{"id":109,"date":"2015-08-13T22:03:08","date_gmt":"2015-08-13T22:03:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/standupspeakoutxmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=109"},"modified":"2015-11-01T23:27:17","modified_gmt":"2015-11-01T23:27:17","slug":"using-language-effectively","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/chapter\/using-language-effectively\/","title":{"raw":"Using Language Effectively","rendered":"Using Language Effectively"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Explain what it means to use appropriate language.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Explain what is meant by vivid language.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Define inclusive language and explain why using it is important for public speakers.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Explain the importance of using familiar language in public speaking.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nWhen considering how to use language effectively in your speech, consider the degree to which the language is appropriate, vivid, inclusive, and familiar. The next sections define each of these aspects of language and discuss why each is important in public speaking.\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Use Appropriate Language<\/h2>\r\nAs with anything in life, there are positive and negative ways of using language. One of the first concepts a speaker needs to think about when looking at language use is appropriateness. By appropriate, we mean whether the language is suitable or fitting for ourselves, as the speaker; our audience; the speaking context; and the speech itself.\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s01_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Appropriate for the Speaker<\/h2>\r\nOne of the first questions to ask yourself is whether the language you plan on using in a speech fits with your own speaking pattern. Not all language choices are appropriate for all speakers. The language you select should be suitable for you, not someone else. If you\u2019re a first-year college student, there\u2019s no need to force yourself to sound like an astrophysicist even if you are giving a speech on new planets. One of the biggest mistakes novice speakers make is thinking that they have to use million-dollar words because it makes them sound smarter. Actually, million-dollar words don\u2019t tend to function well in oral communication to begin with, so using them will probably make you uncomfortable as a speaker. Also, it may be difficult for you or the audience to understand the nuances of meaning when you use such words, so using them can increase the risk of denotative or connotative misunderstandings.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s01_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Appropriate for the Audience<\/h2>\r\nThe second aspect of appropriateness asks whether the language you are choosing is appropriate for your specific audience. Let\u2019s say that you\u2019re an engineering student. If you\u2019re giving a presentation in an engineering class, you can use language that other engineering students will know. On the other hand, if you use that engineering vocabulary in a public speaking class, many audience members will not understand you. As another example, if you are speaking about the Great Depression to an audience of young adults, you can\u2019t assume they will know the meaning of terms like \u201cNew Deal\u201d and \u201cWPA,\u201d which would be familiar to an audience of senior citizens. In other chapters of this book, we have explained the importance of audience analysis; once again, audience analysis is a key factor in choosing the language to use in a speech.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s01_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Appropriate for the Context<\/h2>\r\nThe next question about appropriateness is whether the language you will use is suitable or fitting for the context itself. The language you may employ if you\u2019re addressing a student assembly in a high school auditorium will differ from the language you would use at a business meeting in a hotel ballroom. If you\u2019re giving a speech at an outdoor rally, you cannot use the same language you would use in a classroom. Recall that the speaking context includes the occasion, the time of day, the mood of the audience, and other factors in addition to the physical location. Take the entire speaking context into consideration when you make the language choices for your speech.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s01_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Appropriate for the Topic<\/h2>\r\nThe fourth and final question about the appropriateness of language involves whether the language is appropriate for your specific topic. If you are speaking about the early years of The Walt Disney Company, would you want to refer to Walt Disney as a \u201cthaumaturgic\u201d individual (i.e., one who works wonders or miracles)? While the word \u201cthaumaturgic\u201d may be accurate, is it the most appropriate for the topic at hand? As another example, if your speech topic is the dual residence model of string theory, it makes sense to expect that you will use more sophisticated language than if your topic was a basic introduction to the physics of, say, sound or light waves.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Use Vivid Language<\/h2>\r\nAfter appropriateness, the second main guideline for using language is to use vivid language. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Vivid language<\/span><\/span> helps your listeners create strong, distinct, clear, and memorable mental images. Good vivid language usage helps an audience member truly understand and imagine what a speaker is saying. Two common ways to make your speaking more vivid are through the use of imagery and rhythm.\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Imagery<\/h2>\r\n<span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Imagery<\/span><\/span> is the use of language to represent objects, actions, or ideas. The goal of imagery is to help an audience member create a mental picture of what a speaker is saying. A speaker who uses imagery successfully will tap into one or more of the audience\u2019s five basic senses (hearing, taste, touch, smell, and sight). Three common tools of imagery are concreteness, simile, and metaphor.\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Concreteness<\/h2>\r\nWhen we use language that is <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">concrete<\/span><\/span>, we attempt to help our audiences see specific realities or actual instances instead of abstract theories and ideas. The goal of concreteness is to help you, as a speaker, show your audience something instead of just telling them. Imagine you\u2019ve decided to give a speech on the importance of freedom. You could easily stand up and talk about the philosophical work of Rudolf Steiner, who divided the ideas of freedom into freedom of thought and freedom of action. If you\u2019re like us, even reading that sentence can make you want to go to sleep. Instead of defining what those terms mean and discussing the philosophical merits of Steiner, you could use real examples where people\u2019s freedom to think or freedom to behave has been stifled. For example, you could talk about how Afghani women under Taliban rule have been denied access to education, and how those seeking education have risked public flogging and even execution.<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn13_012\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Iacopino, V., &amp; Rasekh, Z. (1998). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">The Taliban's war on women: A health and human rights crisis in Afghanistan<\/em>. Boston, MA: Physicians for Human Rights.[\/footnote]<\/span> You could further illustrate how Afghani women under the Taliban are forced to adhere to rigid interpretations of Islamic law that functionally limit their behavior. As illustrations of the two freedoms discussed by Steiner, these examples make things more concrete for audience members and thus easier to remember. Ultimately, the goal of concreteness is to show an audience something instead of talking about it abstractly.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Simile<\/h2>\r\nThe second form of imagery is <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">simile<\/span><\/span>. As you probably learned in English courses, a simile is a figure of speech in which two unlike things are explicitly compared. Both aspects being compared within a simile are able to remain separate within the comparison. The following are some examples:\r\n<ul id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s02_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n\t<li>The thunderous applause was <em class=\"im_emphasis\">like<\/em> a party among the gods.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>After the revelation, she was as angry <em class=\"im_emphasis\">as<\/em> a raccoon caught in a cage.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Love is <em class=\"im_emphasis\">like<\/em> a battlefield.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nWhen we look at these two examples, you\u2019ll see that two words have been italicized: \u201clike\u201d and \u201cas.\u201d All similes contain either \u201clike\u201d or \u201cas\u201d within the comparison. Speakers use similes to help an audience understand a specific characteristic being described within the speech. In the first example, we are connecting the type of applause being heard to something supernatural, so we can imagine that the applause was huge and enormous. Now think how you would envision the event if the simile likened the applause to a mime convention\u2014your mental picture changes dramatically, doesn\u2019t it?\r\n\r\nTo effectively use similes within your speech, first look for instances where you may already be finding yourself using the words \u201clike\u201d or \u201cas\u201d\u2014for example, \u201chis breath smelled like a fishing boat on a hot summer day.\u201d Second, when you find situations where you are comparing two things using \u201clike\u201d or \u201cas,\u201d examine what it is that you are actually comparing. For example, maybe you\u2019re comparing someone\u2019s breath to the odor of a fishing vessel. Lastly, once you see what two ideas you are comparing, check the mental picture for yourself. Are you getting the kind of mental image you desire? Is the image too strong? Is the image too weak? You can always alter the image to make it stronger or weaker depending on what your aim is.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Metaphor<\/h2>\r\nThe other commonly used form of imagery is the <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">metaphor<\/span><\/span>, or a figure of speech where a term or phrase is applied to something in a nonliteral way to suggest a resemblance. In the case of a metaphor, one of the comparison items is said to <em class=\"im_emphasis\">be<\/em> the other (even though this is realistically not possible). Let\u2019s look at a few examples:\r\n<ul id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s03_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n\t<li>Love is a <em class=\"im_emphasis\">battlefield<\/em>.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Upon hearing the charges, the accused <em class=\"im_emphasis\">clammed up<\/em> and refused to speak without a lawyer.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Every year a new <em class=\"im_emphasis\">crop<\/em> of activists are <em class=\"im_emphasis\">born<\/em>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn these examples, the comparison word has been italicized. Let\u2019s think through each of these examples. In the first one, the comparison is the same as one of our simile examples except that the word \u201clike\u201d is omitted\u2014instead of being <em class=\"im_emphasis\">like<\/em> a battlefield, the metaphor states that love <em class=\"im_emphasis\">is<\/em> a battlefield, and it is understood that the speaker does not mean the comparison literally. In the second example, the accused \u201cclams up,\u201d which means that the accused refused to talk in the same way a clam\u2019s shell is closed. In the third example, we refer to activists as \u201ccrops\u201d that arise anew with each growing season, and we use \u201cborn\u201d figuratively to indicate that they come into being\u2014even though it is understood that they are not newborn infants at the time when they become activists.\r\n\r\nTo use a metaphor effectively, first determine what you are trying to describe. For example, maybe you are talking about a college catalog that offers a wide variety of courses. Second, identify what it is that you want to say about the object you are trying to describe. Depending on whether you want your audience to think of the catalog as good or bad, you\u2019ll use different words to describe it. Lastly, identify the other object you want to compare the first one to, which should mirror the intentions in the second step. Let\u2019s look at two possible metaphors:\r\n<ol id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s03_l02\" class=\"im_orderedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n\t<li>Students <em class=\"im_emphasis\">groped<\/em> their way through the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">maze<\/em> of courses in the catalog.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Students <em class=\"im_emphasis\">feasted on<\/em> the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">abundance<\/em> of courses in the catalog.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nWhile both of these examples evoke comparisons with the course catalog, the first example is clearly more negative and the second is more positive.\r\n\r\nOne mistake people often make in using metaphors is to make two incompatible comparisons in the same sentence or line of thought. Here is an example:\r\n<ul id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s03_l03\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n\t<li>\u201cThat\u2019s awfully thin gruel for the right wing to hang their hats on.\u201d<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn13_013\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Nordquist, R. (2009). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Mixed metaphor<\/em>. Retrieved from About.com at <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/grammar.about.com\/od\/mo\/g\/mixmetterm.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/grammar.about.com\/od\/mo\/g\/mixmetterm.htm<\/a>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThis is known as a mixed metaphor, and it often has an incongruous or even hilarious effect. Unless you are aiming to entertain your audience with fractured use of language, be careful to avoid mixed metaphors.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Rhythm<\/h2>\r\nOur second guideline for effective language in a speech is to use rhythm. When most people think of rhythm, they immediately think about music. What they may not realize is that language is inherently musical; at least it can be. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Rhythm<\/span><\/span> refers to the patterned, recurring variance of elements of sound or speech. Whether someone is striking a drum with a stick or standing in front of a group speaking, rhythm is an important aspect of human communication. Think about your favorite public speaker. If you analyze his or her speaking pattern, you\u2019ll notice that there is a certain cadence to the speech. While much of this cadence is a result of the nonverbal components of speaking, some of the cadence comes from the language that is chosen as well. Let\u2019s examine four types of rhythmic language: parallelism, repetition, alliteration, and assonance.\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Parallelism<\/h2>\r\nWhen listing items in a sequence, audiences will respond more strongly when those ideas are presented in a grammatically parallel fashion, which is referred to as <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">parallelism<\/span><\/span>. For example, look at the following two examples and determine which one sounds better to you:\r\n<ol id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02_s01_l01\" class=\"im_orderedlist im_editable im_block\">\r\n\t<li>\u201cGive me liberty or I\u2019d rather die.\u201d<\/li>\r\n\t<li>\u201cGive me liberty or give me death.\u201d<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nTechnically, you\u2019re saying the same thing in both, but the second one has better rhythm, and this rhythm comes from the parallel construction of \u201cgive me.\u201d The lack of parallelism in the first example makes the sentence sound disjointed and ineffective.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Repetition<\/h2>\r\nAs we mentioned earlier in this chapter, one of the major differences between oral and written language is the use of <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">repetition<\/span><\/span>. Because speeches are communicated orally, audience members need to hear the core of the message repeated consistently. Repetition as a linguistic device is designed to help audiences become familiar with a short piece of the speech as they hear it over and over again. By repeating a phrase during a speech, you create a specific rhythm. Probably the most famous and memorable use of repetition within a speech is Martin Luther King Jr.\u2019s use of \u201cI have a dream\u201d in his speech at the Lincoln Memorial on August 1963 during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. In that speech, Martin Luther King Jr. repeated the phrase \u201cI have a dream\u201d eight times to great effect.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Alliteration<\/h2>\r\nAnother type of rhythmic language is <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">alliteration<\/span><\/span>, or repeating two or more words in a series that begin with the same consonant. In the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Harry Potter<\/em> novel series, the author uses alliteration to name the four wizards who founded Hogwarts School for Witchcraft and Wizardry: Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, Rowena Ravenclaw, and Salazar Slytherin. There are two basic types of alliteration: immediate juxtaposition and nonimmediate juxtaposition. <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Immediate juxtaposition<\/em> occurs when the consonants clearly follow one after the other\u2014as we see in the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Harry Potter<\/em> example. <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Nonimmediate juxtaposition<\/em> occurs when the consonants are repeated in nonadjacent words (e.g., \u201cIt is the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">p<\/strong>oison that we must <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">p<\/strong>urge from our <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">p<\/strong>olitics, the wall that we must tear down before the hour grows too late\u201d).<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn13_014\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Obama, B. (2008, January 20). The great need of the hour. Remarks delivered at Ebenezer Baptist Church, Atlanta. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.realclearpolitics.com\/articles\/2008\/01\/the_great_need_of_the_hour.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.realclearpolitics.com\/articles\/2008\/01\/the_great_need_of_the_hour.html<\/a>[\/footnote]<\/span> Sometimes you can actually use examples of both immediate and nonimmediate juxtaposition within a single speech. The following example is from Bill Clinton\u2019s acceptance speech at the 1992 Democratic National Convention: \u201cSomewhere at this very moment, a child is <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">b<\/strong>eing <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">b<\/strong>orn in America. Let it be our cause to give that child a <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">h<\/strong>appy <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">h<\/strong>ome, a <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">h<\/strong>ealthy family, and a <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">h<\/strong>opeful future.\u201d<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn13_015\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]Clinton, W. J. (2005). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">My life<\/em>. New York, NY: Vintage Books, p. 421.[\/footnote]<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Assonance<\/h2>\r\n<span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Assonance<\/span><\/span> is similar to alliteration, but instead of relying on consonants, assonance gets its rhythm from repeating the same vowel sounds with different consonants in the stressed syllables. The phrase \u201chow now brown cow,\u201d which elocution students traditionally used to learn to pronounce rounded vowel sounds, is an example of assonance. While rhymes like \u201cfree as a breeze,\u201d \u201cmad as a hatter,\u201d and \u201cno pain, no gain\u201d are examples of assonance, speakers should be wary of relying on assonance because when it is overused it can quickly turn into bad poetry.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Use Inclusive Language<\/h2>\r\nLanguage can either inspire your listeners or turn them off very quickly. One of the fastest ways to alienate an audience is through the use of noninclusive language. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Inclusive language<\/span><\/span> is language that avoids placing any one group of people above or below other groups while speaking. Let\u2019s look at some common problem areas related to language about gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and disabilities.\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Gender-Specific Language<\/h2>\r\nThe first common form of noninclusive language is language that privileges one of the sexes over the other. There are three common problem areas that speakers run into while speaking: using \u201che\u201d as generic, using \u201cman\u201d to mean all humans, and gender typing jobs.\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s01_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Generic \u201cHe\u201d<\/h2>\r\nThe generic \u201che\u201d happens when a speaker labels all people within a group as \u201che\u201d when in reality there is a mixed sex group involved. Consider the statement, \u201cEvery morning when an officer of the law puts on his badge, he risks his life to serve and protect his fellow citizens.\u201d In this case, we have a police officer that is labeled as male four different times in one sentence. Obviously, both male and female police officers risk their lives when they put on their badges. A better way to word the sentence would be, \u201cEvery morning when officers of the law put on their badges, they risk their lives to serve and protect their fellow citizens.\u201d Notice that in the better sentence, we made the subject plural (\u201cofficers\u201d) and used neutral pronouns (\u201cthey\u201d and \u201ctheir\u201d) to avoid the generic \u201che.\u201d\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s01_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Use of \u201cMan\u201d<\/h2>\r\nTraditionally, speakers of English have used terms like \u201cman,\u201d \u201cmankind,\u201d and (in casual contexts) \u201cguys\u201d when referring to both females and males. In the second half of the twentieth century, as society became more aware of gender bias in language, organizations like the National Council of Teachers of English developed guidelines for nonsexist language.<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn13_016\" class=\"im_footnote\">[footnote]National Council of Teachers of English (2002). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Guidelines for gender-fair use of language<\/em>. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncte.org\/positions\/statements\/genderfairuseoflang\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ncte.org\/positions\/statements\/genderfairuseoflang<\/a>[\/footnote]<\/span> For example, instead of using the word \u201cman,\u201d you could refer to the \u201chuman race.\u201d Instead of saying, \u201chey, guys,\u201d you could say, \u201cOK, everyone.\u201d By using gender-fair language you will be able to convey your meaning just as well, and you won\u2019t risk alienating half of your audience.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s01_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Gender-Typed Jobs<\/h2>\r\nThe last common area where speakers get into trouble with gender and language has to do with job titles. It is not unusual for people to assume, for example, that doctors are male and nurses are female. As a result, they may say \u201cshe is a woman doctor\u201d or \u201che is a male nurse\u201d when mentioning someone\u2019s occupation, perhaps not realizing that the statements \u201cshe is a doctor\u201d and \u201che is a nurse\u201d already inform the listener as to the sex of the person holding that job. Speakers sometimes also use a gender-specific pronoun to refer to an occupation that has both males and females. Table 1 \"Gender Type Jobs\" lists some common gender-specific jobs titles along with more inclusive versions of those job titles.\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s01_s03_t01\" class=\"im_table im_block\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"im_title-prefix\">Table 1.<\/span>\u00a0Gender Type Jobs\r\n<table cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Exclusive Language<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<th><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Inclusive Language<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Policeman<\/td>\r\n<td>Police officer<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Businessman<\/td>\r\n<td>Businessperson<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Fireman<\/td>\r\n<td>Firefighter<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Stewardess<\/td>\r\n<td>Flight attendant<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Waiters<\/td>\r\n<td>Wait staff \/ servers<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Mailman<\/td>\r\n<td>Letter carrier \/ postal worker<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Barmaid<\/td>\r\n<td>Bartender<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Ethnic Identity<\/h2>\r\nAnother type of inclusive language relates to the categories used to highlight an individual\u2019s ethnic identity. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Ethnic identity<\/span><\/span> refers to a group an individual identifies with based on a common culture. For example, within the United States we have numerous ethnic groups, including Italian Americans, Irish Americans, Japanese Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Cuban Americans, and Mexican Americans. As with the earlier example of \u201cmale nurse,\u201d avoid statements such as \u201cThe committee is made up of four women and a Vietnamese man.\u201d Instead, say, \u201cThe committee is made up of four women and a man\u201d or, if race and ethnicity are central to the discussion, \u201cThe committee is made up of three European American women, an Israeli American woman, a Brazilian American woman, and a Vietnamese American man.\u201d In recent years, there has been a trend toward steering inclusive language away from broad terms like \u201cAsians\u201d and \u201cHispanics\u201d because these terms are not considered precise labels for the groups they actually represent. If you want to be safe, the best thing you can do is ask a couple of people who belong to an ethnic group how they prefer to label themselves.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Sexual Orientation<\/h2>\r\nAnother area that can cause some problems is referred to as heterosexism. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Heterosexism<\/span><\/span> occurs when a speaker presumes that everyone in an audience is heterosexual or that opposite-sex relationships are the only norm. For example, a speaker might begin a speech by saying, \u201cI am going to talk about the legal obligations you will have with your future husband or wife.\u201d While this speech starts with the notion that everyone plans on getting married, which isn\u2019t the case, it also assumes that everyone will label their significant others as either \u201chusbands\u201d or \u201cwives.\u201d Although some members of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender\/transexual community will use these terms, others prefer for more gender neutral terms like \u201cspouse\u201d and \u201cpartner.\u201d Moreover, legal obligations for same-sex couples may be very different from those for heterosexual couples. Notice also that we have used the phrase \u201cmembers of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender\/transexual community\u201d instead of the more clinical-sounding term \u201chomosexual.\u201d\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Disability<\/h2>\r\nThe last category of exclusive versus inclusive language that causes problems for some speakers relates to individuals with physical or mental disabilities. Table 2 \"Inclusive Language for Disabilities\" provides some other examples of exclusive versus inclusive language.\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s04_t01\" class=\"im_table im_block\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"im_title-prefix\">Table 2.<\/span> Inclusive Language for Disabilities\r\n<table cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Exclusive Language<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<th><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Inclusive Language<\/strong><\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Handicapped People<\/td>\r\n<td>People with disabilities<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Insane Person<\/td>\r\n<td>Person with a psychiatric disability (or label the psychiatric diagnosis, e.g. \u201cperson with schizophrenia\u201d)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Person in a wheelchair<\/td>\r\n<td>Person who uses a wheelchair<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Crippled<\/td>\r\n<td>Person with a physical disability<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Special needs program<\/td>\r\n<td>Accessible needs program<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Mentally retarded<\/td>\r\n<td>Person with an intellectual disability<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\r\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Use Familiar Language<\/h2>\r\nThe last category related to using language appropriately simply asks you to use language that is familiar both to yourself and to your audience. If you are not comfortable with the language you are using, then you are going to be more nervous speaking, which will definitely have an impact on how your audience receives your speech. You may have a hard time speaking genuinely and sincerely if you use unfamiliar language, and this can impair your credibility. Furthermore, you want to make sure that the language you are using is familiar to your audience. If your audience cannot understand what you are saying, you will not have an effective speech.\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Key Takeaways<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Using appropriate language means that a speaker\u2019s language is suitable or fitting for themselves, as the speaker; our audience; the speaking context; and the speech itself.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Vivid language helps listeners create mental images. It involves both imagery (e.g., concreteness, simile, and metaphor) and rhythm (e.g., parallelism, repetition, alliteration, and assonance).<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Inclusive language avoids placing any one group of people above or below other groups while speaking. As such, speakers need to think about how they refer to various groups within society.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Using familiar language is important for a speaker because familiar language will make a speaker more comfortable, which will improve audience perceptions of the speech.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Exercises<\/h3>\r\n<ol id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s04_l02\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\r\n\t<li>Watch the news and find an example of someone using inappropriate language. Why did the speaker use inappropriate language? How could the speaker have prevented the use of inappropriate language?<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Watch a presidential press conference or a political speech. Identify the uses of imagery and rhythm. How did the imagery and rhythm help the speech? Can you think of other ways the speaker could have used imagery and rhythm?<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Why is inclusive language important? Write down the various groups you belong to in life; how would you want these groups to be referred to by a speaker? Share your list with a friend or classmate and see if that person reaches the same conclusions you do. If there are differences in your perceptions, why do you think those differences are present?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain what it means to use appropriate language.<\/li>\n<li>Explain what is meant by vivid language.<\/li>\n<li>Define inclusive language and explain why using it is important for public speakers.<\/li>\n<li>Explain the importance of using familiar language in public speaking.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>When considering how to use language effectively in your speech, consider the degree to which the language is appropriate, vivid, inclusive, and familiar. The next sections define each of these aspects of language and discuss why each is important in public speaking.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Use Appropriate Language<\/h2>\n<p>As with anything in life, there are positive and negative ways of using language. One of the first concepts a speaker needs to think about when looking at language use is appropriateness. By appropriate, we mean whether the language is suitable or fitting for ourselves, as the speaker; our audience; the speaking context; and the speech itself.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s01_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Appropriate for the Speaker<\/h2>\n<p>One of the first questions to ask yourself is whether the language you plan on using in a speech fits with your own speaking pattern. Not all language choices are appropriate for all speakers. The language you select should be suitable for you, not someone else. If you\u2019re a first-year college student, there\u2019s no need to force yourself to sound like an astrophysicist even if you are giving a speech on new planets. One of the biggest mistakes novice speakers make is thinking that they have to use million-dollar words because it makes them sound smarter. Actually, million-dollar words don\u2019t tend to function well in oral communication to begin with, so using them will probably make you uncomfortable as a speaker. Also, it may be difficult for you or the audience to understand the nuances of meaning when you use such words, so using them can increase the risk of denotative or connotative misunderstandings.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s01_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Appropriate for the Audience<\/h2>\n<p>The second aspect of appropriateness asks whether the language you are choosing is appropriate for your specific audience. Let\u2019s say that you\u2019re an engineering student. If you\u2019re giving a presentation in an engineering class, you can use language that other engineering students will know. On the other hand, if you use that engineering vocabulary in a public speaking class, many audience members will not understand you. As another example, if you are speaking about the Great Depression to an audience of young adults, you can\u2019t assume they will know the meaning of terms like \u201cNew Deal\u201d and \u201cWPA,\u201d which would be familiar to an audience of senior citizens. In other chapters of this book, we have explained the importance of audience analysis; once again, audience analysis is a key factor in choosing the language to use in a speech.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s01_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Appropriate for the Context<\/h2>\n<p>The next question about appropriateness is whether the language you will use is suitable or fitting for the context itself. The language you may employ if you\u2019re addressing a student assembly in a high school auditorium will differ from the language you would use at a business meeting in a hotel ballroom. If you\u2019re giving a speech at an outdoor rally, you cannot use the same language you would use in a classroom. Recall that the speaking context includes the occasion, the time of day, the mood of the audience, and other factors in addition to the physical location. Take the entire speaking context into consideration when you make the language choices for your speech.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s01_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Appropriate for the Topic<\/h2>\n<p>The fourth and final question about the appropriateness of language involves whether the language is appropriate for your specific topic. If you are speaking about the early years of The Walt Disney Company, would you want to refer to Walt Disney as a \u201cthaumaturgic\u201d individual (i.e., one who works wonders or miracles)? While the word \u201cthaumaturgic\u201d may be accurate, is it the most appropriate for the topic at hand? As another example, if your speech topic is the dual residence model of string theory, it makes sense to expect that you will use more sophisticated language than if your topic was a basic introduction to the physics of, say, sound or light waves.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Use Vivid Language<\/h2>\n<p>After appropriateness, the second main guideline for using language is to use vivid language. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Vivid language<\/span><\/span> helps your listeners create strong, distinct, clear, and memorable mental images. Good vivid language usage helps an audience member truly understand and imagine what a speaker is saying. Two common ways to make your speaking more vivid are through the use of imagery and rhythm.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Imagery<\/h2>\n<p><span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Imagery<\/span><\/span> is the use of language to represent objects, actions, or ideas. The goal of imagery is to help an audience member create a mental picture of what a speaker is saying. A speaker who uses imagery successfully will tap into one or more of the audience\u2019s five basic senses (hearing, taste, touch, smell, and sight). Three common tools of imagery are concreteness, simile, and metaphor.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Concreteness<\/h2>\n<p>When we use language that is <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">concrete<\/span><\/span>, we attempt to help our audiences see specific realities or actual instances instead of abstract theories and ideas. The goal of concreteness is to help you, as a speaker, show your audience something instead of just telling them. Imagine you\u2019ve decided to give a speech on the importance of freedom. You could easily stand up and talk about the philosophical work of Rudolf Steiner, who divided the ideas of freedom into freedom of thought and freedom of action. If you\u2019re like us, even reading that sentence can make you want to go to sleep. Instead of defining what those terms mean and discussing the philosophical merits of Steiner, you could use real examples where people\u2019s freedom to think or freedom to behave has been stifled. For example, you could talk about how Afghani women under Taliban rule have been denied access to education, and how those seeking education have risked public flogging and even execution.<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn13_012\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Iacopino, V., &amp; Rasekh, Z. (1998). The Taliban's war on women: A health and human rights crisis in Afghanistan. Boston, MA: Physicians for Human Rights.\" id=\"return-footnote-109-1\" href=\"#footnote-109-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> You could further illustrate how Afghani women under the Taliban are forced to adhere to rigid interpretations of Islamic law that functionally limit their behavior. As illustrations of the two freedoms discussed by Steiner, these examples make things more concrete for audience members and thus easier to remember. Ultimately, the goal of concreteness is to show an audience something instead of talking about it abstractly.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Simile<\/h2>\n<p>The second form of imagery is <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">simile<\/span><\/span>. As you probably learned in English courses, a simile is a figure of speech in which two unlike things are explicitly compared. Both aspects being compared within a simile are able to remain separate within the comparison. The following are some examples:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s02_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>The thunderous applause was <em class=\"im_emphasis\">like<\/em> a party among the gods.<\/li>\n<li>After the revelation, she was as angry <em class=\"im_emphasis\">as<\/em> a raccoon caught in a cage.<\/li>\n<li>Love is <em class=\"im_emphasis\">like<\/em> a battlefield.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>When we look at these two examples, you\u2019ll see that two words have been italicized: \u201clike\u201d and \u201cas.\u201d All similes contain either \u201clike\u201d or \u201cas\u201d within the comparison. Speakers use similes to help an audience understand a specific characteristic being described within the speech. In the first example, we are connecting the type of applause being heard to something supernatural, so we can imagine that the applause was huge and enormous. Now think how you would envision the event if the simile likened the applause to a mime convention\u2014your mental picture changes dramatically, doesn\u2019t it?<\/p>\n<p>To effectively use similes within your speech, first look for instances where you may already be finding yourself using the words \u201clike\u201d or \u201cas\u201d\u2014for example, \u201chis breath smelled like a fishing boat on a hot summer day.\u201d Second, when you find situations where you are comparing two things using \u201clike\u201d or \u201cas,\u201d examine what it is that you are actually comparing. For example, maybe you\u2019re comparing someone\u2019s breath to the odor of a fishing vessel. Lastly, once you see what two ideas you are comparing, check the mental picture for yourself. Are you getting the kind of mental image you desire? Is the image too strong? Is the image too weak? You can always alter the image to make it stronger or weaker depending on what your aim is.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Metaphor<\/h2>\n<p>The other commonly used form of imagery is the <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">metaphor<\/span><\/span>, or a figure of speech where a term or phrase is applied to something in a nonliteral way to suggest a resemblance. In the case of a metaphor, one of the comparison items is said to <em class=\"im_emphasis\">be<\/em> the other (even though this is realistically not possible). Let\u2019s look at a few examples:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s03_l01\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>Love is a <em class=\"im_emphasis\">battlefield<\/em>.<\/li>\n<li>Upon hearing the charges, the accused <em class=\"im_emphasis\">clammed up<\/em> and refused to speak without a lawyer.<\/li>\n<li>Every year a new <em class=\"im_emphasis\">crop<\/em> of activists are <em class=\"im_emphasis\">born<\/em>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In these examples, the comparison word has been italicized. Let\u2019s think through each of these examples. In the first one, the comparison is the same as one of our simile examples except that the word \u201clike\u201d is omitted\u2014instead of being <em class=\"im_emphasis\">like<\/em> a battlefield, the metaphor states that love <em class=\"im_emphasis\">is<\/em> a battlefield, and it is understood that the speaker does not mean the comparison literally. In the second example, the accused \u201cclams up,\u201d which means that the accused refused to talk in the same way a clam\u2019s shell is closed. In the third example, we refer to activists as \u201ccrops\u201d that arise anew with each growing season, and we use \u201cborn\u201d figuratively to indicate that they come into being\u2014even though it is understood that they are not newborn infants at the time when they become activists.<\/p>\n<p>To use a metaphor effectively, first determine what you are trying to describe. For example, maybe you are talking about a college catalog that offers a wide variety of courses. Second, identify what it is that you want to say about the object you are trying to describe. Depending on whether you want your audience to think of the catalog as good or bad, you\u2019ll use different words to describe it. Lastly, identify the other object you want to compare the first one to, which should mirror the intentions in the second step. Let\u2019s look at two possible metaphors:<\/p>\n<ol id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s03_l02\" class=\"im_orderedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>Students <em class=\"im_emphasis\">groped<\/em> their way through the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">maze<\/em> of courses in the catalog.<\/li>\n<li>Students <em class=\"im_emphasis\">feasted on<\/em> the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">abundance<\/em> of courses in the catalog.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>While both of these examples evoke comparisons with the course catalog, the first example is clearly more negative and the second is more positive.<\/p>\n<p>One mistake people often make in using metaphors is to make two incompatible comparisons in the same sentence or line of thought. Here is an example:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s01_s03_l03\" class=\"im_itemizedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>\u201cThat\u2019s awfully thin gruel for the right wing to hang their hats on.\u201d<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn13_013\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Nordquist, R. (2009). Mixed metaphor. Retrieved from About.com at http:\/\/grammar.about.com\/od\/mo\/g\/mixmetterm.htm\" id=\"return-footnote-109-2\" href=\"#footnote-109-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>This is known as a mixed metaphor, and it often has an incongruous or even hilarious effect. Unless you are aiming to entertain your audience with fractured use of language, be careful to avoid mixed metaphors.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Rhythm<\/h2>\n<p>Our second guideline for effective language in a speech is to use rhythm. When most people think of rhythm, they immediately think about music. What they may not realize is that language is inherently musical; at least it can be. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Rhythm<\/span><\/span> refers to the patterned, recurring variance of elements of sound or speech. Whether someone is striking a drum with a stick or standing in front of a group speaking, rhythm is an important aspect of human communication. Think about your favorite public speaker. If you analyze his or her speaking pattern, you\u2019ll notice that there is a certain cadence to the speech. While much of this cadence is a result of the nonverbal components of speaking, some of the cadence comes from the language that is chosen as well. Let\u2019s examine four types of rhythmic language: parallelism, repetition, alliteration, and assonance.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Parallelism<\/h2>\n<p>When listing items in a sequence, audiences will respond more strongly when those ideas are presented in a grammatically parallel fashion, which is referred to as <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">parallelism<\/span><\/span>. For example, look at the following two examples and determine which one sounds better to you:<\/p>\n<ol id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02_s01_l01\" class=\"im_orderedlist im_editable im_block\">\n<li>\u201cGive me liberty or I\u2019d rather die.\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cGive me liberty or give me death.\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Technically, you\u2019re saying the same thing in both, but the second one has better rhythm, and this rhythm comes from the parallel construction of \u201cgive me.\u201d The lack of parallelism in the first example makes the sentence sound disjointed and ineffective.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Repetition<\/h2>\n<p>As we mentioned earlier in this chapter, one of the major differences between oral and written language is the use of <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">repetition<\/span><\/span>. Because speeches are communicated orally, audience members need to hear the core of the message repeated consistently. Repetition as a linguistic device is designed to help audiences become familiar with a short piece of the speech as they hear it over and over again. By repeating a phrase during a speech, you create a specific rhythm. Probably the most famous and memorable use of repetition within a speech is Martin Luther King Jr.\u2019s use of \u201cI have a dream\u201d in his speech at the Lincoln Memorial on August 1963 during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. In that speech, Martin Luther King Jr. repeated the phrase \u201cI have a dream\u201d eight times to great effect.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Alliteration<\/h2>\n<p>Another type of rhythmic language is <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">alliteration<\/span><\/span>, or repeating two or more words in a series that begin with the same consonant. In the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Harry Potter<\/em> novel series, the author uses alliteration to name the four wizards who founded Hogwarts School for Witchcraft and Wizardry: Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, Rowena Ravenclaw, and Salazar Slytherin. There are two basic types of alliteration: immediate juxtaposition and nonimmediate juxtaposition. <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Immediate juxtaposition<\/em> occurs when the consonants clearly follow one after the other\u2014as we see in the <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Harry Potter<\/em> example. <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Nonimmediate juxtaposition<\/em> occurs when the consonants are repeated in nonadjacent words (e.g., \u201cIt is the <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">p<\/strong>oison that we must <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">p<\/strong>urge from our <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">p<\/strong>olitics, the wall that we must tear down before the hour grows too late\u201d).<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn13_014\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Obama, B. (2008, January 20). The great need of the hour. Remarks delivered at Ebenezer Baptist Church, Atlanta. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.realclearpolitics.com\/articles\/2008\/01\/the_great_need_of_the_hour.html\" id=\"return-footnote-109-3\" href=\"#footnote-109-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Sometimes you can actually use examples of both immediate and nonimmediate juxtaposition within a single speech. The following example is from Bill Clinton\u2019s acceptance speech at the 1992 Democratic National Convention: \u201cSomewhere at this very moment, a child is <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">b<\/strong>eing <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">b<\/strong>orn in America. Let it be our cause to give that child a <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">h<\/strong>appy <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">h<\/strong>ome, a <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">h<\/strong>ealthy family, and a <strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">h<\/strong>opeful future.\u201d<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn13_015\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Clinton, W. J. (2005). My life. New York, NY: Vintage Books, p. 421.\" id=\"return-footnote-109-4\" href=\"#footnote-109-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s02_s02_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Assonance<\/h2>\n<p><span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Assonance<\/span><\/span> is similar to alliteration, but instead of relying on consonants, assonance gets its rhythm from repeating the same vowel sounds with different consonants in the stressed syllables. The phrase \u201chow now brown cow,\u201d which elocution students traditionally used to learn to pronounce rounded vowel sounds, is an example of assonance. While rhymes like \u201cfree as a breeze,\u201d \u201cmad as a hatter,\u201d and \u201cno pain, no gain\u201d are examples of assonance, speakers should be wary of relying on assonance because when it is overused it can quickly turn into bad poetry.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Use Inclusive Language<\/h2>\n<p>Language can either inspire your listeners or turn them off very quickly. One of the fastest ways to alienate an audience is through the use of noninclusive language. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Inclusive language<\/span><\/span> is language that avoids placing any one group of people above or below other groups while speaking. Let\u2019s look at some common problem areas related to language about gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and disabilities.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Gender-Specific Language<\/h2>\n<p>The first common form of noninclusive language is language that privileges one of the sexes over the other. There are three common problem areas that speakers run into while speaking: using \u201che\u201d as generic, using \u201cman\u201d to mean all humans, and gender typing jobs.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s01_s01\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Generic \u201cHe\u201d<\/h2>\n<p>The generic \u201che\u201d happens when a speaker labels all people within a group as \u201che\u201d when in reality there is a mixed sex group involved. Consider the statement, \u201cEvery morning when an officer of the law puts on his badge, he risks his life to serve and protect his fellow citizens.\u201d In this case, we have a police officer that is labeled as male four different times in one sentence. Obviously, both male and female police officers risk their lives when they put on their badges. A better way to word the sentence would be, \u201cEvery morning when officers of the law put on their badges, they risk their lives to serve and protect their fellow citizens.\u201d Notice that in the better sentence, we made the subject plural (\u201cofficers\u201d) and used neutral pronouns (\u201cthey\u201d and \u201ctheir\u201d) to avoid the generic \u201che.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s01_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Use of \u201cMan\u201d<\/h2>\n<p>Traditionally, speakers of English have used terms like \u201cman,\u201d \u201cmankind,\u201d and (in casual contexts) \u201cguys\u201d when referring to both females and males. In the second half of the twentieth century, as society became more aware of gender bias in language, organizations like the National Council of Teachers of English developed guidelines for nonsexist language.<span id=\"wrench_1.0-fn13_016\" class=\"im_footnote\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"National Council of Teachers of English (2002). Guidelines for gender-fair use of language. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.ncte.org\/positions\/statements\/genderfairuseoflang\" id=\"return-footnote-109-5\" href=\"#footnote-109-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> For example, instead of using the word \u201cman,\u201d you could refer to the \u201chuman race.\u201d Instead of saying, \u201chey, guys,\u201d you could say, \u201cOK, everyone.\u201d By using gender-fair language you will be able to convey your meaning just as well, and you won\u2019t risk alienating half of your audience.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s01_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Gender-Typed Jobs<\/h2>\n<p>The last common area where speakers get into trouble with gender and language has to do with job titles. It is not unusual for people to assume, for example, that doctors are male and nurses are female. As a result, they may say \u201cshe is a woman doctor\u201d or \u201che is a male nurse\u201d when mentioning someone\u2019s occupation, perhaps not realizing that the statements \u201cshe is a doctor\u201d and \u201che is a nurse\u201d already inform the listener as to the sex of the person holding that job. Speakers sometimes also use a gender-specific pronoun to refer to an occupation that has both males and females. Table 1 &#8220;Gender Type Jobs&#8221; lists some common gender-specific jobs titles along with more inclusive versions of those job titles.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s01_s03_t01\" class=\"im_table im_block\">\n<p><span class=\"im_title-prefix\">Table 1.<\/span>\u00a0Gender Type Jobs<\/p>\n<table cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Exclusive Language<\/strong><\/th>\n<th><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Inclusive Language<\/strong><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Policeman<\/td>\n<td>Police officer<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Businessman<\/td>\n<td>Businessperson<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Fireman<\/td>\n<td>Firefighter<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Stewardess<\/td>\n<td>Flight attendant<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Waiters<\/td>\n<td>Wait staff \/ servers<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Mailman<\/td>\n<td>Letter carrier \/ postal worker<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Barmaid<\/td>\n<td>Bartender<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s02\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Ethnic Identity<\/h2>\n<p>Another type of inclusive language relates to the categories used to highlight an individual\u2019s ethnic identity. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Ethnic identity<\/span><\/span> refers to a group an individual identifies with based on a common culture. For example, within the United States we have numerous ethnic groups, including Italian Americans, Irish Americans, Japanese Americans, Vietnamese Americans, Cuban Americans, and Mexican Americans. As with the earlier example of \u201cmale nurse,\u201d avoid statements such as \u201cThe committee is made up of four women and a Vietnamese man.\u201d Instead, say, \u201cThe committee is made up of four women and a man\u201d or, if race and ethnicity are central to the discussion, \u201cThe committee is made up of three European American women, an Israeli American woman, a Brazilian American woman, and a Vietnamese American man.\u201d In recent years, there has been a trend toward steering inclusive language away from broad terms like \u201cAsians\u201d and \u201cHispanics\u201d because these terms are not considered precise labels for the groups they actually represent. If you want to be safe, the best thing you can do is ask a couple of people who belong to an ethnic group how they prefer to label themselves.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s03\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Sexual Orientation<\/h2>\n<p>Another area that can cause some problems is referred to as heterosexism. <span class=\"im_margin_term\"><span class=\"im_glossterm\">Heterosexism<\/span><\/span> occurs when a speaker presumes that everyone in an audience is heterosexual or that opposite-sex relationships are the only norm. For example, a speaker might begin a speech by saying, \u201cI am going to talk about the legal obligations you will have with your future husband or wife.\u201d While this speech starts with the notion that everyone plans on getting married, which isn\u2019t the case, it also assumes that everyone will label their significant others as either \u201chusbands\u201d or \u201cwives.\u201d Although some members of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender\/transexual community will use these terms, others prefer for more gender neutral terms like \u201cspouse\u201d and \u201cpartner.\u201d Moreover, legal obligations for same-sex couples may be very different from those for heterosexual couples. Notice also that we have used the phrase \u201cmembers of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender\/transexual community\u201d instead of the more clinical-sounding term \u201chomosexual.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Disability<\/h2>\n<p>The last category of exclusive versus inclusive language that causes problems for some speakers relates to individuals with physical or mental disabilities. Table 2 &#8220;Inclusive Language for Disabilities&#8221; provides some other examples of exclusive versus inclusive language.<\/p>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s03_s04_t01\" class=\"im_table im_block\">\n<p><span class=\"im_title-prefix\">Table 2.<\/span> Inclusive Language for Disabilities<\/p>\n<table cellpadding=\"0\" style=\"border-spacing: 0px;\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Exclusive Language<\/strong><\/th>\n<th><strong class=\"im_emphasis im_bold\">Inclusive Language<\/strong><\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Handicapped People<\/td>\n<td>People with disabilities<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Insane Person<\/td>\n<td>Person with a psychiatric disability (or label the psychiatric diagnosis, e.g. \u201cperson with schizophrenia\u201d)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Person in a wheelchair<\/td>\n<td>Person who uses a wheelchair<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Crippled<\/td>\n<td>Person with a physical disability<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Special needs program<\/td>\n<td>Accessible needs program<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Mentally retarded<\/td>\n<td>Person with an intellectual disability<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s04\" class=\"im_section\">\n<h2 class=\"im_title im_editable im_block\">Use Familiar Language<\/h2>\n<p>The last category related to using language appropriately simply asks you to use language that is familiar both to yourself and to your audience. If you are not comfortable with the language you are using, then you are going to be more nervous speaking, which will definitely have an impact on how your audience receives your speech. You may have a hard time speaking genuinely and sincerely if you use unfamiliar language, and this can impair your credibility. Furthermore, you want to make sure that the language you are using is familiar to your audience. If your audience cannot understand what you are saying, you will not have an effective speech.<\/p>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Key Takeaways<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Using appropriate language means that a speaker\u2019s language is suitable or fitting for themselves, as the speaker; our audience; the speaking context; and the speech itself.<\/li>\n<li>Vivid language helps listeners create mental images. It involves both imagery (e.g., concreteness, simile, and metaphor) and rhythm (e.g., parallelism, repetition, alliteration, and assonance).<\/li>\n<li>Inclusive language avoids placing any one group of people above or below other groups while speaking. As such, speakers need to think about how they refer to various groups within society.<\/li>\n<li>Using familiar language is important for a speaker because familiar language will make a speaker more comfortable, which will improve audience perceptions of the speech.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3 class=\"im_title\">Exercises<\/h3>\n<ol id=\"wrench_1.0-ch13_s02_s04_l02\" class=\"im_orderedlist\">\n<li>Watch the news and find an example of someone using inappropriate language. Why did the speaker use inappropriate language? How could the speaker have prevented the use of inappropriate language?<\/li>\n<li>Watch a presidential press conference or a political speech. Identify the uses of imagery and rhythm. How did the imagery and rhythm help the speech? Can you think of other ways the speaker could have used imagery and rhythm?<\/li>\n<li>Why is inclusive language important? Write down the various groups you belong to in life; how would you want these groups to be referred to by a speaker? Share your list with a friend or classmate and see if that person reaches the same conclusions you do. If there are differences in your perceptions, why do you think those differences are present?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-109\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Public Speaking: Practice and Ethics. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Anonymous. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Anonymous. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/public-speaking-practice-and-ethics\/\">http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/public-speaking-practice-and-ethics\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-109-1\">Iacopino, V., &amp; Rasekh, Z. (1998). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">The Taliban's war on women: A health and human rights crisis in Afghanistan<\/em>. Boston, MA: Physicians for Human Rights. <a href=\"#return-footnote-109-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-109-2\">Nordquist, R. (2009). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Mixed metaphor<\/em>. Retrieved from About.com at <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/grammar.about.com\/od\/mo\/g\/mixmetterm.htm\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/grammar.about.com\/od\/mo\/g\/mixmetterm.htm<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-109-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-109-3\">Obama, B. (2008, January 20). The great need of the hour. Remarks delivered at Ebenezer Baptist Church, Atlanta. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.realclearpolitics.com\/articles\/2008\/01\/the_great_need_of_the_hour.html\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.realclearpolitics.com\/articles\/2008\/01\/the_great_need_of_the_hour.html<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-109-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-109-4\">Clinton, W. J. (2005). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">My life<\/em>. New York, NY: Vintage Books, p. 421. <a href=\"#return-footnote-109-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-109-5\">National Council of Teachers of English (2002). <em class=\"im_emphasis\">Guidelines for gender-fair use of language<\/em>. Retrieved from <a class=\"im_link\" href=\"http:\/\/www.ncte.org\/positions\/statements\/genderfairuseoflang\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.ncte.org\/positions\/statements\/genderfairuseoflang<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-109-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":9,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Public Speaking: Practice and Ethics\",\"author\":\"Anonymous\",\"organization\":\"Anonymous\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/2012books.lardbucket.org\/books\/public-speaking-practice-and-ethics\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-109","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":106,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/9"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":466,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/revisions\/466"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/106"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=109"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=109"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=109"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-standupspeakout-2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=109"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}