{"id":196,"date":"2015-08-21T18:07:01","date_gmt":"2015-08-21T18:07:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/ushistory2os2xmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=196"},"modified":"2016-08-11T08:00:26","modified_gmt":"2016-08-11T08:00:26","slug":"roosevelts-big-stick-foreign-policy","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-ushistory2os2xmaster\/chapter\/roosevelts-big-stick-foreign-policy\/","title":{"raw":"Roosevelt\u2019s \u201cBig Stick\u201d Foreign Policy","rendered":"Roosevelt\u2019s \u201cBig Stick\u201d Foreign Policy"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the meaning of \u201cbig stick\u201d foreign policy<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe Theodore Roosevelt\u2019s use of the \u201cbig stick\u201d to construct the Panama Canal<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the role of the United States in ending the Russo-Japanese War<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm142792912\">While President McKinley ushered in the era of the American empire through military strength and economic coercion, his successor, Theodore Roosevelt, established a new foreign policy approach, allegedly based on a favorite African proverb, \u201cspeak softly, and carry a big stick, and you will go far.\u201d\u00a0At the crux of his foreign policy was a thinly veiled threat. Roosevelt believed that in light of the country\u2019s recent military successes, it was unnecessary to <em data-effect=\"italics\">use<\/em> force to achieve foreign policy goals, so long as the military could <em data-effect=\"italics\">threaten<\/em> force. This rationale also rested on the young president\u2019s philosophy, which he termed the \u201cstrenuous life,\u201d and that prized challenges overseas as opportunities to instill American men with the resolve and vigor they allegedly had once acquired in the Trans-Mississippi West.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_22_04_BigStick\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"390\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203013\/CNX_History_22_04_BigStick.jpg\" alt=\"A cartoon, captioned \u201cThe Big Stick in the Caribbean Sea,\u201d shows a massive Roosevelt marching through the Caribbean Sea holding a stick labeled \u201cBig Stick.\u201d Various nations are labeled, including Santo Domingo, Cuba, Mexico, and Panama. Roosevelt pulls a boat labeled \u201cThe Receiver\u201d behind him on a string. Sailing around the perimeter of the Caribbean is a group of ships labeled \u201cDebt Collector\u201d and \u201cSheriff.\u201d\" width=\"390\" height=\"315\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Roosevelt was often depicted in cartoons wielding his \u201cbig stick\u201d and pushing the U.S. foreign agenda, often through the power of the U.S. Navy.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp102236032\">Roosevelt believed that while the coercive power wielded by the United States could be harmful in the wrong hands, the Western Hemisphere\u2019s best interests were also the best interests of the United States. He felt, in short, that the United States had the right and the obligation to be the policeman of the hemisphere. This belief, and his strategy of \u201cspeaking softly and carrying a big stick,\u201d shaped much of Roosevelt\u2019s foreign policy.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm31798832\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PANAMA CANAL<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp308988704\">As early as the mid-sixteenth century, interest in a canal across the Central American isthmus began to take root, primarily out of trade interests. The subsequent discovery of gold in California in 1848 further spurred interest in connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and led to the construction of the Panama Railway, which began operations in 1855. Several attempts by France to construct a canal between 1881 and 1894 failed due to a combination of financial crises and health hazards, including <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">malaria<\/span> and <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">yellow fever<\/span>, which led to the deaths of thousands of French workers.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm91795600\">Upon becoming president in 1901, Roosevelt was determined to succeed where others had failed. Following the advice that Mahan set forth in his book <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Influence of Seapower upon History<\/em>, he sought to achieve the construction of a canal across Central America, primarily for military reasons associated with empire, but also for international trade considerations. The most strategic point for the construction was across the fifty-mile isthmus of Panama, which, at the turn of the century, was part of the nation of Colombia. Roosevelt negotiated with the government of Colombia, sometimes threatening to take the project away and build through Nicaragua, until Colombia agreed to a treaty that would grant the United States a lease on the land across Panama in exchange for a payment of $10 million and an additional $250,000 annual rental fee. The matter was far from settled, however. The Colombian people were outraged over the loss of their land to the United States, and saw the payment as far too low. Influenced by the public outcry, the Colombian Senate rejected the treaty and informed Roosevelt there would be no canal.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp101309520\">Undaunted, Roosevelt chose to now wield the \u201cbig stick.\u201d In comments to journalists, he made it clear that the United States would strongly support the Panamanian people should they choose to revolt against Colombia and form their own nation. In November 1903, he even sent American battleships to the coast of Colombia, ostensibly for practice maneuvers, as the Panamanian revolution unfolded. The warships effectively blocked Colombia from moving additional troops into the region to quell the growing Panamanian uprising. Within a week, Roosevelt immediately recognized the new country of Panama, welcoming them to the world community and offering them the same terms\u2014$10 million plus the annual $250,000 rental fee\u2014he had previously offered Colombia. Following the successful revolution, Panama became an American protectorate, and remained so until 1939.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm25709744\">Once the Panamanian victory was secured, with American support, construction on the canal began in May 1904. For the first year of operations, the United States worked primarily to build adequate housing, cafeterias, warehouses, machine shops, and other elements of infrastructure that previous French efforts had failed to consider. Most importantly, the introduction of fumigation systems and mosquito nets following Dr. Walter Reed\u2019s discovery of the role of mosquitoes in the spread of malaria and yellow fever reduced the death rate and restored the fledgling morale among workers and American-born supervisors. At the same time, a new wave of American engineers planned for the construction of the canal. Even though they decided to build a lock-system rather than a sea-level canal, workers still had to excavate over 170 million cubic yards of earth with the use of over one hundred new rail-mounted steam shovels. Excited by the work, Roosevelt became the first sitting U.S. president to leave the country while in office. He traveled to Panama where he visited the construction site, taking a turn at the steam shovel and removing dirt. The canal opened in 1914, permanently changing world trade and military defense patterns.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_22_04_Canal\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"390\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203014\/CNX_History_22_04_Canal.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows the excavation of the Culebra Cut in the construction of the Panama Canal.\" width=\"390\" height=\"328\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Recurring landslides made the excavation of the Culebra Cut one of the most technically challenging elements in the construction of the Panama Canal.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure><\/section><section id=\"fs-idp11019392\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"title\">This <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wgbh\/americanexperience\/features\/timeline\/panama\/\" target=\"_blank\">timeline of the Panama Canal<\/a> illustrates the efforts involved in both the French and U.S. canal projects.<\/div>\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">THE ROOSEVELT COROLLARY<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm156642816\">With the construction of the canal now underway, Roosevelt next wanted to send a clear message to the rest of the world\u2014and in particular to his European counterparts\u2014that the colonization of the Western Hemisphere had now ended, and their interference in the countries there would no longer be tolerated. At the same time, he sent a message to his counterparts in Central and South America, should the United States see problems erupt in the region, that it would intervene in order to maintain peace and stability throughout the hemisphere.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm2862528\">Roosevelt articulated this seeming double standard in a 1904 address before Congress, in a speech that became known as the <span data-type=\"term\">Roosevelt Corollary<\/span>. The Roosevelt Corollary was based on the original Monroe Doctrine of the early nineteenth century, which warned European nations of the consequences of their interference in the Caribbean. In this addition, Roosevelt states that the United States would use military force \u201cas an international police power\u201d to correct any \u201cchronic wrongdoing\u201d by any Latin American nation that might threaten stability in the region. Unlike the Monroe Doctrine, which proclaimed an American policy of noninterference with its neighbors\u2019 affairs, the Roosevelt Corollary loudly proclaimed the right and obligation of the United States to involve itself whenever necessary.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm134488480\">Roosevelt immediately began to put the new corollary to work. He used it to establish protectorates over Cuba and Panama, as well as to direct the United States to manage the Dominican Republic\u2019s custom service revenues. Despite growing resentment from neighboring countries over American intervention in their internal affairs, as well as European concerns from afar, knowledge of Roosevelt\u2019s previous actions in Colombia concerning acquisition of land upon which to build the Panama Canal left many fearful of American reprisals should they resist. Eventually, Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin Roosevelt softened American rhetoric regarding U.S. domination of the Western Hemisphere, with the latter proclaiming a new \u201cGood Neighbor Policy\u201d that renounced American intervention in other nations\u2019 affairs. However, subsequent presidents would continue to reference aspects of the Roosevelt Corollary to justify American involvement in Haiti, Nicaragua, and other nations throughout the twentieth century. The map below\u00a0shows the widespread effects of Roosevelt\u2019s policies throughout Latin America.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_22_04_StickMap\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"585\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203016\/CNX_History_22_04_StickMap.jpg\" alt=\"A map is titled \u201cU.S. Involvement in Latin America under Roosevelt.\u201d Labeled regions include Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Jamaica, Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. A label pointing to Panama reads \u201cPanama Canal Zone created (1903).\u201d A label pointing to Cuba reads \u201cPlatt Amendment (1901); Cuban-American Treaty (1903).\u201d A label pointing to the Dominican Republic reads \u201cFinancial crisis prompts first use of Roosevelt Corollary (1904\u20131905).\u201d A label pointing to Puerto Rico reads \u201cForaker Act (1900).\u201d\" width=\"585\" height=\"342\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> From underwriting a revolution in Panama with the goal of building a canal to putting troops in Cuba, Roosevelt vastly increased the U.S. impact in Latin America.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm23361392\" class=\"history defining-american\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Defining American\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Roosevelt Corollary and Its Impact<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm26801248\">In 1904, Roosevelt put the United States in the role of the \u201cpolice power\u201d of the Western Hemisphere and set a course for the U.S. relationship with Central and Latin America that played out over the next several decades. He did so with the Roosevelt Corollary, in which he stated:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idp30883088\">\r\n<div>It is not true that the United States feels any land hunger or entertains any projects as regards the other nations of the Western Hemisphere save as such are for their welfare. All that this country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous. Any country whose people conduct themselves well can count upon our hearty friendship.\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0. Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however, reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power.\u201d<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm71706096\">In the twenty years after he made this statement, the United States would use military force in Latin America over a dozen times. The Roosevelt Corollary was used as a rationale for American involvement in the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Haiti, and other Latin American countries, straining relations between Central America and its dominant neighbor to the north throughout the twentieth century.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm48647008\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">AMERICAN INTERVENTION IN THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp45666688\">Although he supported the Open Door notes as an excellent economic policy in China, Roosevelt lamented the fact that the United States had no strong military presence in the region to enforce it. Clearly, without a military presence there, he could not as easily use his \u201cbig stick\u201d threat credibly to achieve his foreign policy goals. As a result, when conflicts did arise on the other side of the Pacific, Roosevelt adopted a policy of maintaining a balance of power among the nations there. This was particularly evident when the Russo-Japanese War erupted in 1904.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"260\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203017\/CNX_History_22_04_RussoJapan.jpg\" alt=\"A contemporaneous military map shows the battlefields of the Russo-Japanese War.\" width=\"260\" height=\"343\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Japan\u2019s defense against Russia was supported by President Roosevelt, but when Japan\u2019s ongoing victories put the United States\u2019 own Asian interests at risk, he stepped in.[\/caption]\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm74211632\">In 1904, angered by the massing of Russian troops along the Manchurian border, and the threat it represented to the region, Japan launched a surprise naval attack upon the Russian fleet. Initially, Roosevelt supported the Japanese position. However, when the Japanese fleet quickly achieved victory after victory, Roosevelt grew concerned over the growth of Japanese influence in the region and the continued threat that it represented to China and American access to those markets. Wishing to maintain the aforementioned balance of power, in 1905, Roosevelt arranged for diplomats from both nations to attend a secret peace conference in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The resultant negotiations secured peace in the region, with Japan gaining control over Korea, several former Russian bases in Manchuria, and the southern half of Sakhalin Island. These negotiations also garnered the Nobel Peace Prize for Roosevelt, the first American to receive the award.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm194134544\">When Japan later exercised its authority over its gains by forcing American business interests out of Manchuria in 1906\u20131907, Roosevelt felt he needed to invoke his \u201cbig stick\u201d foreign policy, even though the distance was great. He did so by sending the U.S. Great White Fleet on maneuvers in the western Pacific Ocean as a show of force from December 1907 through February 1909. Publicly described as a goodwill tour, the message to the Japanese government regarding American interests was equally clear. Subsequent negotiations reinforced the Open Door policy throughout China and the rest of Asia. Roosevelt had, by both the judicious use of the \u201cbig stick\u201d and his strategy of maintaining a balance of power, kept U.S. interests in Asia well protected.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idm199575280\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"title\">Browse the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.npg.si.edu\/exh\/roosevelt\/trintro2.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery<\/a> to follow Theodore Roosevelt from Rough Rider to president and beyond.<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox\" data-type=\"title\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Section Summary<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm198158400\">When Roosevelt succeeded McKinley as president, he implemented a key strategy for building an American empire: the threat, rather than the outright use, of military force. McKinley had engaged the U.S. military in several successful skirmishes and then used the country\u2019s superior industrial power to negotiate beneficial foreign trade agreements. Roosevelt, with his \u201cbig stick\u201d policy, was able to keep the United States out of military conflicts by employing the legitimate threat of force. Nonetheless, as negotiations with Japan illustrated, the maintenance of an empire was fraught with complexity. Changing alliances, shifting economic needs, and power politics all meant that the United States would need to tread carefully to maintain its status as a world power.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.openassessments.org\/assessments\/1027\r\n\r\n\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\r\n<section>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Compare Roosevelt\u2019s foreign policy in Latin America and Asia. Why did he employ these different methods?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\r\n<section>\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Roosevelt\u2019s strategy of \u201cspeaking softly and carrying a big stick\u201d worked well in Latin America, where the United States had a strong military presence and could quickly and easily act on any threat of military action. Roosevelt\u2019s threat of force was therefore credible in that region, and he was able to wield it effectively. In Asia, however, the United States had less of a military presence. Instead, Roosevelt sought to maintain a balance of power, wherein the various Asian countries kept each other in check and no single player grew too powerful. When the power balance tipped, Roosevelt acted to broker a peace deal between Russia and Japan as a means of restoring balance.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\"><section>\r\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Roosevelt Corollary\u00a0<\/strong>a statement by Theodore Roosevelt that the United States would use military force to act as an international police power and correct any chronic wrongdoing by any Latin American nation threatening the stability of the region\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the meaning of \u201cbig stick\u201d foreign policy<\/li>\n<li>Describe Theodore Roosevelt\u2019s use of the \u201cbig stick\u201d to construct the Panama Canal<\/li>\n<li>Explain the role of the United States in ending the Russo-Japanese War<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm142792912\">While President McKinley ushered in the era of the American empire through military strength and economic coercion, his successor, Theodore Roosevelt, established a new foreign policy approach, allegedly based on a favorite African proverb, \u201cspeak softly, and carry a big stick, and you will go far.\u201d\u00a0At the crux of his foreign policy was a thinly veiled threat. Roosevelt believed that in light of the country\u2019s recent military successes, it was unnecessary to <em data-effect=\"italics\">use<\/em> force to achieve foreign policy goals, so long as the military could <em data-effect=\"italics\">threaten<\/em> force. This rationale also rested on the young president\u2019s philosophy, which he termed the \u201cstrenuous life,\u201d and that prized challenges overseas as opportunities to instill American men with the resolve and vigor they allegedly had once acquired in the Trans-Mississippi West.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_22_04_BigStick\">\n<div style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203013\/CNX_History_22_04_BigStick.jpg\" alt=\"A cartoon, captioned \u201cThe Big Stick in the Caribbean Sea,\u201d shows a massive Roosevelt marching through the Caribbean Sea holding a stick labeled \u201cBig Stick.\u201d Various nations are labeled, including Santo Domingo, Cuba, Mexico, and Panama. Roosevelt pulls a boat labeled \u201cThe Receiver\u201d behind him on a string. Sailing around the perimeter of the Caribbean is a group of ships labeled \u201cDebt Collector\u201d and \u201cSheriff.\u201d\" width=\"390\" height=\"315\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Roosevelt was often depicted in cartoons wielding his \u201cbig stick\u201d and pushing the U.S. foreign agenda, often through the power of the U.S. Navy.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idp102236032\">Roosevelt believed that while the coercive power wielded by the United States could be harmful in the wrong hands, the Western Hemisphere\u2019s best interests were also the best interests of the United States. He felt, in short, that the United States had the right and the obligation to be the policeman of the hemisphere. This belief, and his strategy of \u201cspeaking softly and carrying a big stick,\u201d shaped much of Roosevelt\u2019s foreign policy.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idm31798832\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PANAMA CANAL<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idp308988704\">As early as the mid-sixteenth century, interest in a canal across the Central American isthmus began to take root, primarily out of trade interests. The subsequent discovery of gold in California in 1848 further spurred interest in connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and led to the construction of the Panama Railway, which began operations in 1855. Several attempts by France to construct a canal between 1881 and 1894 failed due to a combination of financial crises and health hazards, including <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">malaria<\/span> and <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">yellow fever<\/span>, which led to the deaths of thousands of French workers.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm91795600\">Upon becoming president in 1901, Roosevelt was determined to succeed where others had failed. Following the advice that Mahan set forth in his book <em data-effect=\"italics\">The Influence of Seapower upon History<\/em>, he sought to achieve the construction of a canal across Central America, primarily for military reasons associated with empire, but also for international trade considerations. The most strategic point for the construction was across the fifty-mile isthmus of Panama, which, at the turn of the century, was part of the nation of Colombia. Roosevelt negotiated with the government of Colombia, sometimes threatening to take the project away and build through Nicaragua, until Colombia agreed to a treaty that would grant the United States a lease on the land across Panama in exchange for a payment of $10 million and an additional $250,000 annual rental fee. The matter was far from settled, however. The Colombian people were outraged over the loss of their land to the United States, and saw the payment as far too low. Influenced by the public outcry, the Colombian Senate rejected the treaty and informed Roosevelt there would be no canal.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp101309520\">Undaunted, Roosevelt chose to now wield the \u201cbig stick.\u201d In comments to journalists, he made it clear that the United States would strongly support the Panamanian people should they choose to revolt against Colombia and form their own nation. In November 1903, he even sent American battleships to the coast of Colombia, ostensibly for practice maneuvers, as the Panamanian revolution unfolded. The warships effectively blocked Colombia from moving additional troops into the region to quell the growing Panamanian uprising. Within a week, Roosevelt immediately recognized the new country of Panama, welcoming them to the world community and offering them the same terms\u2014$10 million plus the annual $250,000 rental fee\u2014he had previously offered Colombia. Following the successful revolution, Panama became an American protectorate, and remained so until 1939.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm25709744\">Once the Panamanian victory was secured, with American support, construction on the canal began in May 1904. For the first year of operations, the United States worked primarily to build adequate housing, cafeterias, warehouses, machine shops, and other elements of infrastructure that previous French efforts had failed to consider. Most importantly, the introduction of fumigation systems and mosquito nets following Dr. Walter Reed\u2019s discovery of the role of mosquitoes in the spread of malaria and yellow fever reduced the death rate and restored the fledgling morale among workers and American-born supervisors. At the same time, a new wave of American engineers planned for the construction of the canal. Even though they decided to build a lock-system rather than a sea-level canal, workers still had to excavate over 170 million cubic yards of earth with the use of over one hundred new rail-mounted steam shovels. Excited by the work, Roosevelt became the first sitting U.S. president to leave the country while in office. He traveled to Panama where he visited the construction site, taking a turn at the steam shovel and removing dirt. The canal opened in 1914, permanently changing world trade and military defense patterns.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_22_04_Canal\">\n<div style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203014\/CNX_History_22_04_Canal.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows the excavation of the Culebra Cut in the construction of the Panama Canal.\" width=\"390\" height=\"328\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Recurring landslides made the excavation of the Culebra Cut one of the most technically challenging elements in the construction of the Panama Canal.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp11019392\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"title\">This <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wgbh\/americanexperience\/features\/timeline\/panama\/\" target=\"_blank\">timeline of the Panama Canal<\/a> illustrates the efforts involved in both the French and U.S. canal projects.<\/div>\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">THE ROOSEVELT COROLLARY<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idm156642816\">With the construction of the canal now underway, Roosevelt next wanted to send a clear message to the rest of the world\u2014and in particular to his European counterparts\u2014that the colonization of the Western Hemisphere had now ended, and their interference in the countries there would no longer be tolerated. At the same time, he sent a message to his counterparts in Central and South America, should the United States see problems erupt in the region, that it would intervene in order to maintain peace and stability throughout the hemisphere.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm2862528\">Roosevelt articulated this seeming double standard in a 1904 address before Congress, in a speech that became known as the <span data-type=\"term\">Roosevelt Corollary<\/span>. The Roosevelt Corollary was based on the original Monroe Doctrine of the early nineteenth century, which warned European nations of the consequences of their interference in the Caribbean. In this addition, Roosevelt states that the United States would use military force \u201cas an international police power\u201d to correct any \u201cchronic wrongdoing\u201d by any Latin American nation that might threaten stability in the region. Unlike the Monroe Doctrine, which proclaimed an American policy of noninterference with its neighbors\u2019 affairs, the Roosevelt Corollary loudly proclaimed the right and obligation of the United States to involve itself whenever necessary.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm134488480\">Roosevelt immediately began to put the new corollary to work. He used it to establish protectorates over Cuba and Panama, as well as to direct the United States to manage the Dominican Republic\u2019s custom service revenues. Despite growing resentment from neighboring countries over American intervention in their internal affairs, as well as European concerns from afar, knowledge of Roosevelt\u2019s previous actions in Colombia concerning acquisition of land upon which to build the Panama Canal left many fearful of American reprisals should they resist. Eventually, Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin Roosevelt softened American rhetoric regarding U.S. domination of the Western Hemisphere, with the latter proclaiming a new \u201cGood Neighbor Policy\u201d that renounced American intervention in other nations\u2019 affairs. However, subsequent presidents would continue to reference aspects of the Roosevelt Corollary to justify American involvement in Haiti, Nicaragua, and other nations throughout the twentieth century. The map below\u00a0shows the widespread effects of Roosevelt\u2019s policies throughout Latin America.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"CNX_History_22_04_StickMap\">\n<div style=\"width: 595px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203016\/CNX_History_22_04_StickMap.jpg\" alt=\"A map is titled \u201cU.S. Involvement in Latin America under Roosevelt.\u201d Labeled regions include Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Jamaica, Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. A label pointing to Panama reads \u201cPanama Canal Zone created (1903).\u201d A label pointing to Cuba reads \u201cPlatt Amendment (1901); Cuban-American Treaty (1903).\u201d A label pointing to the Dominican Republic reads \u201cFinancial crisis prompts first use of Roosevelt Corollary (1904\u20131905).\u201d A label pointing to Puerto Rico reads \u201cForaker Act (1900).\u201d\" width=\"585\" height=\"342\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">From underwriting a revolution in Panama with the goal of building a canal to putting troops in Cuba, Roosevelt vastly increased the U.S. impact in Latin America.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<div id=\"fs-idm23361392\" class=\"history defining-american\" data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Defining American\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">The Roosevelt Corollary and Its Impact<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm26801248\">In 1904, Roosevelt put the United States in the role of the \u201cpolice power\u201d of the Western Hemisphere and set a course for the U.S. relationship with Central and Latin America that played out over the next several decades. He did so with the Roosevelt Corollary, in which he stated:<\/p>\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idp30883088\">\n<div>It is not true that the United States feels any land hunger or entertains any projects as regards the other nations of the Western Hemisphere save as such are for their welfare. All that this country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous. Any country whose people conduct themselves well can count upon our hearty friendship.\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0. Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may in America, as elsewhere, require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere the adherence of the United States to the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States, however, reluctantly, in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence, to the exercise of an international police power.\u201d<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p id=\"fs-idm71706096\">In the twenty years after he made this statement, the United States would use military force in Latin America over a dozen times. The Roosevelt Corollary was used as a rationale for American involvement in the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Haiti, and other Latin American countries, straining relations between Central America and its dominant neighbor to the north throughout the twentieth century.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm48647008\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">AMERICAN INTERVENTION IN THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idp45666688\">Although he supported the Open Door notes as an excellent economic policy in China, Roosevelt lamented the fact that the United States had no strong military presence in the region to enforce it. Clearly, without a military presence there, he could not as easily use his \u201cbig stick\u201d threat credibly to achieve his foreign policy goals. As a result, when conflicts did arise on the other side of the Pacific, Roosevelt adopted a policy of maintaining a balance of power among the nations there. This was particularly evident when the Russo-Japanese War erupted in 1904.<\/p>\n<div style=\"width: 270px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/884\/2015\/08\/23203017\/CNX_History_22_04_RussoJapan.jpg\" alt=\"A contemporaneous military map shows the battlefields of the Russo-Japanese War.\" width=\"260\" height=\"343\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Japan\u2019s defense against Russia was supported by President Roosevelt, but when Japan\u2019s ongoing victories put the United States\u2019 own Asian interests at risk, he stepped in.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm74211632\">In 1904, angered by the massing of Russian troops along the Manchurian border, and the threat it represented to the region, Japan launched a surprise naval attack upon the Russian fleet. Initially, Roosevelt supported the Japanese position. However, when the Japanese fleet quickly achieved victory after victory, Roosevelt grew concerned over the growth of Japanese influence in the region and the continued threat that it represented to China and American access to those markets. Wishing to maintain the aforementioned balance of power, in 1905, Roosevelt arranged for diplomats from both nations to attend a secret peace conference in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The resultant negotiations secured peace in the region, with Japan gaining control over Korea, several former Russian bases in Manchuria, and the southern half of Sakhalin Island. These negotiations also garnered the Nobel Peace Prize for Roosevelt, the first American to receive the award.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm194134544\">When Japan later exercised its authority over its gains by forcing American business interests out of Manchuria in 1906\u20131907, Roosevelt felt he needed to invoke his \u201cbig stick\u201d foreign policy, even though the distance was great. He did so by sending the U.S. Great White Fleet on maneuvers in the western Pacific Ocean as a show of force from December 1907 through February 1909. Publicly described as a goodwill tour, the message to the Japanese government regarding American interests was equally clear. Subsequent negotiations reinforced the Open Door policy throughout China and the rest of Asia. Roosevelt had, by both the judicious use of the \u201cbig stick\u201d and his strategy of maintaining a balance of power, kept U.S. interests in Asia well protected.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm199575280\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"title\">Browse the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.npg.si.edu\/exh\/roosevelt\/trintro2.htm\" target=\"_blank\">Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery<\/a> to follow Theodore Roosevelt from Rough Rider to president and beyond.<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox\" data-type=\"title\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Section Summary<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idm198158400\">When Roosevelt succeeded McKinley as president, he implemented a key strategy for building an American empire: the threat, rather than the outright use, of military force. McKinley had engaged the U.S. military in several successful skirmishes and then used the country\u2019s superior industrial power to negotiate beneficial foreign trade agreements. Roosevelt, with his \u201cbig stick\u201d policy, was able to keep the United States out of military conflicts by employing the legitimate threat of force. Nonetheless, as negotiations with Japan illustrated, the maintenance of an empire was fraught with complexity. Changing alliances, shifting economic needs, and power politics all meant that the United States would need to tread carefully to maintain its status as a world power.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<p><iframe src=\"https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/assessments\/load?src_url=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api\/assessments\/1027.xml&#38;results_end_point=https:\/\/lumenoea.herokuapp.com\/api&#38;assessment_id=1027&#38;confidence_levels=true&#38;enable_start=true&#38;eid=https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-ushistory2os2xmaster\/chapter\/roosevelts-big-stick-foreign-policy\/\" frameborder=\"0\" style=\"border:none;width:100%;height:100%;min-height:400px;\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\n<section>\n<ol>\n<li>Compare Roosevelt\u2019s foreign policy in Latin America and Asia. Why did he employ these different methods?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Review Question<\/h3>\n<section>\n<ol>\n<li>Roosevelt\u2019s strategy of \u201cspeaking softly and carrying a big stick\u201d worked well in Latin America, where the United States had a strong military presence and could quickly and easily act on any threat of military action. Roosevelt\u2019s threat of force was therefore credible in that region, and he was able to wield it effectively. In Asia, however, the United States had less of a military presence. Instead, Roosevelt sought to maintain a balance of power, wherein the various Asian countries kept each other in check and no single player grew too powerful. When the power balance tipped, Roosevelt acted to broker a peace deal between Russia and Japan as a means of restoring balance.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-success\">\n<section>\n<h3>Glossary<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Roosevelt Corollary\u00a0<\/strong>a statement by Theodore Roosevelt that the United States would use military force to act as an international police power and correct any chronic wrongdoing by any Latin American nation threatening the stability of the region<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-196\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>US History. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: P. Scott Corbett, Volker  Janssen, John M. Lund,  Todd Pfannestiel, Paul Vickery, and Sylvie Waskiewicz. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history\">http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/textbooks\/us-history<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11740\/latest\/<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":19,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"US History\",\"author\":\"P. Scott Corbett, Volker  Janssen, John M. 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