{"id":205,"date":"2015-02-06T23:15:46","date_gmt":"2015-02-06T23:15:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ospsych\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=205"},"modified":"2015-09-04T12:45:58","modified_gmt":"2015-09-04T12:45:58","slug":"language","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/chapter\/language\/","title":{"raw":"Language","rendered":"Language"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Define language and demonstrate familiarity with the components of language<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Understand how the use of language develops<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Explain the relationship between language and thinking<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm158525664\"><span data-type=\"term\">Language<\/span> is a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another. While language is a form of communication, not all communication is language. Many species communicate with one another through their postures, movements, odors, or vocalizations. This communication is crucial for species that need to interact and develop social relationships with their conspecifics. However, many people have asserted that it is language that makes humans unique among all of the animal species (Corballis &amp; Suddendorf, 2007; Tomasello &amp; Rakoczy, 2003). This section will focus on what distinguishes language as a special form of communication, how the use of language develops, and how language affects the way we think.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm132084208\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<h2>COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm137521248\">Language, be it spoken, signed, or written, has specific components: a lexicon and grammar. <span data-type=\"term\">Lexicon<\/span> refers to the words of a given language. Thus, lexicon is a language\u2019s vocabulary. <span data-type=\"term\">Grammar<\/span> refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon (Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011). For instance, English grammar dictates that most verbs receive an \u201c-ed\u201d at the end to indicate past tense.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm123022048\">Words are formed by combining the various phonemes that make up the language. A <span data-type=\"term\">phoneme<\/span> (e.g., the sounds \u201cah\u201d vs. \u201ceh\u201d) is a basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different sets of phonemes. Phonemes are combined to form <span data-type=\"term\">morphemes<\/span>, which are the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning (e.g., \u201cI\u201d is both a phoneme and a morpheme). We use semantics and syntax to construct language. Semantics and syntax are part of a language\u2019s grammar. <span data-type=\"term\">Semantics<\/span> refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words. <span data-type=\"term\">Syntax<\/span> refers to the way words are organized into sentences (Chomsky, 1965; Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm124129904\">We apply the rules of grammar to organize the lexicon in novel and creative ways, which allow us to communicate information about both concrete and abstract concepts. We can talk about our immediate and observable surroundings as well as the surface of unseen planets. We can share our innermost thoughts, our plans for the future, and debate the value of a college education. We can provide detailed instructions for cooking a meal, fixing a car, or building a fire. The flexibility that language provides to relay vastly different types of information is a property that makes language so distinct as a mode of communication among humans.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm41880112\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<h2>LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm139017664\">Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a second language as adults, this might seem to be true. However, young children master language very quickly with relative ease. B. F. <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Skinner<\/span> (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Chomsky<\/span> (1965) criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined. The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears to follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are born with a biological predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that there is a critical period for language acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the ease with which they acquire and master new languages diminishes (Johnson &amp; Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm128899856\">Children begin to learn about language from a very early age (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Table_07_02_01\">[link]<\/a>). In fact, it appears that this is occurring even before we are born. Newborns show preference for their mother\u2019s voice and appear to be able to discriminate between the language spoken by their mother and other languages. Babies are also attuned to the languages being used around them and show preferences for videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken language versus videos that do not synchronize with the audio (Blossom &amp; Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke &amp; Cortelyou, 1981).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table id=\"Table_07_02_01\" summary=\"A three column table describes Stages of Language and Communication Development. The columns, from left to right, are labeled \u201cStage; Age; and Developmental Language and Communication.\u201d The first row, respectively, reads: \u201c1; 0\u20133 months; and reflexive communication.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 3\u20138 months; and reflexive communication, interest in others.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 8\u201313 months; and intentional communication, sociability.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 12\u201318 months; and first words.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 18\u201324 months; and simple sentences of two words.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 2\u20133 years; and sentences of three or more words.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 3\u20135 years; and complex sentences, has conversations.\u201d\"><caption><span data-type=\"title\">Stages of Language and Communication Development<\/span><\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Stage<\/th>\r\n<th>Age<\/th>\r\n<th>Developmental Language and Communication<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>0\u20133 months<\/td>\r\n<td>Reflexive communication<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>3\u20138 months<\/td>\r\n<td>Reflexive communication; interest in others<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>8\u201313 months<\/td>\r\n<td>Intentional communication; sociability<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>12\u201318 months<\/td>\r\n<td>First words<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>18\u201324 months<\/td>\r\n<td>Simple sentences of two words<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>6<\/td>\r\n<td>2\u20133 years<\/td>\r\n<td>Sentences of three or more words<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>7<\/td>\r\n<td>3\u20135 years<\/td>\r\n<td>Complex sentences; has conversations<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm59772368\" class=\"psychology dig-deeper textbox shaded\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Dig Deeper: The Case of Genie<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm93155600\">In the fall of 1970, a social worker in the Los Angeles area found a 13-year-old girl who was being raised in extremely neglectful and abusive conditions. The girl, who came to be known as Genie, had lived most of her life tied to a potty chair or confined to a crib in a small room that was kept closed with the curtains drawn. For a little over a decade, Genie had virtually no social interaction and no access to the outside world. As a result of these conditions, Genie was unable to stand up, chew solid food, or speak (Fromkin, Krashen, Curtiss, Rigler, &amp; Rigler, 1974; Rymer, 1993). The police took Genie into protective custody.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm166156384\">Genie\u2019s abilities improved dramatically following her removal from her abusive environment, and early on, it appeared she was acquiring language\u2014much later than would be predicted by critical period hypotheses that had been posited at the time (Fromkin et al., 1974). Genie managed to amass an impressive vocabulary in a relatively short amount of time. However, she never developed a mastery of the grammatical aspects of language (Curtiss, 1981). Perhaps being deprived of the opportunity to learn language during a critical period impeded Genie\u2019s ability to fully acquire and use language.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm64847120\">You may recall that each language has its own set of phonemes that are used to generate morphemes, words, and so on. Babies can discriminate among the sounds that make up a language (for example, they can tell the difference between the \u201cs\u201d in vision and the \u201css\u201d in fission); early on, they can differentiate between the sounds of all human languages, even those that do not occur in the languages that are used in their environments. However, by the time that they are about 1 year old, they can only discriminate among those phonemes that are used in the language or languages in their environments (Jensen, 2011; Werker &amp; Lalonde, 1988; Werker &amp; Tees, 1984).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp7371120\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning textbox\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<h4><em><strong>Link to Learning<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm137301136\">Visit this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/language\">website<\/a> to learn more about how babies lose the ability to discriminate among all possible human phonemes as they age.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm83546720\">After the first few months of life, babies enter what is known as the babbling stage, during which time they tend to produce single syllables that are repeated over and over. As time passes, more variations appear in the syllables that they produce. During this time, it is unlikely that the babies are trying to communicate; they are just as likely to babble when they are alone as when they are with their caregivers (Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011). Interestingly, babies who are raised in environments in which sign language is used will also begin to show babbling in the gestures of their hands during this stage (Petitto, Holowka, Sergio, Levy, &amp; Ostry, 2004).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm77513744\">Generally, a child\u2019s first word is uttered sometime between the ages of 1 year to 18 months, and for the next few months, the child will remain in the \u201cone word\u201d stage of language development. During this time, children know a number of words, but they only produce one-word utterances. The child\u2019s early vocabulary is limited to familiar objects or events, often nouns. Although children in this stage only make one-word utterances, these words often carry larger meaning (Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011). So, for example, a child saying \u201ccookie\u201d could be identifying a cookie or asking for a cookie.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm73474272\">As a child\u2019s lexicon grows, she begins to utter simple sentences and to acquire new vocabulary at a very rapid pace. In addition, children begin to demonstrate a clear understanding of the specific rules that apply to their language(s). Even the mistakes that children sometimes make provide evidence of just how much they understand about those rules. This is sometimes seen in the form of <span data-type=\"term\">overgeneralization<\/span>. In this context, overgeneralization refers to an extension of a language rule to an exception to the rule. For example, in English, it is usually the case that an \u201cs\u201d is added to the end of a word to indicate plurality. For example, we speak of one dog versus two dogs. Young children will overgeneralize this rule to cases that are exceptions to the \u201cadd an s to the end of the word\u201d rule and say things like \u201cthose two gooses\u201d or \u201cthree mouses.\u201d Clearly, the rules of the language are understood, even if the exceptions to the rules are still being learned (Moskowitz, 1978).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm181736080\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm176340720\">When we speak one language, we agree that words are representations of ideas, people, places, and events. The given language that children learn is connected to their culture and surroundings. But can words themselves shape the way we think about things? Psychologists have long investigated the question of whether language shapes thoughts and actions, or whether our thoughts and beliefs shape our language. Two researchers, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, began this investigation in the 1940s. They wanted to understand how the language habits of a community encourage members of that community to interpret language in a particular manner (Sapir, 1941\/1964). Sapir and Whorf proposed that language determines thought, suggesting, for example, that a person whose community language did not have past-tense verbs would be challenged to think about the past (Whorf, 1956). Researchers have since identified this view as too absolute, pointing out a lack of empiricism behind what Sapir and Whorf proposed (Abler, 2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van Troyer, 1994). Today, psychologists continue to study and debate the relationship between language and thought.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm188402192\" class=\"psychology what-do-you-think textbox shaded\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"What Do You Think?\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><strong>What Do You Think: The Meaning of Language<\/strong><\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm75689504\">Think about what you know of other languages; perhaps you even speak multiple languages. Imagine for a moment that your closest friend fluently speaks more than one language. Do you think that friend thinks differently, depending on which language is being spoken? You may know a few words that are not translatable from their original language into English. For example, the Portuguese word <em data-effect=\"italics\">saudade <\/em>originated during the 15th century, when Portuguese sailors left home to explore the seas and travel to Africa or Asia. Those left behind described the emptiness and fondness they felt as <em data-effect=\"italics\">saudade <\/em>(<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_07_02_Saudade\">[link]<\/a>)<em data-effect=\"italics\">.<\/em> The word came to express many meanings, including loss, nostalgia, yearning, warm memories, and hope. There is no single word in English that includes all of those emotions in a single description. Do words such as <em data-effect=\"italics\">saudade<\/em> indicate that different languages produce different patterns of thought in people? What do you think??<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"Figure_07_02_Saudade\"><figcaption>\r\n<\/figcaption>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"650\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224827\/CNX_Psych_07_02_Saudade.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph A shows a painting of a person leaning against a ledge, slumped sideways over a box. Photograph B shows a painting of a person reading by a window.\" width=\"650\" height=\"498\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> These two works of art depict saudade. (a) Saudade de N\u00e1poles, which is translated into \u201cmissing Naples,\u201d was painted by Bertha Worms in 1895. (b) Almeida J\u00fanior painted Saudade in 1899.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm56759008\">Language may indeed influence the way that we think, an idea known as linguistic determinism. One recent demonstration of this phenomenon involved differences in the way that English and Mandarin Chinese speakers talk and think about time. English speakers tend to talk about time using terms that describe changes along a horizontal dimension, for example, saying something like \u201cI\u2019m running behind schedule\u201d or \u201cDon\u2019t get ahead of yourself.\u201d While Mandarin Chinese speakers also describe time in horizontal terms, it is not uncommon to also use terms associated with a vertical arrangement. For example, the past might be described as being \u201cup\u201d and the future as being \u201cdown.\u201d It turns out that these differences in language translate into differences in performance on cognitive tests designed to measure how quickly an individual can recognize temporal relationships. Specifically, when given a series of tasks with vertical priming, Mandarin Chinese speakers were faster at recognizing temporal relationships between months. Indeed, Boroditsky (2001) sees these results as suggesting that \u201chabits in language encourage habits in thought\u201d (p. 12).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm214946608\">One group of researchers who wanted to investigate how language influences thought compared how English speakers and the Dani people of Papua New Guinea think and speak about color. The Dani have two words for color: one word for <em data-effect=\"italics\">light <\/em>and one word for <em data-effect=\"italics\">dark<\/em>. In contrast, the English language has 11 color words. Researchers hypothesized that the number of color terms could limit the ways that the Dani people conceptualized color. However, the Dani were able to distinguish colors with the same ability as English speakers, despite having fewer words at their disposal (Berlin &amp; Kay, 1969). A recent review of research aimed at determining how language might affect something like color perception suggests that language can influence perceptual phenomena, especially in the left hemisphere of the brain. You may recall from earlier chapters that the left hemisphere is associated with language for most people. However, the right (less linguistic hemisphere) of the brain is less affected by linguistic influences on perception (Regier &amp; Kay, 2009)<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm123872224\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm183004528\">Language is a communication system that has both a lexicon and a system of grammar. Language acquisition occurs naturally and effortlessly during the early stages of life, and this acquisition occurs in a predictable sequence for individuals around the world. Language has a strong influence on thought, and the concept of how language may influence cognition remains an area of study and debate in psychology.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm52001184\" class=\"review-questions\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.openassessments.com\/assessments\/834\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm183165136\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Self Check Questions<\/h3>\r\n<section id=\"self-check-questions\"><section id=\"fs-idm183165136\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><em><strong>Critical Thinking Questions<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm6992192\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm106166720\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm109095168\">1. How do words not only represent our thoughts but also represent our values?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm140196368\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm10876448\">2. How could grammatical errors actually be indicative of language acquisition in children?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm198485712\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm177203200\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm133663120\">3. How do words not only represent our thoughts but also represent our values?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm237944416\" class=\"personal-application\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><em><strong>Personal Application Question<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm96187280\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm219704656\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm181235504\">Can you think of examples of how language affects cognition?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/section><\/div>\r\n<h3><\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\"><section id=\"self-check-answers\">\r\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<h3>Answers<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm192308096\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm87484016\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm124126928\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n\r\n1. People tend to talk about the things that are important to them or the things they think about the most. What we talk about, therefore, is a reflection of our values.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm176509216\">2. People tend to talk about the things that are important to them or the things they think about the most. What we talk about, therefore, is a reflection of our values.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp7364576\">3. Grammatical errors that involve overgeneralization of specific rules of a given language indicate that the child recognizes the rule, even if he or she doesn\u2019t recognize all of the subtleties or exceptions involved in the rule\u2019s application.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<h3><\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\"><section id=\"glossary\">\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm82970400\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">grammar\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm51586864\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">language\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm90926416\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">lexicon\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>the words of a given language<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm59607216\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">morpheme\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm77287008\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">overgeneralization\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm199874544\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">phoneme\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>basic sound unit of a given language<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm146803984\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">semantics\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm233654256\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">syntax\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>manner by which words are organized into sentences<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm192308096\" data-type=\"solution\"><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Define language and demonstrate familiarity with the components of language<\/li>\n<li>Understand how the use of language develops<\/li>\n<li>Explain the relationship between language and thinking<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<h3><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm158525664\"><span data-type=\"term\">Language<\/span> is a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another. While language is a form of communication, not all communication is language. Many species communicate with one another through their postures, movements, odors, or vocalizations. This communication is crucial for species that need to interact and develop social relationships with their conspecifics. However, many people have asserted that it is language that makes humans unique among all of the animal species (Corballis &amp; Suddendorf, 2007; Tomasello &amp; Rakoczy, 2003). This section will focus on what distinguishes language as a special form of communication, how the use of language develops, and how language affects the way we think.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idm132084208\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2><\/h2>\n<h2>COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm137521248\">Language, be it spoken, signed, or written, has specific components: a lexicon and grammar. <span data-type=\"term\">Lexicon<\/span> refers to the words of a given language. Thus, lexicon is a language\u2019s vocabulary. <span data-type=\"term\">Grammar<\/span> refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon (Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011). For instance, English grammar dictates that most verbs receive an \u201c-ed\u201d at the end to indicate past tense.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm123022048\">Words are formed by combining the various phonemes that make up the language. A <span data-type=\"term\">phoneme<\/span> (e.g., the sounds \u201cah\u201d vs. \u201ceh\u201d) is a basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different sets of phonemes. Phonemes are combined to form <span data-type=\"term\">morphemes<\/span>, which are the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning (e.g., \u201cI\u201d is both a phoneme and a morpheme). We use semantics and syntax to construct language. Semantics and syntax are part of a language\u2019s grammar. <span data-type=\"term\">Semantics<\/span> refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words. <span data-type=\"term\">Syntax<\/span> refers to the way words are organized into sentences (Chomsky, 1965; Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm124129904\">We apply the rules of grammar to organize the lexicon in novel and creative ways, which allow us to communicate information about both concrete and abstract concepts. We can talk about our immediate and observable surroundings as well as the surface of unseen planets. We can share our innermost thoughts, our plans for the future, and debate the value of a college education. We can provide detailed instructions for cooking a meal, fixing a car, or building a fire. The flexibility that language provides to relay vastly different types of information is a property that makes language so distinct as a mode of communication among humans.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm41880112\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2><\/h2>\n<h2>LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm139017664\">Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a second language as adults, this might seem to be true. However, young children master language very quickly with relative ease. B. F. <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Skinner<\/span> (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Chomsky<\/span> (1965) criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined. The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears to follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are born with a biological predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that there is a critical period for language acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the ease with which they acquire and master new languages diminishes (Johnson &amp; Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm128899856\">Children begin to learn about language from a very early age (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Table_07_02_01\">[link]<\/a>). In fact, it appears that this is occurring even before we are born. Newborns show preference for their mother\u2019s voice and appear to be able to discriminate between the language spoken by their mother and other languages. Babies are also attuned to the languages being used around them and show preferences for videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken language versus videos that do not synchronize with the audio (Blossom &amp; Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke &amp; Cortelyou, 1981).<\/p>\n<table id=\"Table_07_02_01\" summary=\"A three column table describes Stages of Language and Communication Development. The columns, from left to right, are labeled \u201cStage; Age; and Developmental Language and Communication.\u201d The first row, respectively, reads: \u201c1; 0\u20133 months; and reflexive communication.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 3\u20138 months; and reflexive communication, interest in others.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 8\u201313 months; and intentional communication, sociability.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 12\u201318 months; and first words.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 18\u201324 months; and simple sentences of two words.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 2\u20133 years; and sentences of three or more words.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 3\u20135 years; and complex sentences, has conversations.\u201d\">\n<caption><span data-type=\"title\">Stages of Language and Communication Development<\/span><\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Stage<\/th>\n<th>Age<\/th>\n<th>Developmental Language and Communication<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>0\u20133 months<\/td>\n<td>Reflexive communication<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>3\u20138 months<\/td>\n<td>Reflexive communication; interest in others<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>8\u201313 months<\/td>\n<td>Intentional communication; sociability<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>12\u201318 months<\/td>\n<td>First words<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>18\u201324 months<\/td>\n<td>Simple sentences of two words<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>6<\/td>\n<td>2\u20133 years<\/td>\n<td>Sentences of three or more words<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>7<\/td>\n<td>3\u20135 years<\/td>\n<td>Complex sentences; has conversations<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div id=\"fs-idm59772368\" class=\"psychology dig-deeper textbox shaded\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Dig Deeper: The Case of Genie<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm93155600\">In the fall of 1970, a social worker in the Los Angeles area found a 13-year-old girl who was being raised in extremely neglectful and abusive conditions. The girl, who came to be known as Genie, had lived most of her life tied to a potty chair or confined to a crib in a small room that was kept closed with the curtains drawn. For a little over a decade, Genie had virtually no social interaction and no access to the outside world. As a result of these conditions, Genie was unable to stand up, chew solid food, or speak (Fromkin, Krashen, Curtiss, Rigler, &amp; Rigler, 1974; Rymer, 1993). The police took Genie into protective custody.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm166156384\">Genie\u2019s abilities improved dramatically following her removal from her abusive environment, and early on, it appeared she was acquiring language\u2014much later than would be predicted by critical period hypotheses that had been posited at the time (Fromkin et al., 1974). Genie managed to amass an impressive vocabulary in a relatively short amount of time. However, she never developed a mastery of the grammatical aspects of language (Curtiss, 1981). Perhaps being deprived of the opportunity to learn language during a critical period impeded Genie\u2019s ability to fully acquire and use language.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm64847120\">You may recall that each language has its own set of phonemes that are used to generate morphemes, words, and so on. Babies can discriminate among the sounds that make up a language (for example, they can tell the difference between the \u201cs\u201d in vision and the \u201css\u201d in fission); early on, they can differentiate between the sounds of all human languages, even those that do not occur in the languages that are used in their environments. However, by the time that they are about 1 year old, they can only discriminate among those phonemes that are used in the language or languages in their environments (Jensen, 2011; Werker &amp; Lalonde, 1988; Werker &amp; Tees, 1984).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp7371120\" class=\"psychology link-to-learning textbox\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<h4><em><strong>Link to Learning<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idm137301136\">Visit this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/language\">website<\/a> to learn more about how babies lose the ability to discriminate among all possible human phonemes as they age.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm83546720\">After the first few months of life, babies enter what is known as the babbling stage, during which time they tend to produce single syllables that are repeated over and over. As time passes, more variations appear in the syllables that they produce. During this time, it is unlikely that the babies are trying to communicate; they are just as likely to babble when they are alone as when they are with their caregivers (Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011). Interestingly, babies who are raised in environments in which sign language is used will also begin to show babbling in the gestures of their hands during this stage (Petitto, Holowka, Sergio, Levy, &amp; Ostry, 2004).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm77513744\">Generally, a child\u2019s first word is uttered sometime between the ages of 1 year to 18 months, and for the next few months, the child will remain in the \u201cone word\u201d stage of language development. During this time, children know a number of words, but they only produce one-word utterances. The child\u2019s early vocabulary is limited to familiar objects or events, often nouns. Although children in this stage only make one-word utterances, these words often carry larger meaning (Fern\u00e1ndez &amp; Cairns, 2011). So, for example, a child saying \u201ccookie\u201d could be identifying a cookie or asking for a cookie.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm73474272\">As a child\u2019s lexicon grows, she begins to utter simple sentences and to acquire new vocabulary at a very rapid pace. In addition, children begin to demonstrate a clear understanding of the specific rules that apply to their language(s). Even the mistakes that children sometimes make provide evidence of just how much they understand about those rules. This is sometimes seen in the form of <span data-type=\"term\">overgeneralization<\/span>. In this context, overgeneralization refers to an extension of a language rule to an exception to the rule. For example, in English, it is usually the case that an \u201cs\u201d is added to the end of a word to indicate plurality. For example, we speak of one dog versus two dogs. Young children will overgeneralize this rule to cases that are exceptions to the \u201cadd an s to the end of the word\u201d rule and say things like \u201cthose two gooses\u201d or \u201cthree mouses.\u201d Clearly, the rules of the language are understood, even if the exceptions to the rules are still being learned (Moskowitz, 1978).<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm181736080\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm176340720\">When we speak one language, we agree that words are representations of ideas, people, places, and events. The given language that children learn is connected to their culture and surroundings. But can words themselves shape the way we think about things? Psychologists have long investigated the question of whether language shapes thoughts and actions, or whether our thoughts and beliefs shape our language. Two researchers, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, began this investigation in the 1940s. They wanted to understand how the language habits of a community encourage members of that community to interpret language in a particular manner (Sapir, 1941\/1964). Sapir and Whorf proposed that language determines thought, suggesting, for example, that a person whose community language did not have past-tense verbs would be challenged to think about the past (Whorf, 1956). Researchers have since identified this view as too absolute, pointing out a lack of empiricism behind what Sapir and Whorf proposed (Abler, 2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van Troyer, 1994). Today, psychologists continue to study and debate the relationship between language and thought.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm188402192\" class=\"psychology what-do-you-think textbox shaded\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"What Do You Think?\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><strong>What Do You Think: The Meaning of Language<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idm75689504\">Think about what you know of other languages; perhaps you even speak multiple languages. Imagine for a moment that your closest friend fluently speaks more than one language. Do you think that friend thinks differently, depending on which language is being spoken? You may know a few words that are not translatable from their original language into English. For example, the Portuguese word <em data-effect=\"italics\">saudade <\/em>originated during the 15th century, when Portuguese sailors left home to explore the seas and travel to Africa or Asia. Those left behind described the emptiness and fondness they felt as <em data-effect=\"italics\">saudade <\/em>(<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_07_02_Saudade\">[link]<\/a>)<em data-effect=\"italics\">.<\/em> The word came to express many meanings, including loss, nostalgia, yearning, warm memories, and hope. There is no single word in English that includes all of those emotions in a single description. Do words such as <em data-effect=\"italics\">saudade<\/em> indicate that different languages produce different patterns of thought in people? What do you think??<\/p>\n<figure id=\"Figure_07_02_Saudade\"><figcaption>\n<\/figcaption><div style=\"width: 660px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224827\/CNX_Psych_07_02_Saudade.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph A shows a painting of a person leaning against a ledge, slumped sideways over a box. Photograph B shows a painting of a person reading by a window.\" width=\"650\" height=\"498\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">These two works of art depict saudade. (a) Saudade de N\u00e1poles, which is translated into \u201cmissing Naples,\u201d was painted by Bertha Worms in 1895. (b) Almeida J\u00fanior painted Saudade in 1899.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm56759008\">Language may indeed influence the way that we think, an idea known as linguistic determinism. One recent demonstration of this phenomenon involved differences in the way that English and Mandarin Chinese speakers talk and think about time. English speakers tend to talk about time using terms that describe changes along a horizontal dimension, for example, saying something like \u201cI\u2019m running behind schedule\u201d or \u201cDon\u2019t get ahead of yourself.\u201d While Mandarin Chinese speakers also describe time in horizontal terms, it is not uncommon to also use terms associated with a vertical arrangement. For example, the past might be described as being \u201cup\u201d and the future as being \u201cdown.\u201d It turns out that these differences in language translate into differences in performance on cognitive tests designed to measure how quickly an individual can recognize temporal relationships. Specifically, when given a series of tasks with vertical priming, Mandarin Chinese speakers were faster at recognizing temporal relationships between months. Indeed, Boroditsky (2001) sees these results as suggesting that \u201chabits in language encourage habits in thought\u201d (p. 12).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm214946608\">One group of researchers who wanted to investigate how language influences thought compared how English speakers and the Dani people of Papua New Guinea think and speak about color. The Dani have two words for color: one word for <em data-effect=\"italics\">light <\/em>and one word for <em data-effect=\"italics\">dark<\/em>. In contrast, the English language has 11 color words. Researchers hypothesized that the number of color terms could limit the ways that the Dani people conceptualized color. However, the Dani were able to distinguish colors with the same ability as English speakers, despite having fewer words at their disposal (Berlin &amp; Kay, 1969). A recent review of research aimed at determining how language might affect something like color perception suggests that language can influence perceptual phenomena, especially in the left hemisphere of the brain. You may recall from earlier chapters that the left hemisphere is associated with language for most people. However, the right (less linguistic hemisphere) of the brain is less affected by linguistic influences on perception (Regier &amp; Kay, 2009)<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm123872224\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2><\/h2>\n<h2>Summary<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm183004528\">Language is a communication system that has both a lexicon and a system of grammar. Language acquisition occurs naturally and effortlessly during the early stages of life, and this acquisition occurs in a predictable sequence for individuals around the world. Language has a strong influence on thought, and the concept of how language may influence cognition remains an area of study and debate in psychology.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm52001184\" class=\"review-questions\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2><\/h2>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/assessments\/load?src_url=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api\/assessments\/834.xml&#38;results_end_point=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api&#38;assessment_id=834&#38;confidence_levels=true&#38;enable_start=true&#38;eid=https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/chapter\/language\/\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm183165136\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Self Check Questions<\/h3>\n<section id=\"self-check-questions\">\n<section id=\"fs-idm183165136\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><em><strong>Critical Thinking Questions<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\n<div id=\"fs-idm6992192\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm106166720\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm109095168\">1. How do words not only represent our thoughts but also represent our values?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm140196368\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm10876448\">2. How could grammatical errors actually be indicative of language acquisition in children?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm198485712\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm177203200\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm133663120\">3. How do words not only represent our thoughts but also represent our values?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm237944416\" class=\"personal-application\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><em><strong>Personal Application Question<\/strong><\/em><\/h4>\n<div id=\"fs-idm96187280\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm219704656\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm181235504\">Can you think of examples of how language affects cognition?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<h3><\/h3>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<section id=\"self-check-answers\">\n<div data-type=\"exercise\">\n<h3>Answers<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-idm192308096\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm87484016\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm124126928\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<p>1. People tend to talk about the things that are important to them or the things they think about the most. What we talk about, therefore, is a reflection of our values.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm176509216\">2. People tend to talk about the things that are important to them or the things they think about the most. What we talk about, therefore, is a reflection of our values.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp7364576\">3. Grammatical errors that involve overgeneralization of specific rules of a given language indicate that the child recognizes the rule, even if he or she doesn\u2019t recognize all of the subtleties or exceptions involved in the rule\u2019s application.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<h3><\/h3>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\">\n<section id=\"glossary\">\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<div id=\"fs-idm82970400\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">grammar\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm51586864\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">language\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm90926416\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">lexicon\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>the words of a given language<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm59607216\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">morpheme\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm77287008\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">overgeneralization\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm199874544\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">phoneme\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>basic sound unit of a given language<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm146803984\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">semantics\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm233654256\" data-type=\"definition\"><strong><span data-type=\"term\">syntax\u00a0 <\/span><\/strong>manner by which words are organized into sentences<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\">\n<h2><\/h2>\n<div id=\"fs-idm192308096\" data-type=\"solution\"><\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-205\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:1\/Psychology\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:1\/Psychology<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":5,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psychology\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@4.100:1\/Psychology\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-205","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":516,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/205","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/5"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/205\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1090,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/205\/revisions\/1090"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/516"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/205\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=205"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=205"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=205"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-intropsychmaster-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=205"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}