{"id":22,"date":"2016-09-21T13:39:15","date_gmt":"2016-09-21T13:39:15","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/writingincollege\/?post_type=chapter&p=22"},"modified":"2016-09-21T13:42:32","modified_gmt":"2016-09-21T13:42:32","slug":"what-does-the-professor-want-understanding-the-assignment","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-fmcc-writing-in-college\/chapter\/what-does-the-professor-want-understanding-the-assignment\/","title":{"raw":"What Does the Professor Want? Understanding the Assignment","rendered":"What Does the Professor Want? Understanding the Assignment"},"content":{"raw":"
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Writing for whom? Writing for what?<\/h1>\r\nThe first principle of good communication is knowing your audience<\/a>. This is where writing papers for class gets kind of weird. As Peter Elbow explains1<\/a><\/sup>:\r\n
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When you write for a teacher you are usually swimming against the stream of natural communication. The natural direction of communication is to explain what you understand to someone who doesn\u2019t understand it. But in writing an essay for a teacher your task is usually to explain what you are still engaged in trying to understand to someone who understands it better.<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\nOften when you write for an audience of one, you write a letter or email. But college papers aren\u2019t written like letters; they\u2019re written like articles for a hypothetical group of readers that you don\u2019t actually know much about. There\u2019s a fundamental mismatch between the real-life audience and the form your writing takes. It\u2019s kind of bizarre, really.\r\n\r\nIt helps to remember the key tenet of the university model: you\u2019re a junior scholar joining the academic community. Academic papers, in which scholars report the results of their research and thinking to one another, are the lifeblood of the scholarly world, carrying useful ideas and information to all parts of the academic corpus. Unless there is a particular audience specified in the assignment, you would do well to imagine yourself writing for a group of peers who have some introductory knowledge of the field but are unfamiliar with the specific topic you\u2019re discussing. Imagine them being interested in your topic but also busy; try to write something that is well worth your readers\u2019 time. Keeping an audience like this in mind will help you distinguish common knowledge in the field from that which must be defined and explained in your paper. Understanding your audience like this also resolve the audience mismatch that Elbow describes. As he notes, \u201cYou don\u2019t write to<\/em> teachers, you write for<\/em> them.\u201d2<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nAnother basic tenet of good communication is clarifying the purpose of the communication and letting that purpose shape your decisions. Your professor wants to see you work through complex ideas and deepen your knowledge through the process of producing the paper. Each assignment\u2014be it an argumentative paper, reaction paper, reflective paper, lab report, discussion question, blog post, essay exam, project proposal, or what have you\u2014is ultimately about your learning. To succeed with writing assignments (and benefit from them) you first have to understand their learning-related purposes. As you write for the hypothetical audience of peer junior scholars, you\u2019re demonstrating to your professor how far you\u2019ve gotten in analyzing your topic.\r\n
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Don\u2019t be scared whenever you are given an assignment. Professors know what it was like to be in college and write all kinds of papers. They aren\u2019t trying to make your lives difficult, but it is their jobs to make us think and ponder about many things. Take your time and enjoy the paper. Make sure you answer the question being asked rather than rant on about something that is irrelevant to the prompt.<\/p>\r\n

Timoth\u00e9e Pizarro<\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nProfessors don\u2019t assign writing lightly. Grading student writing<\/a> is generally the hardest, most intensive work instructors do.3<\/a><\/sup> With every assignment they give you, professors assign themselves many, many hours of demanding and tedious work that has to be completed while they are also preparing for each class meeting, advancing their scholarly and creative work, advising students, and serving on committees. Often, they\u2019re grading your papers on evenings and weekends because the conventional work day is already saturated with other obligations. You would do well to approach every assignment by putting yourself in the shoes of your instructor and asking yourself, \u201cWhy did she give me this assignment? How does it fit into the learning goals of the course? Why is this question\/topic\/problem so important to my professor that he is willing to spend evenings and weekends reading and commenting on several dozen novice papers on it?\u201d\r\n\r\nAs I briefly discussed in Chapter 1<\/a>, most instructors do a lot to make their pedagogical goals and expectations transparent to students: they explain the course learning goals associated with assignments, provide grading rubrics in advance, and describe several strategies for succeeding. Other professors \u2026 not so much. Some students perceive more open-ended assignments as evidence of a lazy, uncaring, or even incompetent instructor. Not so fast! Professors certainly vary in the quantity and specificity of the guidelines and suggestions they distribute with each writing assignment. Some professors make a point to give very few parameters about an assignment\u2014perhaps just a topic and a length requirement\u2014and they likely have some good reasons for doing so. Here are some possible reasons:\r\n

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  1. They figured it out themselves when they were students<\/em>. Unsurprisingly, your instructors were generally successful students who relished the culture and traditions of higher education so much that they strove to build an academic career. The current emphasis on student-centered instruction<\/a> is relatively recent; your instructors much more often had professors who adhered to the classic model of college instruction: they gave lectures together with, perhaps, one or two exams or papers. Students were on their own to learn the lingo and conventions of each field, to identify the key concepts and ideas within readings and lectures, and to sleuth out instructors\u2019 expectations for written work. Learning goals, rubrics, quizzes, and preparatory assignments were generally rare.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. They think figuring it out yourself is good for you<\/em>. Because your professors by and large succeeded in a much less supportive environment<\/a>, they appreciate how learning to thrive in those conditions gave them life-long problem-solving skills. Many think you should<\/em> be able to figure it out yourself and that it would be good practice for you to do so. Even those who do include a lot of guidance with writing assignments sometimes worry that they\u2019re depriving you of an important personal and intellectual challenge. Figuring out unspoken expectations is a valuable skill in itself.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. They\u2019re egg-heads<\/em>. As I explained in Chapter 1<\/a>, many of your instructors have been so immersed in their fields that they may struggle to remember what it was like to encounter a wholly new discipline for the first time. The assumptions, practices, and culture of their disciplines are like the air they breathe; so much so that it is hard to describe to novices. They may assume that a verb like \u201canalyze\u201d is self-evident, forgetting that it can mean very different things in different fields. As a student, you voluntarily came to study with the scholars, artists, and writers at your institution. Rightly or wrongly, the burden is ultimately on you to meet them where they are.<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Professors value<\/em> academic freedom<\/span><\/a>; that is, they firmly believe that their high-level expertise in their fields grants them the privilege of deciding what is important to focus on and how to approach it. As I also explain in Chapter 1<\/a>, college professors differ in this way from high school teachers who are usually obligated to address a defined curriculum. Professors are often extremely wary of anything that seems to threaten academic freedom<\/a>. Some see specified learning goals and standardized rubrics as the first step in a process that would strip higher education of its independence, scholarly innovation, and sense of discovery. While a standardized set of expectations and practices might make it easier to earn a degree, it\u2019s also good to consider the benefits of the more flexible and diversified model.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nIt is understandably frustrating when you feel you don\u2019t know how to direct your efforts to succeed with an assignment. However, except for rare egregious situations, you would do well to assume the best of your instructor and to appreciate the diversity of learning opportunities you have access to in college. Like one first-year student told Keith Hjortshoj4<\/a><\/sup>, \u201cI think that every course, every assignment, is a different little puzzle I have to solve. What do I need to do here? When do I need to do it, and how long will it take? What does this teacher expect of me?\u201d The transparency that you get from some professors\u2014along with guides like this one\u2014will be a big help to you in situations where you have to be scrappier and more pro-active, piecing together the clues you get from your professors, the readings, and other course documents.\r\n

    The prompt: what does \u201canalyze\u201d mean anyway?<\/h1>\r\nOften, the handout or other written text explaining the assignment\u2014what professors call the assignment prompt<\/a>\u2014will explain the purpose of the assignment, the required parameters (length, number and type of sources, referencing style, etc.), and the criteria for evaluation. Sometimes, though\u2014especially when you are new to a field\u2014you will encounter the baffling situation in which you comprehend every single sentence in the prompt but still have absolutely no idea how to approach the assignment. No one is doing anything wrong in a situation like that. It just means that further discussion of the assignment is in order. Here are some tips:\r\n
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    1. Focus on the<\/em> verbs<\/span><\/a>. Look for verbs like \u201ccompare,\u201d \u201cexplain,\u201d \u201cjustify,\u201d \u201creflect\u201d or the all-purpose \u201canalyze.\u201d You\u2019re not just producing a paper as an artifact; you\u2019re conveying, in written communication, some intellectual work you have done. So the question is, what kind of thinking are you supposed to do to deepen your learning?<\/li>\r\n \t
    2. Put the assignment in context<\/em>. Many professors think in terms of assignment sequences<\/a>. For example, a social science professor may ask you to write about a controversial issue three times: first, arguing for one side of the debate; second, arguing for another; and finally, from a more comprehensive and nuanced perspective, incorporating text produced in the first two assignments. A sequence like that is designed to help you think through a complex issue. Another common one is a scaffolded research paper sequence: you first propose a topic, then prepare an annotated bibliography, then a first draft, then a final draft, and, perhaps, a reflective paper. The preparatory assignments help ensure that you\u2019re on the right track, beginning the research process long before the final due date, and taking the time to consider recasting your thesis, finding additional sources, or reorganizing your discussion.5<\/a><\/sup>If the assignment isn\u2019t part of a sequence, think about where it falls in the semester, and how it relates to readings and other assignments. Are there headings on the syllabus<\/a> that indicate larger units of material? For example, if you see that a paper comes at the end of a three-week unit on the role of the Internet in organizational behavior, then your professor likely wants you to synthesize that material in your own way. You should also check your notes and online course resources for any other guidelines about the workflow. Maybe you got a rubric a couple weeks ago and forgot about it. Maybe your instructor posted a link about \u201chow to make an annotated bibliography\u201d but then forgot to mention it in class.<\/li>\r\n \t
    3. Try a free-write<\/em>. When I hand out an assignment, I often ask students to do a five-minute or ten-minute free-write. A free-write is when you just write, without stopping, for a set period of time. That doesn\u2019t sound very \u201cfree;\u201d it actually sounds kind of coerced. The \u201cfree\u201d part is what<\/em> you write\u2014it can be whatever comes to mind. Professional writers use free-writing<\/a> to get started on a challenging (or distasteful) writing task or to overcome writers block or a powerful urge to procrastinate. The idea is that if you just make yourself write, you can\u2019t help but produce some kind of useful nugget. Thus, even if the first eight sentences of your free write are all variations on \u201cI don\u2019t understand this\u201d or \u201cI\u2019d really rather be doing something else,\u201d eventually you\u2019ll write something like \u201cI guess the main point of this is \u2026\u201d and\u2014booyah!\u2014you\u2019re off and running. As an instructor, I\u2019ve found that asking students to do a brief free-write right after I hand out an assignment generates useful clarification questions. If your instructor doesn\u2019t make time for that in class, a quick free-write on your own will quickly reveal whether you need clarification about the assignment and, often, what questions to ask.<\/li>\r\n \t
    4. Ask for clarification the right way<\/em>. Even the most skillfully crafted assignments may need some verbal clarification, especially because students\u2019 familiarity with the field can vary enormously. Asking for clarification is a good thing. Be aware, though, that instructors get frustrated when they perceive that students want to skip doing their own thinking and instead receive an exact recipe for an A paper. Go ahead and ask for clarification, but try to convey that you want to learn and you\u2019re ready to work.In general, avoid starting a question with \u201cDo we have to \u2026\u201d because I can guarantee that your instructor is thinking, \u201cYou don\u2019t have<\/em> to do crap. You\u2019re an adult. You chose college. You chose this class. You\u2019re free to exercise your right to fail.\u201d Similarly, avoid asking the professor about what he or she \u201cwants.\u201d You\u2019re not performing some service for the professor when you write a paper. What they \u201cwant\u201d is for you to really think about the material.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/colgroup>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
      Potentially annoying questions<\/td>\r\nPreferable alternatives<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
      I don\u2019t get it. Can you explain this more? or<\/span> What do you want us to do?<\/td>\r\nI see that we are comparing and contrasting these two cases. What should be our focus? Their causes? Their impacts? Their implications? All of those things? or<\/span> I\u2019m unfamiliar with how art historians analyze a painting. Could you say more about what questions I should have in mind to do this kind of analysis?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
      How many sources do we have to cite?<\/td>\r\nIs there a typical range for the number of sources a well written paper would cite for this assignment? or<\/span> Could you say more about what the sources are for? Is it more that we\u2019re analyzing these texts in this paper, or are we using these texts to analyze some other case?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
      What do I have to do to get an A on this paper?<\/td>\r\nCould I meet with you to get feedback on my (pre-prepared) plans\/outline\/thesis\/draft? or<\/span> I\u2019m not sure how to approach this assignment. Are there any good examples or resources you could point me to?<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

      Rubrics as road maps<\/h1>\r\nIf a professor provides a grading rubric with an assignment prompt, thank your lucky stars (and your professor). If the professor took the trouble to prepare and distribute it, you can be sure that he or she will use it to grade your paper. He or she may not go over it in class, but it\u2019s the clearest possible statement of what the professor is looking for in the paper. If it\u2019s wordy, it may seem like those online \u201cterms and conditions\u201d that we routinely accept without reading. But you really should read it over carefully before you begin and again as your work progresses. A lot of rubrics do have some useful specifics. Mine, for example, often contain phrases like \u201cmakes at least six error-free connections to concepts or ideas from the course,\u201d or \u201cgives thorough consideration to at least one plausible counter-argument.\u201d Even less specific criteria (such as \u201cincorporates course concepts\u201d and \u201cconsiders counter-arguments\u201d) will tell you how you should be spending your writing time.\r\n\r\nEven the best rubrics aren\u2019t completely transparent. They simply can\u2019t be. Take, for example, the AAC&U rubric discussed in Chapter 1<\/a>. It has been drafted and repeatedly revised by a multidisciplinary expert panel and tested multiple times on sample student work to ensure reliability. But it is still seems kind of vague. What is the real difference between \u201cdemonstrating a thorough understanding of context, audience, and purpose\u201d and \u201cdemonstrating adequate consideration\u201d of the same? It depends on the specific context. So how can you know whether you\u2019ve done that? A big part of what you\u2019re learning, through feedback from your professors, is to judge the quality of your writing for yourself. Your future bosses are counting on that. At this point, it is better to think of rubrics as roadmaps, displaying your destination, rather than a GPS system directing every move you make.\r\n\r\nBehind any rubric is the essential goal of higher education: helping you take charge of your own learning, which means writing like an independently motivated scholar. Are you tasked with proposing a research paper topic? Don\u2019t just tell the professor what you want to do, convince him or her of the salience of your topic, as if you were a scholar seeking grant money. Is it a reflection paper? Then outline both the insights you\u2019ve gained and the intriguing questions that remain, as a scholar would. Are you writing a thesis-driven analytical paper? Then apply the concepts you\u2019ve learned to a new problem or situation. Write as if your scholarly peers around the country are eagerly awaiting your unique insights. Descriptors like \u201cthoroughness\u201d or \u201cmastery\u201d or \u201cdetailed attention\u201d convey the vision of student writers making the time and rigorous mental effort to offer something new to the ongoing, multi-stranded academic conversation. What your professor wants, in short, is critical thinking.\r\n

      What\u2019s critical about critical thinking?<\/h1>\r\nCritical thinking is one of those terms that has been used so often and in so many different ways that if often seems meaningless. It also makes one wonder, is there such a thing as uncritical thinking? If you aren\u2019t thinking critically, then are you even thinking?\r\n\r\nDespite the prevalent ambiguities, critical thinking actually does mean something. The Association of American Colleges and Universities<\/a> usefully defines it as \u201ca habit of mind characterized by the comprehensive exploration of issues, ideas, artifacts, and events before accepting or formulating an opinion or conclusion.\u201d6<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nThat definition aligns with the best description of critical thinking I ever heard; it came from my junior high art teacher, Joe Bolger.7<\/a><\/sup> He once asked us, \u201cWhat color is the ceiling?\u201d In that withering tween tone, we reluctantly replied, \u201cWhiiiite.\u201d He then asked, \u201cWhat color is it really?\u201d We deigned to aim our pre-adolescent eyes upwards, and eventually began to offer more accurate answers: \u201cIvory?\u201d \u201cYellow-ish tan.\u201d \u201cIt\u2019s grey in that corner.\u201d After finally getting a few thoughtful responses, Mr. Bolger said something like, \u201cMaking good art is about drawing what you see, not what you think you\u2019re supposed to see.\u201d The AAC&U definition, above, essentially amounts to the same thing: taking a good look and deciding what you really<\/em> think rather than relying on the first idea or assumption that comes to mind.\r\n\r\nThe critical thinking rubric<\/a> produced by the AAC&U describes the relevant activities of critical thinking in more detail. To think critically, one must \u2026\r\n
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      (a) \u201cclearly state and comprehensively describe the issue or problem\u201d,<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n
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      (b) \u201cindependently interpret and evaluate sources\u201d,<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n
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      (c) \u201cthoroughly analyze assumptions behind and context of your own or others\u2019 ideas\u201d,<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n
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      (d) \u201cargue a complex position and one that takes counter-arguments into account,\u201d and<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n
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      (e) \u201carrive at logical and well informed conclusions\u201d.8<\/a><\/sup><\/div><\/blockquote>\r\nWhile you are probably used to providing some evidence for your claims, you can see that college-level expectations go quite a bit further. When professors assign an analytical paper, they don\u2019t just want you to formulate a plausible-sounding argument. They want you to dig into the evidence, think hard about unspoken assumptions and the influence of context, and then explain what you really think and why.\r\n\r\nInterestingly, the AAC&U defines critical thinking as a \u201chabit of mind\u201d rather than a discrete achievement. And there are at least two reasons to see critical thinking as a craft or art to pursue rather than a task to check off. First, the more you think critically, the better you get at it<\/a>. As you get more and more practice in closely examining claims, their underlying logic, and alternative perspectives on the issue, it\u2019ll begin to feel automatic. You\u2019ll no longer make or accept claims that begin with \u201cEveryone knows that \u2026\u201d or end with \u201cThat\u2019s just human nature.\u201d Second, just as artists and craftspersons hone their skills over a lifetime, learners continually expand their critical thinking capacities, both through the feedback they get from others and their own reflections<\/a>. Artists of all kinds find satisfaction in continually seeking greater challenges. Continual reflection and improvement is part of the craft.\r\n
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      As soon as I see the phrase \u201ccritical thinking,\u201d the first thing I think is more work<\/span>. It always sounds as if you\u2019re going to have to think harder and longer. But I think the AAC&U\u2019s definition is on point, critical thinking is a habit. Seeing that phrase shouldn\u2019t be a scary thing because by this point in many people\u2019s college career this is an automatic response. I never expect an answer to a question to be in the text; by now I realize that my professors want to know what I have to say about something or what I have learned. In a paper or essay, the three-step thesis process explained in Chapter 3<\/a> is a tool that will help you get this information across. While you\u2019re doing the hard work (the thinking part), this formula offers you a way to clearly state your position on a subject. It\u2019s as simple as: make a general statement, make an arguable statement, and finally, say why it is important. This is my rule of thumb, and I would not want to start a thesis-driven paper any other way!<\/p>\r\n

      Aly Button<\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nCritical thinking is hard work. Even those who actively choose to do it experience it as tedious, difficult, and sometimes surprisingly emotional. Nobel-prize winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman explains that our brains aren\u2019t designed to think; rather, they\u2019re designed to save us from having to think.9<\/a><\/sup> Our brains are great at developing routines and repertoires that enable us to accomplish fairly complex tasks like driving cars, choosing groceries, and having a conversation without thinking consciously and thoroughly about every move we make. Kahneman calls this \u201cfast thinking.\u201d \u201cSlow thinking,\u201d which is deliberate and painstaking, is something our brains seek to avoid. That built-in tendency can lead us astray. Kahneman and his colleagues often used problems like this one in experiments to gauge how people used fast and slow thinking in different contexts:10<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

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      A bat and ball cost $1.10.<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n
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      The bat costs one dollar more than the ball.<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n
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      How much does the ball cost?<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\nMost people automatically say the ball costs $0.10. However, if the bat costs $1 more, than the bat would cost $1.10 leading to the incorrect total of $1.20. The ball costs $0.05. Kahneman notes, \u201cMany thousands of university students have answered the bat-and-ball puzzle, and the results are shocking. More than 50% of students at Harvard, MIT, and Princeton gave the intuitive\u2014incorrect\u2014answer.\u201d These and other results confirm that \u201cmany people are overconfident, prone to place too much faith in their intuitions.\u201d11<\/a><\/sup> Thinking critically\u2014thoroughly questioning your immediate intuitive responses\u2014is difficult work, but every organization and business in the world needs people who can do that effectively. Some students assume that an unpleasant critical thinking experience means that they\u2019re either doing something wrong or that it\u2019s an inherently uninteresting (and oppressive) activity. While we all relish those times when we\u2019re pleasantly absorbed in a complex activity (what psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi calls \u201cflow\u201d<\/a>12<\/a><\/sup>), the more tedious experiences can also bring satisfaction, sort of like a good work-out.\r\n\r\nCritical thinking can also be emotionally challenging, researchers have found. Facing a new realm of uncertainty and contradiction without relying on familiar assumptions is inherently anxiety-provoking because when you\u2019re doing it, you are, by definition, incompetent. Recent research has highlighted that both children and adults need to be able to regulate their own emotions in order to cope with the challenges of building competence in a new area.13<\/a><\/sup> The kind of critical thinking your professors are looking for\u2014that is, pursuing a comprehensive, multi-faceted exploration in order to arrive at an arguable, nuanced argument\u2014is inevitably a struggle and it may be an emotional one. Your best bet is to find ways to make those processes as efficient, pleasant, and effective as you can<\/a>.\r\n
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      The thing no one tells you when you get to college is that critical thinking papers are professors\u2019 favorites. College is all about learning how to think individual thoughts so you\u2019ll have to do quite a few of them. Have no fear though; they do get easier with time. The first step? Think about what you want to focus on in the paper (aka your thesis) and go with it.<\/p>\r\n

      Kaethe Leonard<\/p>\r\n<\/blockquote>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAs Chapter 1<\/a> explains, the demands students face are not at all unique to their academic pursuits. Professional working roles demand critical thinking, as 81% of major employers reported in an AAC&U-commissioned survey<\/a>14<\/a><\/sup>, and it\u2019s pretty easy to imagine how critical thinking helps one make much better decisions in all aspects of life. Embrace it. And just as athletes, artists, and writers sustain their energy and inspiration for hard work by interacting with others who share these passions, look to others in the scholarly community\u2014your professors and fellow students\u2014to keep yourself engaged in these ongoing intellectual challenges. While writing time is often solitary, it\u2019s meant to plug you into a vibrant academic community. What your professors want, overall, is for you to join them in asking and pursuing important questions about the natural, social, and creative worlds.\r\n

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      Other resources<\/h3>\r\n
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      1. This website<\/a> from the Capital Community College Foundation has some good advice about overcoming writer\u2019s block. And student contributor Aly Button recommends this funny clip from SpongeBob Squarepants<\/a>.<\/li>\r\n \t
      2. The Foundation for Critical Thinking<\/a> maintains a website with many useful articles and tools.<\/li>\r\n \t
      3. The Online Writing Laboratory (OWL) at Purdue University<\/a> is a wonderful set of resources for every aspect of college writing. Especially germane to this chapter is this summary<\/a> of the most common types of writing assignments.<\/li>\r\n \t
      4. This website<\/a>, BrainBashers.com offers logic puzzles and other brain-teasers for your entertainment.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n
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        Exercises<\/h3>\r\n
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        1. Free-write on an assignment prompt. If you have one, do that one. If not, here\u2019s one to practice with:A. \u201cPlease write a five-page paper analyzing the controversy surrounding genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the food supply.\u201dB. What clarification questions would you like to ask your professor? What additional background knowledge do you need to deeply understand the topic? What are some starter ideas that could lead to a good thesis and intriguing argument?<\/li>\r\n \t
        2. Find a couple of sample student papers from online paper mills such as this one<\/a> (Google \u201cfree college papers\u201d) and journals featuring excellent undergraduate writing (such as this one from Cornell University<\/a>), and use the AAC&U rubric on critical thinking<\/em><\/a> to evaluate them. Which descriptor in each row most closely fits the paper?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n
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          1<\/a><\/sup>Peter Elbow, Writing With Power: Techniques for Mastering the Writing Process<\/span> (Oxford University Press, 1981)<\/a>, 219.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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          2<\/a><\/sup>Ibid.<\/a>, 220.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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          3<\/a><\/sup> A lot of professors joke, \u201cI teach for free. They pay me to grade.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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          4<\/a><\/sup>Keith Hjortshoj, The Transition to College Writing,<\/span> 2nd Edition (New York: Norton, 2009)<\/a>, 4.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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          5<\/a><\/sup> Most professors are perpetually frustrated with the \u201cone-and-done\u201d attitude that most students bring to their work, and some sequences are specifically designed to force you to really rethink your conclusions.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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          6<\/a><\/sup>Terrel Rhodes, ed., Assessing Outcomes and Improving Achievement: Tips and Tools for Using Rubrics<\/span> (Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2010).<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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          7<\/a><\/sup> Thank you, Mr. Bolger!<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

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          8<\/a><\/sup>Ibid.<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

          \r\n

          9<\/a><\/sup>Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow<\/span> (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011).<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

          \r\n

          10<\/a><\/sup>Ibid.<\/a>, 44.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

          \r\n

          11<\/a><\/sup>Ibid.<\/a>, 45.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

          \r\n

          12<\/a><\/sup>Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience<\/span> (New York: Harper & Row, 1990).<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

          \r\n

          13<\/a><\/sup>Rosen, Jeffrey A., Elizabeth J. Glennie, Ben W. Dalton, Jean M. Lennon, and Robert N. Bozick. Noncognitive Skills in the Classroom: New Perspectives on Educational Research<\/span>. RTI International. PO Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194, 2010.<\/a><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

          \r\n

          14<\/a><\/sup>Hart Research Associates, Raising the Bar,<\/span><\/a> 9.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"

          \n

          Writing for whom? Writing for what?<\/h1>\n

          The first principle of good communication is knowing your audience<\/a>. This is where writing papers for class gets kind of weird. As Peter Elbow explains1<\/a><\/sup>:<\/p>\n

          \n
          When you write for a teacher you are usually swimming against the stream of natural communication. The natural direction of communication is to explain what you understand to someone who doesn\u2019t understand it. But in writing an essay for a teacher your task is usually to explain what you are still engaged in trying to understand to someone who understands it better.<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n

          Often when you write for an audience of one, you write a letter or email. But college papers aren\u2019t written like letters; they\u2019re written like articles for a hypothetical group of readers that you don\u2019t actually know much about. There\u2019s a fundamental mismatch between the real-life audience and the form your writing takes. It\u2019s kind of bizarre, really.<\/p>\n

          It helps to remember the key tenet of the university model: you\u2019re a junior scholar joining the academic community. Academic papers, in which scholars report the results of their research and thinking to one another, are the lifeblood of the scholarly world, carrying useful ideas and information to all parts of the academic corpus. Unless there is a particular audience specified in the assignment, you would do well to imagine yourself writing for a group of peers who have some introductory knowledge of the field but are unfamiliar with the specific topic you\u2019re discussing. Imagine them being interested in your topic but also busy; try to write something that is well worth your readers\u2019 time. Keeping an audience like this in mind will help you distinguish common knowledge in the field from that which must be defined and explained in your paper. Understanding your audience like this also resolve the audience mismatch that Elbow describes. As he notes, \u201cYou don\u2019t write to<\/em> teachers, you write for<\/em> them.\u201d2<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

          Another basic tenet of good communication is clarifying the purpose of the communication and letting that purpose shape your decisions. Your professor wants to see you work through complex ideas and deepen your knowledge through the process of producing the paper. Each assignment\u2014be it an argumentative paper, reaction paper, reflective paper, lab report, discussion question, blog post, essay exam, project proposal, or what have you\u2014is ultimately about your learning. To succeed with writing assignments (and benefit from them) you first have to understand their learning-related purposes. As you write for the hypothetical audience of peer junior scholars, you\u2019re demonstrating to your professor how far you\u2019ve gotten in analyzing your topic.<\/p>\n

          \n
          \n
          \n

          Don\u2019t be scared whenever you are given an assignment. Professors know what it was like to be in college and write all kinds of papers. They aren\u2019t trying to make your lives difficult, but it is their jobs to make us think and ponder about many things. Take your time and enjoy the paper. Make sure you answer the question being asked rather than rant on about something that is irrelevant to the prompt.<\/p>\n

          Timoth\u00e9e Pizarro<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

          Professors don\u2019t assign writing lightly. Grading student writing<\/a> is generally the hardest, most intensive work instructors do.3<\/a><\/sup> With every assignment they give you, professors assign themselves many, many hours of demanding and tedious work that has to be completed while they are also preparing for each class meeting, advancing their scholarly and creative work, advising students, and serving on committees. Often, they\u2019re grading your papers on evenings and weekends because the conventional work day is already saturated with other obligations. You would do well to approach every assignment by putting yourself in the shoes of your instructor and asking yourself, \u201cWhy did she give me this assignment? How does it fit into the learning goals of the course? Why is this question\/topic\/problem so important to my professor that he is willing to spend evenings and weekends reading and commenting on several dozen novice papers on it?\u201d<\/p>\n

          As I briefly discussed in Chapter 1<\/a>, most instructors do a lot to make their pedagogical goals and expectations transparent to students: they explain the course learning goals associated with assignments, provide grading rubrics in advance, and describe several strategies for succeeding. Other professors \u2026 not so much. Some students perceive more open-ended assignments as evidence of a lazy, uncaring, or even incompetent instructor. Not so fast! Professors certainly vary in the quantity and specificity of the guidelines and suggestions they distribute with each writing assignment. Some professors make a point to give very few parameters about an assignment\u2014perhaps just a topic and a length requirement\u2014and they likely have some good reasons for doing so. Here are some possible reasons:<\/p>\n

            \n
          1. They figured it out themselves when they were students<\/em>. Unsurprisingly, your instructors were generally successful students who relished the culture and traditions of higher education so much that they strove to build an academic career. The current emphasis on student-centered instruction<\/a> is relatively recent; your instructors much more often had professors who adhered to the classic model of college instruction: they gave lectures together with, perhaps, one or two exams or papers. Students were on their own to learn the lingo and conventions of each field, to identify the key concepts and ideas within readings and lectures, and to sleuth out instructors\u2019 expectations for written work. Learning goals, rubrics, quizzes, and preparatory assignments were generally rare.<\/li>\n
          2. They think figuring it out yourself is good for you<\/em>. Because your professors by and large succeeded in a much less supportive environment<\/a>, they appreciate how learning to thrive in those conditions gave them life-long problem-solving skills. Many think you should<\/em> be able to figure it out yourself and that it would be good practice for you to do so. Even those who do include a lot of guidance with writing assignments sometimes worry that they\u2019re depriving you of an important personal and intellectual challenge. Figuring out unspoken expectations is a valuable skill in itself.<\/li>\n
          3. They\u2019re egg-heads<\/em>. As I explained in Chapter 1<\/a>, many of your instructors have been so immersed in their fields that they may struggle to remember what it was like to encounter a wholly new discipline for the first time. The assumptions, practices, and culture of their disciplines are like the air they breathe; so much so that it is hard to describe to novices. They may assume that a verb like \u201canalyze\u201d is self-evident, forgetting that it can mean very different things in different fields. As a student, you voluntarily came to study with the scholars, artists, and writers at your institution. Rightly or wrongly, the burden is ultimately on you to meet them where they are.<\/li>\n
          4. Professors value<\/em> academic freedom<\/span><\/a>; that is, they firmly believe that their high-level expertise in their fields grants them the privilege of deciding what is important to focus on and how to approach it. As I also explain in Chapter 1<\/a>, college professors differ in this way from high school teachers who are usually obligated to address a defined curriculum. Professors are often extremely wary of anything that seems to threaten academic freedom<\/a>. Some see specified learning goals and standardized rubrics as the first step in a process that would strip higher education of its independence, scholarly innovation, and sense of discovery. While a standardized set of expectations and practices might make it easier to earn a degree, it\u2019s also good to consider the benefits of the more flexible and diversified model.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

            It is understandably frustrating when you feel you don\u2019t know how to direct your efforts to succeed with an assignment. However, except for rare egregious situations, you would do well to assume the best of your instructor and to appreciate the diversity of learning opportunities you have access to in college. Like one first-year student told Keith Hjortshoj4<\/a><\/sup>, \u201cI think that every course, every assignment, is a different little puzzle I have to solve. What do I need to do here? When do I need to do it, and how long will it take? What does this teacher expect of me?\u201d The transparency that you get from some professors\u2014along with guides like this one\u2014will be a big help to you in situations where you have to be scrappier and more pro-active, piecing together the clues you get from your professors, the readings, and other course documents.<\/p>\n

            The prompt: what does \u201canalyze\u201d mean anyway?<\/h1>\n

            Often, the handout or other written text explaining the assignment\u2014what professors call the assignment prompt<\/a>\u2014will explain the purpose of the assignment, the required parameters (length, number and type of sources, referencing style, etc.), and the criteria for evaluation. Sometimes, though\u2014especially when you are new to a field\u2014you will encounter the baffling situation in which you comprehend every single sentence in the prompt but still have absolutely no idea how to approach the assignment. No one is doing anything wrong in a situation like that. It just means that further discussion of the assignment is in order. Here are some tips:<\/p>\n

              \n
            1. Focus on the<\/em> verbs<\/span><\/a>. Look for verbs like \u201ccompare,\u201d \u201cexplain,\u201d \u201cjustify,\u201d \u201creflect\u201d or the all-purpose \u201canalyze.\u201d You\u2019re not just producing a paper as an artifact; you\u2019re conveying, in written communication, some intellectual work you have done. So the question is, what kind of thinking are you supposed to do to deepen your learning?<\/li>\n
            2. Put the assignment in context<\/em>. Many professors think in terms of assignment sequences<\/a>. For example, a social science professor may ask you to write about a controversial issue three times: first, arguing for one side of the debate; second, arguing for another; and finally, from a more comprehensive and nuanced perspective, incorporating text produced in the first two assignments. A sequence like that is designed to help you think through a complex issue. Another common one is a scaffolded research paper sequence: you first propose a topic, then prepare an annotated bibliography, then a first draft, then a final draft, and, perhaps, a reflective paper. The preparatory assignments help ensure that you\u2019re on the right track, beginning the research process long before the final due date, and taking the time to consider recasting your thesis, finding additional sources, or reorganizing your discussion.5<\/a><\/sup>If the assignment isn\u2019t part of a sequence, think about where it falls in the semester, and how it relates to readings and other assignments. Are there headings on the syllabus<\/a> that indicate larger units of material? For example, if you see that a paper comes at the end of a three-week unit on the role of the Internet in organizational behavior, then your professor likely wants you to synthesize that material in your own way. You should also check your notes and online course resources for any other guidelines about the workflow. Maybe you got a rubric a couple weeks ago and forgot about it. Maybe your instructor posted a link about \u201chow to make an annotated bibliography\u201d but then forgot to mention it in class.<\/li>\n
            3. Try a free-write<\/em>. When I hand out an assignment, I often ask students to do a five-minute or ten-minute free-write. A free-write is when you just write, without stopping, for a set period of time. That doesn\u2019t sound very \u201cfree;\u201d it actually sounds kind of coerced. The \u201cfree\u201d part is what<\/em> you write\u2014it can be whatever comes to mind. Professional writers use free-writing<\/a> to get started on a challenging (or distasteful) writing task or to overcome writers block or a powerful urge to procrastinate. The idea is that if you just make yourself write, you can\u2019t help but produce some kind of useful nugget. Thus, even if the first eight sentences of your free write are all variations on \u201cI don\u2019t understand this\u201d or \u201cI\u2019d really rather be doing something else,\u201d eventually you\u2019ll write something like \u201cI guess the main point of this is \u2026\u201d and\u2014booyah!\u2014you\u2019re off and running. As an instructor, I\u2019ve found that asking students to do a brief free-write right after I hand out an assignment generates useful clarification questions. If your instructor doesn\u2019t make time for that in class, a quick free-write on your own will quickly reveal whether you need clarification about the assignment and, often, what questions to ask.<\/li>\n
            4. Ask for clarification the right way<\/em>. Even the most skillfully crafted assignments may need some verbal clarification, especially because students\u2019 familiarity with the field can vary enormously. Asking for clarification is a good thing. Be aware, though, that instructors get frustrated when they perceive that students want to skip doing their own thinking and instead receive an exact recipe for an A paper. Go ahead and ask for clarification, but try to convey that you want to learn and you\u2019re ready to work.In general, avoid starting a question with \u201cDo we have to \u2026\u201d because I can guarantee that your instructor is thinking, \u201cYou don\u2019t have<\/em> to do crap. You\u2019re an adult. You chose college. You chose this class. You\u2019re free to exercise your right to fail.\u201d Similarly, avoid asking the professor about what he or she \u201cwants.\u201d You\u2019re not performing some service for the professor when you write a paper. What they \u201cwant\u201d is for you to really think about the material.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<\/colgroup>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
              Potentially annoying questions<\/td>\nPreferable alternatives<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
              I don\u2019t get it. Can you explain this more? or<\/span> What do you want us to do?<\/td>\nI see that we are comparing and contrasting these two cases. What should be our focus? Their causes? Their impacts? Their implications? All of those things? or<\/span> I\u2019m unfamiliar with how art historians analyze a painting. Could you say more about what questions I should have in mind to do this kind of analysis?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              How many sources do we have to cite?<\/td>\nIs there a typical range for the number of sources a well written paper would cite for this assignment? or<\/span> Could you say more about what the sources are for? Is it more that we\u2019re analyzing these texts in this paper, or are we using these texts to analyze some other case?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
              What do I have to do to get an A on this paper?<\/td>\nCould I meet with you to get feedback on my (pre-prepared) plans\/outline\/thesis\/draft? or<\/span> I\u2019m not sure how to approach this assignment. Are there any good examples or resources you could point me to?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

              Rubrics as road maps<\/h1>\n

              If a professor provides a grading rubric with an assignment prompt, thank your lucky stars (and your professor). If the professor took the trouble to prepare and distribute it, you can be sure that he or she will use it to grade your paper. He or she may not go over it in class, but it\u2019s the clearest possible statement of what the professor is looking for in the paper. If it\u2019s wordy, it may seem like those online \u201cterms and conditions\u201d that we routinely accept without reading. But you really should read it over carefully before you begin and again as your work progresses. A lot of rubrics do have some useful specifics. Mine, for example, often contain phrases like \u201cmakes at least six error-free connections to concepts or ideas from the course,\u201d or \u201cgives thorough consideration to at least one plausible counter-argument.\u201d Even less specific criteria (such as \u201cincorporates course concepts\u201d and \u201cconsiders counter-arguments\u201d) will tell you how you should be spending your writing time.<\/p>\n

              Even the best rubrics aren\u2019t completely transparent. They simply can\u2019t be. Take, for example, the AAC&U rubric discussed in Chapter 1<\/a>. It has been drafted and repeatedly revised by a multidisciplinary expert panel and tested multiple times on sample student work to ensure reliability. But it is still seems kind of vague. What is the real difference between \u201cdemonstrating a thorough understanding of context, audience, and purpose\u201d and \u201cdemonstrating adequate consideration\u201d of the same? It depends on the specific context. So how can you know whether you\u2019ve done that? A big part of what you\u2019re learning, through feedback from your professors, is to judge the quality of your writing for yourself. Your future bosses are counting on that. At this point, it is better to think of rubrics as roadmaps, displaying your destination, rather than a GPS system directing every move you make.<\/p>\n

              Behind any rubric is the essential goal of higher education: helping you take charge of your own learning, which means writing like an independently motivated scholar. Are you tasked with proposing a research paper topic? Don\u2019t just tell the professor what you want to do, convince him or her of the salience of your topic, as if you were a scholar seeking grant money. Is it a reflection paper? Then outline both the insights you\u2019ve gained and the intriguing questions that remain, as a scholar would. Are you writing a thesis-driven analytical paper? Then apply the concepts you\u2019ve learned to a new problem or situation. Write as if your scholarly peers around the country are eagerly awaiting your unique insights. Descriptors like \u201cthoroughness\u201d or \u201cmastery\u201d or \u201cdetailed attention\u201d convey the vision of student writers making the time and rigorous mental effort to offer something new to the ongoing, multi-stranded academic conversation. What your professor wants, in short, is critical thinking.<\/p>\n

              What\u2019s critical about critical thinking?<\/h1>\n

              Critical thinking is one of those terms that has been used so often and in so many different ways that if often seems meaningless. It also makes one wonder, is there such a thing as uncritical thinking? If you aren\u2019t thinking critically, then are you even thinking?<\/p>\n

              Despite the prevalent ambiguities, critical thinking actually does mean something. The Association of American Colleges and Universities<\/a> usefully defines it as \u201ca habit of mind characterized by the comprehensive exploration of issues, ideas, artifacts, and events before accepting or formulating an opinion or conclusion.\u201d6<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

              That definition aligns with the best description of critical thinking I ever heard; it came from my junior high art teacher, Joe Bolger.7<\/a><\/sup> He once asked us, \u201cWhat color is the ceiling?\u201d In that withering tween tone, we reluctantly replied, \u201cWhiiiite.\u201d He then asked, \u201cWhat color is it really?\u201d We deigned to aim our pre-adolescent eyes upwards, and eventually began to offer more accurate answers: \u201cIvory?\u201d \u201cYellow-ish tan.\u201d \u201cIt\u2019s grey in that corner.\u201d After finally getting a few thoughtful responses, Mr. Bolger said something like, \u201cMaking good art is about drawing what you see, not what you think you\u2019re supposed to see.\u201d The AAC&U definition, above, essentially amounts to the same thing: taking a good look and deciding what you really<\/em> think rather than relying on the first idea or assumption that comes to mind.<\/p>\n

              The critical thinking rubric<\/a> produced by the AAC&U describes the relevant activities of critical thinking in more detail. To think critically, one must \u2026<\/p>\n

              \n
              (a) \u201cclearly state and comprehensively describe the issue or problem\u201d,<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n
              \n
              (b) \u201cindependently interpret and evaluate sources\u201d,<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n
              \n
              (c) \u201cthoroughly analyze assumptions behind and context of your own or others\u2019 ideas\u201d,<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n
              \n
              (d) \u201cargue a complex position and one that takes counter-arguments into account,\u201d and<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n
              \n
              (e) \u201carrive at logical and well informed conclusions\u201d.8<\/a><\/sup><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n

              While you are probably used to providing some evidence for your claims, you can see that college-level expectations go quite a bit further. When professors assign an analytical paper, they don\u2019t just want you to formulate a plausible-sounding argument. They want you to dig into the evidence, think hard about unspoken assumptions and the influence of context, and then explain what you really think and why.<\/p>\n

              Interestingly, the AAC&U defines critical thinking as a \u201chabit of mind\u201d rather than a discrete achievement. And there are at least two reasons to see critical thinking as a craft or art to pursue rather than a task to check off. First, the more you think critically, the better you get at it<\/a>. As you get more and more practice in closely examining claims, their underlying logic, and alternative perspectives on the issue, it\u2019ll begin to feel automatic. You\u2019ll no longer make or accept claims that begin with \u201cEveryone knows that \u2026\u201d or end with \u201cThat\u2019s just human nature.\u201d Second, just as artists and craftspersons hone their skills over a lifetime, learners continually expand their critical thinking capacities, both through the feedback they get from others and their own reflections<\/a>. Artists of all kinds find satisfaction in continually seeking greater challenges. Continual reflection and improvement is part of the craft.<\/p>\n

              \n
              \n
              \n

              As soon as I see the phrase \u201ccritical thinking,\u201d the first thing I think is more work<\/span>. It always sounds as if you\u2019re going to have to think harder and longer. But I think the AAC&U\u2019s definition is on point, critical thinking is a habit. Seeing that phrase shouldn\u2019t be a scary thing because by this point in many people\u2019s college career this is an automatic response. I never expect an answer to a question to be in the text; by now I realize that my professors want to know what I have to say about something or what I have learned. In a paper or essay, the three-step thesis process explained in Chapter 3<\/a> is a tool that will help you get this information across. While you\u2019re doing the hard work (the thinking part), this formula offers you a way to clearly state your position on a subject. It\u2019s as simple as: make a general statement, make an arguable statement, and finally, say why it is important. This is my rule of thumb, and I would not want to start a thesis-driven paper any other way!<\/p>\n

              Aly Button<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

              Critical thinking is hard work. Even those who actively choose to do it experience it as tedious, difficult, and sometimes surprisingly emotional. Nobel-prize winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman explains that our brains aren\u2019t designed to think; rather, they\u2019re designed to save us from having to think.9<\/a><\/sup> Our brains are great at developing routines and repertoires that enable us to accomplish fairly complex tasks like driving cars, choosing groceries, and having a conversation without thinking consciously and thoroughly about every move we make. Kahneman calls this \u201cfast thinking.\u201d \u201cSlow thinking,\u201d which is deliberate and painstaking, is something our brains seek to avoid. That built-in tendency can lead us astray. Kahneman and his colleagues often used problems like this one in experiments to gauge how people used fast and slow thinking in different contexts:10<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

              \n
              A bat and ball cost $1.10.<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n
              \n
              The bat costs one dollar more than the ball.<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n
              \n
              How much does the ball cost?<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n

              Most people automatically say the ball costs $0.10. However, if the bat costs $1 more, than the bat would cost $1.10 leading to the incorrect total of $1.20. The ball costs $0.05. Kahneman notes, \u201cMany thousands of university students have answered the bat-and-ball puzzle, and the results are shocking. More than 50% of students at Harvard, MIT, and Princeton gave the intuitive\u2014incorrect\u2014answer.\u201d These and other results confirm that \u201cmany people are overconfident, prone to place too much faith in their intuitions.\u201d11<\/a><\/sup> Thinking critically\u2014thoroughly questioning your immediate intuitive responses\u2014is difficult work, but every organization and business in the world needs people who can do that effectively. Some students assume that an unpleasant critical thinking experience means that they\u2019re either doing something wrong or that it\u2019s an inherently uninteresting (and oppressive) activity. While we all relish those times when we\u2019re pleasantly absorbed in a complex activity (what psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi calls \u201cflow\u201d<\/a>12<\/a><\/sup>), the more tedious experiences can also bring satisfaction, sort of like a good work-out.<\/p>\n

              Critical thinking can also be emotionally challenging, researchers have found. Facing a new realm of uncertainty and contradiction without relying on familiar assumptions is inherently anxiety-provoking because when you\u2019re doing it, you are, by definition, incompetent. Recent research has highlighted that both children and adults need to be able to regulate their own emotions in order to cope with the challenges of building competence in a new area.13<\/a><\/sup> The kind of critical thinking your professors are looking for\u2014that is, pursuing a comprehensive, multi-faceted exploration in order to arrive at an arguable, nuanced argument\u2014is inevitably a struggle and it may be an emotional one. Your best bet is to find ways to make those processes as efficient, pleasant, and effective as you can<\/a>.<\/p>\n

              \n
              \n
              \n

              The thing no one tells you when you get to college is that critical thinking papers are professors\u2019 favorites. College is all about learning how to think individual thoughts so you\u2019ll have to do quite a few of them. Have no fear though; they do get easier with time. The first step? Think about what you want to focus on in the paper (aka your thesis) and go with it.<\/p>\n

              Kaethe Leonard<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

              As Chapter 1<\/a> explains, the demands students face are not at all unique to their academic pursuits. Professional working roles demand critical thinking, as 81% of major employers reported in an AAC&U-commissioned survey<\/a>14<\/a><\/sup>, and it\u2019s pretty easy to imagine how critical thinking helps one make much better decisions in all aspects of life. Embrace it. And just as athletes, artists, and writers sustain their energy and inspiration for hard work by interacting with others who share these passions, look to others in the scholarly community\u2014your professors and fellow students\u2014to keep yourself engaged in these ongoing intellectual challenges. While writing time is often solitary, it\u2019s meant to plug you into a vibrant academic community. What your professors want, overall, is for you to join them in asking and pursuing important questions about the natural, social, and creative worlds.<\/p>\n

              \n

              Other resources<\/h3>\n
                \n
              1. This website<\/a> from the Capital Community College Foundation has some good advice about overcoming writer\u2019s block. And student contributor Aly Button recommends this funny clip from SpongeBob Squarepants<\/a>.<\/li>\n
              2. The Foundation for Critical Thinking<\/a> maintains a website with many useful articles and tools.<\/li>\n
              3. The Online Writing Laboratory (OWL) at Purdue University<\/a> is a wonderful set of resources for every aspect of college writing. Especially germane to this chapter is this summary<\/a> of the most common types of writing assignments.<\/li>\n
              4. This website<\/a>, BrainBashers.com offers logic puzzles and other brain-teasers for your entertainment.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n
                \n

                Exercises<\/h3>\n
                  \n
                1. Free-write on an assignment prompt. If you have one, do that one. If not, here\u2019s one to practice with:A. \u201cPlease write a five-page paper analyzing the controversy surrounding genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the food supply.\u201dB. What clarification questions would you like to ask your professor? What additional background knowledge do you need to deeply understand the topic? What are some starter ideas that could lead to a good thesis and intriguing argument?<\/li>\n
                2. Find a couple of sample student papers from online paper mills such as this one<\/a> (Google \u201cfree college papers\u201d) and journals featuring excellent undergraduate writing (such as this one from Cornell University<\/a>), and use the AAC&U rubric on critical thinking<\/em><\/a> to evaluate them. Which descriptor in each row most closely fits the paper?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n
                  \n
                  \n
                  \n

                  1<\/a><\/sup>Peter Elbow, Writing With Power: Techniques for Mastering the Writing Process<\/span> (Oxford University Press, 1981)<\/a>, 219.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                  \n

                  2<\/a><\/sup>Ibid.<\/a>, 220.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                  \n

                  3<\/a><\/sup> A lot of professors joke, \u201cI teach for free. They pay me to grade.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                  \n

                  4<\/a><\/sup>Keith Hjortshoj, The Transition to College Writing,<\/span> 2nd Edition (New York: Norton, 2009)<\/a>, 4.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                  \n

                  5<\/a><\/sup> Most professors are perpetually frustrated with the \u201cone-and-done\u201d attitude that most students bring to their work, and some sequences are specifically designed to force you to really rethink your conclusions.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                  \n

                  6<\/a><\/sup>Terrel Rhodes, ed., Assessing Outcomes and Improving Achievement: Tips and Tools for Using Rubrics<\/span> (Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2010).<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                  \n

                  7<\/a><\/sup> Thank you, Mr. Bolger!<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                  \n

                  8<\/a><\/sup>Ibid.<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                  \n

                  9<\/a><\/sup>Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow<\/span> (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011).<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

                  \n

                  10<\/a><\/sup>Ibid.<\/a>, 44.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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                  11<\/a><\/sup>Ibid.<\/a>, 45.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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                  12<\/a><\/sup>Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience<\/span> (New York: Harper & Row, 1990).<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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                  13<\/a><\/sup>Rosen, Jeffrey A., Elizabeth J. Glennie, Ben W. Dalton, Jean M. Lennon, and Robert N. Bozick. Noncognitive Skills in the Classroom: New Perspectives on Educational Research<\/span>. RTI International. PO Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2194, 2010.<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

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                  14<\/a><\/sup>Hart Research Associates, Raising the Bar,<\/span><\/a> 9.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t

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                  Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t
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