament likewise influence parenting? <strong>Temperament<\/strong> refers to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment. Children with easy temperaments demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions. Conversely, children with difficult temperaments demonstrate negative emotions and have difficulty adapting to change and regulating their emotions. Difficult children are much more likely to challenge parents, teachers, and other caregivers (Thomas, 1984). Therefore, it\u2019s possible that easy children (i.e., social, adaptable, and easy to soothe) tend to elicit warm and responsive parenting, while demanding, irritable, withdrawn children evoke irritation in their parents or cause their parents to withdraw (Sanson &amp; Rothbart, 1995).\r\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\r\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\r\nWatch this optional lecture on child development from MIT's John Gabrieli for an interesting overview of key physical, social, and emotional developmental\u00a0stages of\u00a0childhood.\r\n\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/yBYebcVw8Zk?list=PL44ABC9278E2EE706\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\r\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4500\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4507\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4508\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\r\nWhich parenting style describes how you were raised? Provide an example or two to support your answer.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>long-standing connection or bond with others<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>authoritarian parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>authoritative parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child\u2019s point of view<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>avoidant attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by child\u2019s unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>cognitive empathy:\u00a0<\/strong>ability to take the perspective of others and to feel concern for others<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>disorganized attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child\u2019s odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>fine motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>use of muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes to coordinate small actions<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>gross motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>use of large muscle groups to control arms and legs for large body movements<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>ability to move our body and manipulate objects<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>permissive parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents make few demands and rarely use punishment<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>resistant attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child\u2019s tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when she attempts to interact with the child<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>secure attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>secure base:\u00a0<\/strong>parental presence that gives the infant\/toddler a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>temperament:\u00a0<\/strong>innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>uninvolved parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don\u2019t respond to the child\u2019s needs and make relatively few demands<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/4846","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the physical development that occurs from infancy through childhood<\/li>\n<li>Explain the cognitive\u00a0development that occurs from infancy through childhood<\/li>\n<li>Explain the emotional development that occurs from infancy through childhood, including attachment, the development of a self-concept, and parenting styles<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Physical Development<\/h2>\n<p>In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body\u2019s physical development is rapid (Figure 1). On average, newborns weigh between 5 and 10 pounds, and a newborn\u2019s weight typically doubles in six months and triples in one year. By 2 years old the weight will have quadrupled, so we can expect that a 2 year old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds. The average length of a newborn is 19.5 inches, increasing to 29.5 inches by 12 months and 34.4 inches by 2 years old (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, 2006).<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 985px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Growth.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A collage of four photographs depicting babies is shown. From left to right they get progressively older. The far left photograph is a bundled up sleeping newborn. To the right is a picture of a toddler next to a toy giraffe. To the right is a baby blowing out a single candle. To the far right is a child on a swing set.\" width=\"975\" height=\"244\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Children experience rapid physical changes through infancy and early childhood. (credit &#8220;left&#8221;: modification of work by Kerry Ceszyk; credit &#8220;middle-left&#8221;: modification of work by Kristi Fausel; credit &#8220;middle-right&#8221;: modification of work by &#8220;devinf&#8221;\/Flickr; credit &#8220;right&#8221;: modification of work by Rose Spielman)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>During infancy and childhood, growth does not occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, &amp; Chaussain, 2004). Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time children gain 5\u20137 pounds and grow about 2\u20133 inches per year. Once girls reach 8\u20139 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle. By 10 years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and the average boy weighs 85 pounds.<\/p>\n<p>We are born with all of the brain cells that we will ever have\u2014about 100\u2013200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose function is to store and transmit information (Huttenlocher &amp; Dabholkar, 1997). However, the nervous system continues to grow and develop. Each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period of rapid neural growth is called blooming. Neural pathways continue to develop through puberty. The blooming period of neural growth is then followed by a period of pruning, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning causes the brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Blooming occurs during the first few years of life, and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain.<\/p>\n<p>The size of our brains increases rapidly. For example, the brain of a 2-year-old is 55% of its adult size, and by 6 years old the brain is about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). During early childhood (ages 3\u20136), the frontal lobes grow rapidly. Recalling our discussion of the 4 lobes of the brain earlier in this book, the frontal lobes are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control. Therefore, by the time children reach school age, they are developmentally capable of controlling their attention and behavior. Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size. The brain growth spurts experienced in childhood tend to follow Piaget\u2019s sequence of cognitive development, so that significant changes in neural functioning account for cognitive advances (Kolb &amp; Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, &amp; Peuster, 1992).<\/p>\n<p>Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and then walking.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Motor skills<\/strong> refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects. <strong>Fine motor skills<\/strong> focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon). <strong>Gross motor skill<\/strong>s focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping).<\/p>\n<p>As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children should achieve (Table 1). For each milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old. In another example, babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old. If a baby is not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. If the child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is reason for concern, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the child\u2019s pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.<\/p>\n<table summary=\"A five column table describes developmental milestones from the ages of two through five. From left to right, the columns are labeled \u201cage (years), physical, personal\/social, language, and cognitive.\u201d The contents of the first row, respectively, are \u201c2; kicks a ball, walks up and down stairs; plays alongside other children, copies adults; points to objects when named, puts 2-4 words together in a sentence; and sorts shapes and colors, follows 2-step instructions.\u201d The second row contains \u201c3; climbs and runs, pedals tricycle; takes turns, expresses many emotions, dresses self; names familiar things, uses pronouns; and plays make believe, works toys with parts (levers, handles).\u201d The third row contains \u201c4; catches balls, uses scissors; prefers social play to solo play, knows likes and interests; knows songs and rhymes by memory; and names colors and numbers, begins writing letters.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c5; hops and swings, uses fork and spoon; distinguishes real from pretend, likes to please friends; speaks clearly, uses full sentences; and counts to 10 or higher, prints some letters and copies basic shapes.\u201d\">\n<caption>Table 1. Developmental Milestones, Ages 2\u20135 Years<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\n<th>Physical<\/th>\n<th>Personal\/Social<\/th>\n<th>Language<\/th>\n<th>Cognitive<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs<\/td>\n<td>Plays alongside other children; copies adults<\/td>\n<td>Points to objects when named; puts 2\u20134 words together in a sentence<\/td>\n<td>Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle<\/td>\n<td>Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self<\/td>\n<td>Names familiar things; uses pronouns<\/td>\n<td>Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>Catches balls; uses scissors<\/td>\n<td>Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests<\/td>\n<td>Knows songs and rhymes by memory<\/td>\n<td>Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon<\/td>\n<td>Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends<\/td>\n<td>Speaks clearly; uses full sentences<\/td>\n<td>Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4495\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4495&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4495\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4496\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4496&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4496\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4498\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4498&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4498\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4497\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4497&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4497\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Cognitive Development<\/h2>\n<p>In addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant development of their cognitive abilities. Piaget thought that children\u2019s ability to understand objects\u2014such as learning that a rattle makes a noise when shaken\u2014was a cognitive skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment. Today, developmental psychologists think Piaget was incorrect. Researchers have found that even very young children understand objects and how they work long before they have experience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987; Baillargeon, Li, Gertner, &amp; Wu, 2011). For example, children as young as 3 months old demonstrated knowledge of the properties of objects that they had only viewed and did not have prior experience with them. In one study, 3-month-old infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was actually hollow, was placed next to the track. The truck rolled past the box as would be expected. Then the box was placed on the track to block the path of the truck. When the truck was rolled down the track this time, it continued unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more time looking at this impossible event (Figure 2). Baillargeon (1987) concluded that they knew solid objects cannot pass through each other. Baillargeon\u2019s findings suggest that very young children have an understanding of objects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 985px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_TruckBox.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"Image A shows a toy truck coasting along a track unobstructed. Image B shows a toy truck coasting along a track with a box in the background. Image C shows a truck coasting along a track and going through what appears to be an obstruction.\" width=\"975\" height=\"188\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 2. In Baillargeon\u2019s study, infants observed a truck (a) roll down an unobstructed track, (b) roll down an unobstructed track with an obstruction (box) beside it, and (c) roll down and pass through what appeared to be an obstruction.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>Just as there are physical milestones that we expect children to reach, there are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and communicate. For example, infants shake their head \u201cno\u201d around 6\u20139 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like \u201cwave bye-bye\u201d or \u201cblow a kiss\u201d around 9\u201312 months. Remember Piaget\u2019s ideas about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12\u201324 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.<\/p>\n<p>Preschool-age children (i.e., 3\u20135 years old) also make steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name colors, and tell you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to enjoy the use of humor in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask \u201cWhy?\u201d<\/p>\n<p>An important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2\u20133 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others\u2019 points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM). Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<p>False-belief tasks are useful in determining a child\u2019s acquisition of theory-of-mind (TOM). Take a look at this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/crayons\">video clip<\/a> showing a false-belief task involving a box of crayons.<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/8hLubgpY2_w\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4499\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4499&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4499\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6\u201311 years old). Thought processes become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information (Figure 3). Children at this age understand concepts such as the past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals. Additionally, they can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships. However, children\u2019s attention spans tend to be very limited until they are around 11 years old. After that point, it begins to improve through adulthood.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 335px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Game.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph of children playing baseball is shown. Five children are in the picture, two on one team, and three on the other.\" width=\"325\" height=\"215\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 3. Because they understand luck and fairness, children in middle and late childhood (6\u201311 years old) are able to follow rules for games. (credit: Edwin Martinez)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>One well-researched aspect of cognitive development is language acquisition. As mentioned earlier, the order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures (Hatch, 1983). You\u2019ve also learned that some psychological researchers have proposed that children possess a biological predisposition for language acquisition.<\/p>\n<p>Starting before birth, babies begin to develop language and communication skills. At birth, babies apparently recognize their mother\u2019s voice and can discriminate between the language(s) spoken by their mothers and foreign languages, and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom &amp; Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke &amp; Cortelyou, 1981).<\/p>\n<p>Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak, and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development (Iverson &amp; Goldin-Meadow, 2005). In terms of producing spoken language, babies begin to coo almost immediately. Cooing is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.g., coo or ba). Interestingly, babies replicate sounds from their own languages. A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or Urdu. After cooing, the baby starts to babble. Babbling begins with repeating a syllable, such as ma-ma, da-da, or ba-ba. When a baby is about 12 months old, we expect her to say her first word for meaning, and to start combining words for meaning at about 18 months.<\/p>\n<p>At about 2 years old, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences. During the early childhood years, children&#8217;s vocabulary increases at a rapid pace. This is sometimes referred to as the \u201cvocabulary spurt\u201d and has been claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of 10\u201320 new words per week. Recent research may indicate that while some children experience these spurts, it is far from universal (as discussed in Ganger &amp; Brent, 2004). It has been estimated that, 5 year olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and name the days of the week. Seven year olds speak fluently and use slang and clich\u00e9s (Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).<\/p>\n<p>What accounts for such dramatic language learning by children? Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn language in response to reinforcement or feedback, such as through parental approval or through being understood. For example, when a two-year-old child asks for juice, he might say, \u201cme juice,\u201d to which his mother might respond by giving him a cup of apple juice. Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner\u2019s theory and proposed that we are all born with an innate capacity to learn language. Chomsky called this mechanism a language acquisition device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right. Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment (Gleitman &amp; Newport, 1995; Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Everyday Connection\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Everyday Connection: The Importance of Play and Recess<\/h3>\n<p>According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (2007), unstructured play is an integral part of a child\u2019s development. It builds creativity, problem solving skills, and social relationships. Play also allows children to develop a theory-of-mind as they imaginatively take on the perspective of others.<\/p>\n<p>Outdoor play allows children the opportunity to directly experience and sense the world around them. While doing so, they may collect objects that they come across and develop lifelong interests and hobbies. They also benefit from increased exercise, and engaging in outdoor play can actually increase how much they enjoy physical activity. This helps support the development of a healthy heart and brain. Unfortunately, research suggests that today\u2019s children are engaging in less and less outdoor play (Clements, 2004). Perhaps, it is no surprise to learn that lowered levels of physical activity in conjunction with easy access to calorie-dense foods with little nutritional value are contributing to alarming levels of childhood obesity (Karnik &amp; Kanekar, 2012).<\/p>\n<p>Despite the adverse consequences associated with reduced play, some children are over scheduled and have little free time to engage in unstructured play. In addition, some schools have taken away recess time for children in a push for students to do better on standardized tests, and many schools commonly use loss of recess as a form of punishment. Do you agree with these practices? Why or why not?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"2\"><\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Attachment<\/h2>\n<p>Psychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their feelings. In social and emotional development, forming healthy attachments is very important and is the major social milestone of infancy. <strong>Attachment<\/strong> is a long-standing connection or bond with others. Developmental psychologists are interested in how infants reach this milestone. They ask such questions as: How do parent and infant attachment bonds form? How does neglect affect these bonds? What accounts for children\u2019s attachment differences?<\/p>\n<p>Researchers Harry Harlow, John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth conducted studies designed to answer these questions. In the 1950s, Harlow conducted a series of experiments on monkeys. He separated newborn monkeys from their mothers. Each monkey was presented with two surrogate mothers. One surrogate monkey was made out of wire mesh, and she could dispense milk. The other monkey was softer and made from cloth: This monkey did not dispense milk. Research shows that the monkeys preferred the soft, cuddly cloth monkey, even though she did not provide any nourishment. The baby monkeys spent their time clinging to the cloth monkey and only went to the wire monkey when they needed to be feed. Prior to this study, the medical and scientific communities generally thought that babies become attached to the people who provide their nourishment. However, Harlow (1958) concluded that there was more to the mother-child bond than nourishment. Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Harlow\u2019s studies of monkeys were performed before modern ethics guidelines were in place, and today his experiments are widely considered to be unethical and even cruel. Watch this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=OrNBEhzjg8I\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">video<\/a> to see actual footage of Harlow\u2019s monkey studies.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Building on the work of Harlow and others, John Bowlby developed the concept of attachment theory. He defined attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother (Bowlby, 1969). An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life. He used the concept of secure base to define a healthy attachment between parent and child (1988). A <strong>secure base<\/strong> is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings. Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment: The caregiver must be responsive to the child\u2019s physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969) (Figure 4).<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 335px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_BabySmile.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A person is shown holding an infant.\" width=\"325\" height=\"244\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4. Mutually enjoyable interactions promote the mother-infant bond. (credit: Peter Shanks)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>While Bowlby thought attachment was an all-or-nothing process, Mary Ainsworth\u2019s (1970) research showed otherwise. Ainsworth wanted to know if children differ in the ways they bond, and if so, why. To find the answers, she used the Strange Situation procedure to study attachment between mothers and their infants (1970). In the Strange Situation, the mother (or primary caregiver) and the infant (age 12-18 months) are placed in a room together. There are toys in the room, and the caregiver and child spend some time alone in the room. After the child has had time to explore her surroundings, a stranger enters the room. The mother then leaves her baby with the stranger. After a few minutes, she returns to comfort her child.<\/p>\n<p>Based on how the infants\/toddlers responded to the separation and reunion, Ainsworth identified three types of parent-child attachments: secure, avoidant, and resistant (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970). A fourth style, known as disorganized attachment, was later described (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990). The most common type of attachment\u2014also considered the healthiest\u2014is called <strong>secure attachment<\/strong> (Figure 5). In this type of attachment, the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress. Securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room in the Strange Situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to see them. Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div style=\"width: 498px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Secure.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person squatting down next to a small child who is standing up.\" width=\"488\" height=\"365\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 5. In secure attachment, the parent provides a secure base for the toddler, allowing him to securely explore his environment. (credit: Kerry Ceszyk)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p>With <strong>avoidant attachment (sometimes called insecure or anxious-avoidant)<\/strong>, the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, &amp; Wall, 1978).<\/p>\n<p>In cases of <strong>resistant attachment (also called ambivalent or anxious-ambivalent\/resistant)<\/strong>, children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure\u2019s attempts to interact with them (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970). These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is the result of the caregivers\u2019 inconsistent level of response to their child.<\/p>\n<p>Finally, children with <strong>disorganized attachment<\/strong> behaved oddly in the Strange Situation. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990). This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused. Research has shown that abuse disrupts a child\u2019s ability to regulate their emotions.<\/p>\n<p>While Ainsworth\u2019s research has found support in subsequent studies, it has also met criticism. Some researchers have pointed out that a child\u2019s temperament may have a strong influence on attachment (Gervai, 2009; Harris, 2009), and others have noted that attachment varies from culture to culture, a factor not accounted for in Ainsworth\u2019s research (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, &amp; Morelli, 2000; van Ijzendoorn &amp; Sagi-Schwartz, 2008).<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/strangesitu\">video<\/a> to view a clip of the Strange Situation. Try to identify which type of attachment baby Lisa exhibits.<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/QTsewNrHUHU\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4503\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4503&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4503\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4504\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4504&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4504\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4505\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4505&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4505\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4506\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4506&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4506\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4501\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4501&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4501\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4502\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4502&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4502\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Self-Concept<\/h2>\n<p>Just as attachment is the main psychosocial milestone of infancy, the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self. How does self-awareness develop? Infants don\u2019t have a self-concept, which is an understanding of who they are. If you place a baby in front of a mirror, she will reach out to touch her image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror is herself. How do we know this? In a well-known experiment, a researcher placed a red dot of paint on children\u2019s noses before putting them in front of a mirror (Amsterdam, 1972). Commonly known as the mirror test, this behavior is demonstrated by humans and a few other species and is considered evidence of self-recognition (Archer, 1992). At 18 months old they would touch their own noses when they saw the paint, surprised to see a spot on their faces. By 24\u201336 months old children can name and\/or point to themselves in pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition.<\/p>\n<p>Children from 2\u20134 years old display a great increase in social behavior once they have established a self-concept. They enjoy playing with other children, but they have difficulty sharing their possessions. Also, through play children explore and come to understand their gender roles and can label themselves as a girl or boy (Chick, Heilman-Houser, &amp; Hunter, 2002). By 4 years old, children can cooperate with other children, share when asked, and separate from parents with little anxiety. Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans. Success in these areas contributes to a positive sense of self. Once children reach 6 years old, they can identify themselves in terms of group memberships: \u201cI\u2019m a first grader!\u201d School-age children compare themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent in some areas and less so in others (recall Erikson\u2019s task of industry versus inferiority). At this age, children recognize their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have. For example, 10-year-old Layla says, \u201cI\u2019m kind of shy. I wish I could be more talkative like my friend Alexa.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Development of a positive self-concept is important to healthy development. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, do better in school, act more independently, and are more willing to try new activities (Maccoby, 1980; Ferrer &amp; Fugate, 2003). Formation of a positive self-concept begins in Erikson\u2019s toddlerhood stage, when children establish autonomy and become confident in their abilities. Development of self-concept continues in elementary school, when children compare themselves to others. When the comparison is favorable, children feel a sense of competence and are motivated to work harder and accomplish more. Self-concept is re-evaluated in Erikson\u2019s adolescence stage, as teens form an identity. They internalize the messages they have received regarding their strengths and weaknesses, keeping some messages and rejecting others. Adolescents who have achieved identity formation are capable of contributing positively to society (Erikson, 1968).<\/p>\n<p>What can parents do to nurture a healthy self-concept? Diana Baumrind (1971, 1991) thinks parenting style may be a factor. The way we parent is an important factor in a child\u2019s socioemotional growth. Baumrind developed and refined a theory describing four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. With the <strong>authoritative<\/strong> <strong>style<\/strong>, the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child\u2019s point of view. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases\u2014for example, temporarily relaxing bedtime rules to allow for a nighttime swim during a family vacation. Of the four parenting styles, the authoritative style is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society. American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. However, effective parenting styles vary as a function of culture and, as Small (1999) points out, the authoritative style is not necessarily preferred or appropriate in all cultures.<\/p>\n<p>In <strong>authoritarian style<\/strong>, the parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. In contrast to the authoritative style, authoritarian parents probably would not relax bedtime rules during a vacation because they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. However, it is important to point out that authoritarian parenting is as beneficial as the authoritative style in some ethnic groups (Russell, Crockett, &amp; Chao, 2010). For instance, first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian parents did just as well in school as their peers who were raised by authoritative parents (Russell et al., 2010).<\/p>\n<p>For parents who employ the <strong>permissive style<\/strong> of parenting, the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent. In terms of our example of vacation bedtimes, permissive parents might not have bedtime rules at all\u2014instead they allow the child to choose his bedtime whether on vacation or not. Not surprisingly, children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, &amp; Fraleigh, 1987). The permissive style may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse (Bahr &amp; Hoffman, 2010), risky sexual behavior especially among female children (Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson, &amp; Bryant, 2002), and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children (Parent et al., 2011). However, there are some positive outcomes associated with children raised by permissive parents. They tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression (Darling, 1999).<\/p>\n<p>With the <strong>uninvolved style<\/strong> of parenting, the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don\u2019t respond to the child\u2019s needs and make relatively few demands. This could be because of severe depression or substance abuse, or other factors such as the parents\u2019 extreme focus on work. These parents may provide for the child\u2019s basic needs, but little else. The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse (Darling, 1999).<\/p>\n<p>As you can see, parenting styles influence childhood adjustment, but could a child\u2019s temperament likewise influence parenting? <strong>Temperament<\/strong> refers to innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment. Children with easy temperaments demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions. Conversely, children with difficult temperaments demonstrate negative emotions and have difficulty adapting to change and regulating their emotions. Difficult children are much more likely to challenge parents, teachers, and other caregivers (Thomas, 1984). Therefore, it\u2019s possible that easy children (i.e., social, adaptable, and easy to soothe) tend to elicit warm and responsive parenting, while demanding, irritable, withdrawn children evoke irritation in their parents or cause their parents to withdraw (Sanson &amp; Rothbart, 1995).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Link to Learning<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this optional lecture on child development from MIT&#8217;s John Gabrieli for an interesting overview of key physical, social, and emotional developmental\u00a0stages of\u00a0childhood.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/yBYebcVw8Zk?list=PL44ABC9278E2EE706\" width=\"853\" height=\"480\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox tryit\">\n<h3>Try It<\/h3>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4500\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4500&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4500\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4507\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4507&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4507\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4508\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4508&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4508\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Think It Over<\/h3>\n<p>Which parenting style describes how you were raised? Provide an example or two to support your answer.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>long-standing connection or bond with others<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>authoritarian parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>authoritative parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child\u2019s point of view<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>avoidant attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by child\u2019s unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>cognitive empathy:\u00a0<\/strong>ability to take the perspective of others and to feel concern for others<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>disorganized attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child\u2019s odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>fine motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>use of muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes to coordinate small actions<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>gross motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>use of large muscle groups to control arms and legs for large body movements<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>motor skills:\u00a0<\/strong>ability to move our body and manipulate objects<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>permissive parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents make few demands and rarely use punishment<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>resistant attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child\u2019s tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when she attempts to interact with the child<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>secure attachment:\u00a0<\/strong>characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>secure base:\u00a0<\/strong>parental presence that gives the infant\/toddler a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>temperament:\u00a0<\/strong>innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"definition\"><strong>uninvolved parenting style:\u00a0<\/strong>parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don\u2019t respond to the child\u2019s needs and make relatively few demands<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>\t<iframe id=\"lumen_assessment_4846\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/load?assessment_id=4846&#38;embed=1&#38;external_user_id=&#38;external_context_id=&#38;iframe_resize_id=lumen_assessment_4846\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><br \/>\n\t<\/iframe><\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-3918\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Original<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Modification and adaptation, addition of TED talk. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Lumen Learning. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>The Strange Situation - Mary Ainsworth. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: thibs44. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><li>Stages of Development. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:b7opmCF3@6\/Stages-of-Development#Figure_09_02_Stages\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:b7opmCF3@6\/Stages-of-Development#Figure_09_02_Stages<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.48<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">All rights reserved content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>The False Belief Test: Theory of Mind. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: 007IceWeasel. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8hLubgpY2_w\">https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8hLubgpY2_w<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em>Other<\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Standard YouTube License<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":29,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"The Strange Situation - Mary Ainsworth\",\"author\":\"thibs44\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Stages of Development\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax College\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:b7opmCF3@6\/Stages-of-Development#Figure_09_02_Stages\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.48\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"The False Belief Test: Theory of Mind\",\"author\":\"007IceWeasel\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8hLubgpY2_w\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification and adaptation, addition of TED talk\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"440aab99-45ed-464d-992c-08c3d744bb57, d9965c43-0820-4e62-be4e-80da0f24d906","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-3918","chapter","type-chapter","status-web-only","hentry"],"part":518,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3918","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/29"}],"version-history":[{"count":13,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3918\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4874,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3918\/revisions\/4874"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/518"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3918\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3918"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=3918"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=3918"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsych\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=3918"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}