{"id":307,"date":"2017-12-06T16:40:01","date_gmt":"2017-12-06T16:40:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-culturalanthropology\/chapter\/gender_and_sexuality\/"},"modified":"2019-11-13T14:11:17","modified_gmt":"2019-11-13T14:11:17","slug":"gender_and_sexuality","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-geneseo-culturalanthropology\/chapter\/gender_and_sexuality\/","title":{"raw":"Gender, Sexuality, and Power","rendered":"Gender, Sexuality, and Power"},"content":{"raw":"<div id=\"_idContainer352\" class=\"Basic-Text-Frame\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer352\" class=\"Basic-Text-Frame\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"Learning-Objectives\">Describe the Man the Hunter myth and explain how it informs ideologies that promote cisgender men's power and gender stratification.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe two examples of gender inequality<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define the concept: legitimizing ideologies.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain what anthropologists mean by \"masculinity studies.\"<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer469\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyleOverride-1\">\r\n<h2 class=\"H2\">Unraveling Our Gender Myths: \u00a0\u201cMan the Hunter,<span class=\"CharOverride-6\">\u201d <\/span>and Other \u201cOrigin Stories\u201d of Gender Inequality and Male Dominance <em>by\u00a0Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and\u00a0<\/em><em>Tami Blumenfield<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">All cultures have \u201ccreation\u201d stories. Many have elaborate gender-related creation stories that describe the origins of males and females, their gender-specific traits, their relationships and sexual proclivities, and, sometimes, how one gender came to \u201cdominate\u201d the other. Our culture is no different. The Judeo-Christian Bible, like the Koran and other religious texts, addresses origins and gender (think of Adam and Eve), and traditional folk tales, songs, dances, and epic stories, such as the Ramayana in Hinduism and Shakespeare\u2019s <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Taming of the Shrew<\/span><\/em>, treat similar themes.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Science, too, has sought to understand gender differences. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a number of scientists, immersed in Darwinian theories, began to explore the evolutionary roots of what they assumed to be universal: male dominance. Of course, scientists, like the rest of us, view the world partially through their own cultural lenses and through a gendered version. Prior to the 1970s, women and gender relations were largely invisible in the research literature and most researchers were male so it is not surprising that 1960s theories reflected prevailing male-oriented folk beliefs about gender.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]For example, the major symposium on Man the Hunter sponsored by Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research included only four women among more than sixty listed participants. See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Man the Hunter<\/em><\/span>(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]), xiv\u2013xvi.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer426\">\r\n<div id=\"_idContainer425\">\r\n<h3 id=\"_idContainer424\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\">The Myth: The Hunting Way of Life \u201cMolds Man\u201d (and Woman)<\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">The most popular and persistent theories argued that male dominance is universal, rooted in species-wide gendered biological traits that we acquired, first as part of our primate heritage, and further developed as we evolved from apes into humans. Emergence of \u201cthe hunting way of life\u201d plays a major role in this story. Crucial components include: a diet consisting primarily of meat, obtained through planned, cooperative hunts, by all-male groups, that lasted several days and covered a wide territory. Such hunts would require persistence, skill, and physical stamina; tool kits to kill, butcher, transport, preserve, and share the meat; and a social organization consisting of a stable home base and a monogamous nuclear family. Several biological changes were attributed to adopting this way of life: a larger and more complex brain, human language, an upright posture (and humans\u2019 unique foot and stride), loss of body hair, a long period of infant dependency, and the absence of \u201cestrus\u201d (ovulation-related female sexual arousal), which made females sexually \u201creceptive\u201d throughout the monthly cycle. Other human characteristics purportedly made sex more enjoyable: frontal sex and fleshier breasts, buttocks, and genitals, especially the human penis. Making sex \u201csexier,\u201d some speculated, cemented the pair-bond, helping to keep the man \u201caround\u201d and the family unit stable.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Mukhopadhyay, Lecture Notes, Human Sexuality, Gender and Culture.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Hunting was also linked to a \u201cworld view\u201d in which the flight of animals from humans seemed natural and (male) aggression became normal, frequent, easy to learn, rewarded, and enjoyable. War, some have suggested, might psychologically be simply a form of hunting and pleasurable for male participants.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]S.Washburn and C.S. Lancaster, \u201cThe Evolution of Hunting.\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Man the Hunter<\/span><\/em>, 299.[\/footnote]<\/span> The Hunting Way of Life, in short, \u201cmolded man,\u201d giving our species its distinctive characteristics. And as a result, we contemporary humans cannot erase the effects of our hunting past even though we live in cities, stalk nothing but a parking place, and can omit meat from our diets.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Gender roles and male dominance were supposed to be part of our evolutionary heritage. Males evolved to be food-providers\u2014stronger, more aggressive, more effective leaders with cooperative and bonding capacities, planning skills, and technological inventiveness (tool-making). In this creation story, females never acquired those capacities because they were burdened by their reproductive roles\u2014pregnancy, giving birth, lactation, and child care\u2014and thus became dependent on males for food and protection. The gender gap widened over time. As males initiated, explored, invented, women stayed at home, nurtured, immersed themselves in domestic life. The result: men are active, women are passive; men are leaders, women are followers; men are dominant, women are subordinate.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Many of us have heard pieces of this <em>Hunting Way of Life<\/em> story. Some of the men I interviewed in Los Angeles in the late 1970s invoked \u201cour hunting past\u201d to explain why they\u2014and men generally\u2014operated barbeques rather than their wives. Women\u2019s qualifications to be president were questioned on biological grounds such as \u201cstamina\u201d and \u201ctoughness.\u201d Her women informants, all hospital nurses, doubted their navigational abilities, courage, and strength despite working in intensive care and regularly lifting heavy male patients. Mukhopadhyay encountered serious scholars who cited women\u2019s menstrual cycle and \u201cemotional instability\u201d during ovulation to explain why women \u201ccan\u2019t\u201d hunt.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Similar stories are invoked today for everything from some men\u2019s love of hunting to why men dominate \u201ctechnical\u201d fields, accumulate tools, have extra-marital affairs or commit the vast majority of homicides. Strength and toughness remain defining characteristics of masculinity in the United States, and these themes often permeate national political debates.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Jackson Katz,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Tough Guise 2: Violence, Manhood and American Culture<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Northampton, MA: Media Education Foundation, 2013).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> One element in the complex debate over gun control is the male-masculine strength-through-guns and man-the-hunter association, and it is still difficult for some males in the United States to feel comfortable with their soft, nurturant, emotional, and artistic sides.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Abigail Disney and Kathleen Hughes,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Armor of Light<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Fork Films, 2015).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">What is most striking about man-the-hunter scenarios is how closely they resemble 1950s U.S. models of family and gender, which were rooted in the late nineteenth century \u201ccult of domesticity\u201d and \u201ctrue womanhood.\u201d Father is \u201chead\u201d of the family and the final authority, whether in household decisions or in disciplining children. As \u201cprovider,\u201d Father goes \u201coutside\u201d into the cold, cruel world, hunting for work. Mother, as \u201cchief mom,\u201d remains \u201cinside\u201d at the home base, creating a domestic refuge against the \u201csurvival of the fittest\u201d \u201cjungle.\u201d American anthropologists seemed to have subconsciously projected their own folk models onto our early human ancestors.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Altering this supposedly \u201cfundamental\u201d gender system, according to widely read authors in the 1970s, would go against our basic \u201chuman nature.\u201d This belief was applied to the political arena, then a virtually all-male domain, especially at state and national levels. The following quote from 1971 is particularly relevant and worthy of critical evaluation since, for the first time, a major U.S. political party selected a woman as its 2016 presidential candidate (See Text Box 3, Gender and the Presidential Election).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-above\">To make women equal participants in the political process, we will have to change the very process itself, which means changing a pattern bred into our behavior over the millennia.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-o-space ParaOverride-8\">\u2014Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Lionel\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Tiger and Robin Fox,<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>The Imperial Animal<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(New York:\u00a0<\/span>Transaction Publishers,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">1997 [1971]), 101.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"H3\">The Reality<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Decades of research, much of it by a new generation of women scholars, have altered our view of the hunting way of life in our evolutionary past.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Some useful reviews include the following: Linda M. Fedigan, \u201cThe Changing Role of Women in Models of Human Evolution\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a016 (1986): 25\u201366; Linda Fedigan,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds<\/em><\/span>(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Pamela L. Geller and Miranda K. Stockett.<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Feminist Anthropology: Past, Present, and Future<\/em> (<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2006); Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Engendering Archeology: Women and Prehistory\u00a0<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1991);\u00a0<\/span>Shirley Strum and Linda Fedigan\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Primate Encounters: Models of Science, Gender and Society<\/span><\/em>. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Meredith F. Small,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>What\u2019s Love Got to Do with It? The Evolution of Human Mating<\/em><\/span>(New York: Doubleday, 1995);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Nancy Makepeace Tanner,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>On Becoming Human<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)<\/span>. For a readable short article, see Meredith Small, \u201cWhat\u2019s Love Got to Do with It,\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Discover Magazine<\/em>,\u00a0<\/span>June 1991, 46\u201351.[\/footnote]<\/span> For example, the old stereotype of primates as living in male-centered, male-dominated groups does not accurately describe our closest primate relatives, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos. The stereotypes came from 1960s research on savannah, ground-dwelling baboons that suggested they were organized socially by a stable male-dominance hierarchy, the \u201ccore\u201d of the group, that was established through force, regulated sexual access to females, and provided internal and external defense of the \u201ctroop\u201d in a supposedly hostile savannah environment.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Irven DeVore, ed.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Primate Behavior<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> Females lacked hierarchies or coalitions, were passive, and were part of dominant male \u201charems.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Critics first argued that baboons, as monkeys rather than apes, were too far removed from humans evolutionarily to tell us much about early human social organization. Then, further research on baboons living in other environments by primatologists such as Thelma Rowell discovered that those baboons were neither male-focused nor male-dominated. Instead, the stable group core was matrifocal\u2014a mother and her offspring constituted the central and enduring ties. Nor did males control female sexuality. Quite the contrary in fact. Females mated freely and frequently, choosing males of all ages, sometimes establishing special relationships\u2014 \u201cfriends with favors.\u201d Dominance, while infrequent, was not based simply on size or strength; it was learned, situational, and often stress-induced. And like other primates, both male and female baboons used sophisticated strategies, dubbed \u201cprimate politics,\u201d to predict and manipulate the intricate social networks in which they lived.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Ibid. Also, for primate politics in particular, see Sarah B.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Hrdy,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Woman That Never Evolved<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999 [1981]). See also Hrdy\u2019s website\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.citrona.com\/hrdy.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.citrona.com\/hrdy.html<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Rowell also restudied the savannah baboons. Even they did not fit the baboon \u201cstereotype.\u201d She found that their groups were loosely structured with no specialized stable male-leadership coalitions and were sociable, matrifocal, and infant-centered much like the Rhesus monkeys pictured below (see Figure 15). Females actively initiated sexual encounters with a variety of male partners. When attacked by predators or frightened by some other major threat, males, rather than \u201cdefending the troop,\u201d typically would flee, running away first and leaving the females carrying infants to follow behind (Figures 16).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Thelma Rowell.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Social Behaviour of Monkeys<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York: Penguin Books, 1972). For an excellent online article on Rowell\u2019s work with additional references, read Vinciane Despret, \u201cCulture and Gender Do Not Dissolve into How Scientists \u2018Read\u2019 Nature: Thelma Rowell\u2019s Heterodoxy.\u201d In\u00a0<span class=\"Emphasis _idGenCharOverride-2\"><em>Rebels of Life. Iconoclastic Biologists in the Twentieth Century, edited by<\/em><\/span>O. Hartman and M. Friedrich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 340\u2013355.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.vincianedespret.be\/2010\/04\/culture-and-gender-do-not-dissolve-into-how-scientists-read-nature-thelma-rowells-heterodoxy\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.vincianedespret.be\/2010\/04\/culture-and-gender-do-not-dissolve-into-how-scientists-read-nature-thelma-rowells-heterodoxy\/<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Man the Hunter, the Meat-Eater?<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">The second, more important challenge was to key assumptions about the hunting way of life. Archaeological and paleontological fossil evidence and ethnographic data from contemporary foragers revealed that hunting and meat it provided were not the primary subsistence mode. Instead, gathered foods such as plants, nuts, fruits, roots and small fish found in rivers and ponds constituted the bulk of such diets and provided the most stable food source in all but a few settings (northerly climates, herd migration routes, and specific geographical and historical settings). When meat was important, it was more often \u201cscavenged\u201d or \u201ccaught\u201d than hunted.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">A major symposium on human evolution concluded that \u201copportunistic\u201d \u201cscavenging\u201d was probably the best description of early human hunting activities. Often, tools found in pre-modern human sites such as caves would have been more appropriate for \u201csmashing\u201d scavenged bones than hunting live animals.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Man the Hunter<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> Hunting, when carried out, generally did not involve large-scale, all-male, cooperative expeditions involving extensive planning and lengthy expeditions over a wide territorial range. Instead, as among the Hadza of Tanzania, hunting was likely typically conducted by a single male, or perhaps two males, for a couple of hours, often without success. When hunting collectively, as occurs among the Mbuti in the Central African rainforest, groups of families likely participated with women and men driving animals into nets. Among the Agta of the Philippines, women rather than men hunt collectively using dogs to herd animals to a place where they can be killed.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]See Estioko-Griffin, Agnes A. Daughters of the Forest.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Natural History<\/span><\/em>\u00a095(5):36\u201343 (May 1986).[\/footnote]<\/span> And !Kung San men, despite what was shown in the 1957 ethnographic film <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Hunters<\/span><\/em>, do not normally hunt giraffe; they usually pursue small animals such as hares, rats, and gophers.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Discrediting the Hunting Hypothesis<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Once the \u201chunting-meat\u201d hypothesis was discredited, other parts of the theory began to unravel, especially the link between male dominance and female economic dependency. We now know that for most of human history\u201499 percent of it prior to the invention of agriculture some 10,000 or so years ago\u2014women have \u201cworked,\u201d often providing the stable sources of food for their family. Richard Lee, Marjorie Shostak, and others have detailed, with caloric counts and time-work estimates, the significance of women\u2019s gathering contributions even in societies such as the !Kung San, in which hunting occurs regularly.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Richard B.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Lee,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>The !Kung San. Men, Women and Work in a Foraging Society<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> In foraging societies that rely primarily on fish, women also play a major role, \u201ccollecting\u201d fish from rivers, lakes, and ponds. The exceptions are atypical environments such as the Arctic.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Of course, \u201cmeat-getting\u201d is a narrow definition of \u201cfood getting\u201d or \u201csubsistence\u201d work. Many food processing activities are time-consuming. Collecting water and firewood is crucial, heavy work and is often done by women (Figure 17). Making and maintaining clothing, housing, and tools also occupy a significant amount of time. Early humans, both male and female, invented an array of items for carrying things (babies, wood, water), dug tubers, processed nuts, and cooked food. The invention of string some 24,000 years ago, a discovery so essential that it produced what some have called the \u201cString Revolution,\u201d is attributed to women.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">A World Full of Women<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">,\u00a0<\/span>26.[\/footnote]<\/span> There is the work of kinship, of healing, of ritual, of \"teaching the next generation, and emotional work. All are part of the work of living and of the \u201cinvisible\u201d work that women do.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_291\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"400\"]<img class=\"wp-image-291 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163935\/gender_figure_17-e1512756411787.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"319\" \/> Figure 17: Collecting firewood in Bansankusu,<br \/>Democratic Republic of Congo.[\/caption]\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Nor is it just hunting that requires intelligence, planning, cooperation, and detailed knowledge. Foragers have lived in a wide variety of environments across the globe, some more challenging than others (such as Alaska). In all of these groups, both males and females have needed and have developed intensive detailed knowledge of local flora and fauna and strategies for using those resources. Human social interactions also require sophisticated mental and communication skills, both verbal and nonverbal. In short, humans\u2019 complex brains and other modern traits developed as an adaptation to complex social life, a lengthy period of child-dependency and child-rearing that required cooperative nurturing, and many different kinds of \u201cwork\u201d that even the simplest human societies performed.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Refuting Pregnancy and Motherhood as Debilitating<\/em><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Finally, cross-cultural data refutes another central man-the-hunter stereotype: the \u201cburden\u201d of pregnancy and child care. Women\u2019s reproductive roles do not generally prevent them from food-getting, including hunting; among the Agta, women hunt when pregnant. Foraging societies accommodate the work-reproduction \u201cconflict\u201d by spacing out their pregnancies using indigenous methods of \u201cfamily planning\u201d such as prolonged breast feeding, long post-pregnancy periods of sexual inactivity, and native herbs and medicinal plants. Child care, even for infants, is rarely solely the responsibility of the birth mother. Instead, multiple caretakers are the norm: spouses, children, other relatives, and neighbors.[footnote]Susan\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Seymour, \u201cMultiple Caretaking of Infants and Young Children: An Area in Critical Need of a Feminist Psychological Anthropology,\u201d<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Ethos<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a032 no. (2004): 538\u2013556.<\/span>[\/footnote]Reciprocity is the key to human social life and to survival in small-scale societies, and reciprocal child care is but one example of such reciprocity. Children and infants accompany their mothers (or fathers) on gathering trips, as among the !Kung San, and on Aka collective net-hunting expeditions. Agta women carry nursing infants with them when gathering-hunting, leaving older children at home in the care of spouses or other relatives.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Serena Nanda and Richard L. Warms,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cultural Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2006), 274.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In pre-industrial horticultural and agricultural societies, having children and \u201cworking\u201d are not incompatible\u2014quite the opposite! Anthropologists long ago identified \u201cfemale farming systems,\u201d especially in parts of Africa and Southeast Asia, in which farming is predominantly a woman\u2019s job and men \u201chelp out\u201d as needed.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ester Boserup,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women\u2019s Role in Economic Development<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: St. Martin\u2019s Press, 1970);<\/span>\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Barbara D. Miller,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Cultural Anthropology<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Pearson\/Allyn and Bacon, 2012).<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In most agricultural societies, women who do not come from high-status or wealthy families perform a significant amount of agricultural labor, though it often goes unrecognized in the dominant gender ideology. Wet-rice agriculture, common in south and southeast Asia, is labor-intensive, particularly weeding and transplanting rice seedlings, which are often done by women (Figure 10). Harvesting rice, wheat, and other grains also entails essential input by women. Yet the Indian Census traditionally records only male family members as \u201cfarmers.\u201d In the United States, women\u2019s work on family-owned farms is often invisible.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Mauma Downie and Christina Gladwin,<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Florida Farm Wives: They Help the Family Farm Survive<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Gainesville: Food and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida, 1981).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Women may accommodate their reproductive and child-rearing roles by engaging in work that is more compatible with child care, such as cooking, and in activities that occur closer to home and are interruptible and perhaps less dangerous, though cooking fires, stoves, and implements such as knives certainly can cause harm!<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Judith K.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Brown, \u201cA Note on the Division of Labor by Sex,\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">American Anthropologist<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">72 (1970):1073\u201378.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> More often, women adjust their food-getting \u201cwork\u201d in response to the demands of pregnancy, breast-feeding, and other child care activities. They gather or process nuts while their children are napping; they take their children with them to the fields to weed or harvest and, in more recent times, to urban construction sites in places such as India, where women often do the heaviest (and lowest-paid) work.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">In the United States, despite a long-standing cultural model of the stay-at-home mom, some mothers have always worked outside the home, mainly out of economic necessity. This shifting group includes single-divorced-widowed mothers and married African-Americans (pre- and post-slavery), immigrants, and Euro-American women with limited financial resources. But workplace policies (except during World War II) have historically made it harder rather than easier for women (and men) to carry out family responsibilities, including requiring married women and pregnant women to quit their jobs.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">See\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.momsrising.org\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.momsrising.org<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0for some contemporary examples of the challenges and obstacles workplaces pose for working mothers, as well as efforts to advocate for improved accommodation of parenting and working.<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> Circumstances have not improved much. While pregnant people in the United States are no longer automatically dismissed from their jobs\u2014at least not legally\u2014the United States lags far behind most European countries in providing affordable <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3202345\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">child care<\/span><\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2013\/02\/23\/your-money\/us-trails-much-of-the-world-in-providing-paid-family-leave.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">paid parental leave<\/span><\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3 class=\"H2-below-TB-LO\">Male Dominance: Universal and Biologically Rooted?<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Unraveling the myth of the hunting way of life and women\u2019s dependence on male hunting undermined the logic behind the argument for biologically rooted male dominance. Still, for feminist scholars, the question of male dominance remained important. Was it universal, \u201cnatural,\u201d inevitable, and unalterable? Were some societies gender-egalitarian? Was gender inequality a cultural phenomenon, a product of culturally and historically specific conditions?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Research in the 1970s and 1980s addressed these questions.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]See reviews in Naomi\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Quinn, \u201c<\/span>Anthropological Studies of Women\u2019s Status,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a06 (1977): 181\u2013225; Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">,\u00a0<\/span><em>\u201c<\/em>Anthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987<em>\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-17\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span>\u00a01<\/em>7 (1988):461\u201395.[\/footnote]<\/span> Some argued that \u201csexual asymmetry\u201d was universal and resulted from complex cultural processes related to women\u2019s reproductive roles.[footnote]Michelle Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Woman, Culture and Society<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974).[\/footnote]Others presented evidence of gender equality in small-scale societies (such as the !Kung San and Native American Iroquois) but argued that it had disappeared with the rise of private property and \u201cthe state.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Rayna Rapp Reiter, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Toward an Anthropology of Women<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Karen\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Sacks,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Sisters and Wives. The Past and Future of Sexual Equality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1979)<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> Still others focused on evaluating the \u201cstatus of women\u201d using multiple \u201cvariables\u201d or identifying \u201ckey determinants\u201d (e.g., economic, political, ecological, social, and cultural) of women\u2019s status.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Peggy\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Sanday,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).<\/span>[\/footnote]<\/span> By the late 1980s, scholars realized how difficult it was to define, much less measure, male dominance across cultures and even the \u201cstatus of women\u201d in one culture.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Think of our own society or the area in which you live. How would you go about assessing the \u201cstatus of women\u201d to determine whether it is male-dominated? What would you examine? What information would you gather and from whom? What difficulties might you encounter when making a judgment? Might men and women have different views? Then imagine trying to compare the status of women in your region to the status of women in, let\u2019s say, the Philippines, Japan, or China or in a kin-based, small society like that of the Minangkabau living in Indonesia and the !Kung San in Botswana. Next, how might Martians, upon arriving in your city, decide whether you live in a \u201cmale dominated\u201d culture? What would they notice? What would they have difficulty deciphering? This experiment gives you an idea of what anthropologists confronted\u2014except they were trying to include all societies that ever existed. Many were accessible only through archaeological and paleontological evidence or through historical records, often made by travelers, sailors, or missionaries. Surviving small-scale cultures were surrounded by more-powerful societies that often imposed their cultures and gender ideologies on those under their control.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">For example, the !Kung San of Southern Africa when studied by anthropologists, had already been pushed by European colonial rulers into marginal areas. Most were living on \u201creserves\u201d similar to Indian reservations in the United States. Others lived in market towns and were sometimes involved in the tourist industry and in films such as the ethnographically flawed and ethnocentric film <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Gods Must Be Crazy <\/span><\/em>(1980). !Kung San women at the time were learning European Christian ideas about sexuality, clothing, and covering their breasts, and children were attending missionary-established schools, which taught the church\u2019s and European views of gender and spousal roles along with the Bible, Jesus, and the Virgin Mary. During the struggle against apartheid in South Africa, the South African military tried to recruit San to fight against the South West Africa People\u2019s Organization (SWAPO), taunting reluctant !Kung San men by calling them \u201cchicken\u201d and assuming, erroneously, that the !Kung San shared their \u201ctough guys\u00a0\/ tough guise\u201d version of masculinity.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]For an alternative ethnographic, research based video see\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>N!ai: The Story of a !Kung Woman<\/em>.\u00a0<\/span>1980.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Given the complexity of evaluating \u201cuniversal male dominance,\u201d scholars abandoned the search for simple \u201cglobal\u201d answers, for key \u201cdeterminants\u201d of women\u2019s status that would apply to all societies. A 1988 <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span> article by Mukhopadhyay and Higgins concluded that \u201cOne of the profound realizations of the past ten years is that the original questions, still unanswerable, may be both naive and inappropriate.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0<em>\u201c<\/em>Anthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-17\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a017 (1988), 462.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span> Among other things, the concept of \u201cstatus\u201d contains at least five separate, potentially independent components: economics, power\/authority, prestige, autonomy, and gender ideologies\/beliefs. One\u2019s life-cycle stage, kinship role, class, and other socio-economic and social-identity variables affect one\u2019s gender status. Thus, even within a single culture, women\u2019s lives are not uniform.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]Ibid.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 class=\"Text-Box-head\">Has Civilization Advanced Women's Positions? <em>by\u00a0Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and\u00a0<\/em><em>Tami Blumenfield<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Ironically, some nineteenth- and twentieth-century writers and social scientists, such as Herbert Spencer, have argued that women\u2019s positions \u201cadvanced\u201d with civilization, especially under European influence, at least relative to so-called \u201cprimitive\u201d societies. The picture is complicated, but the opposite may actually be true. Most anthropological studies have suggested that \u201ccivilization,\u201d \u201ccolonialism,\u201d \u201cdevelopment,\u201d and \u201cglobalization\u201d have been mixed blessings for women.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]<\/span>Nandini Gunewardena and Ann Kingsolver,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>The Gender of Globalization: Women Navigating Cultural and Economic Marginalities<\/em><\/span>(Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press, 2008).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[\/footnote]<\/span>Their traditional workloads tend to increase while they are simultaneously excluded from new opportunities in agricultural cash crops, trading, and technology. Sometimes they lose traditional rights (e.g., to property) within extended family kinship groups or experience increased pressure from men to be the upholders of cultural traditions, whether in clothing or marriage practices. On the other hand, new political, economic, and educational opportunities can open up for women, allowing them not only to contribute to their families but to delay marriage, pursue alternatives to marriage, and, if they marry, to have a more powerful voice in their marriages.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]\u00a0Women\u2019s political power, when exerted, may go unnoticed by the global media. For an example, see the documentary<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Pray the Devil to Hell<\/em><\/span>\u00a0on women\u2019s role in forcing Liberian President Charles Taylor from office and leading to the election of Ellen Johnson Sirleaf as President. For an excellent documentary on some of the alternative paths contemporary women in India are taking, see\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The World before Her<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>.<\/em> For more on changes in women\u2019s education in India, see Carol C.\u00a0<\/span>Mukhopadhyay. 2001. \u201cThe Cultural Context of Gendered Science: The Case of India.\u201d Available at\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\/papers\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\/papers\/<\/span><\/a>[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Deeply embedded cultural-origin stories are extremely powerful, difficult to unravel, and can persist despite contradictory evidence, in part because of their familiarity. They resemble what people have seen and experienced throughout their lifetimes, even in the twenty-first century, despite all the changes. Yet, nineteenth and twentieth century cultural models are also continuously reinforced and reproduced in every generation through powerful devices: children\u2019s stories; rituals like Valentine\u2019s Day; fashion, advertisements, music, video games, and popular culture generally; and in financial, political, legal, and military institutions and leaders. But profound transformations can produce a \u201cbacklash,\u201d as in U.S. movements to restore \u201ctraditional\u201d family forms, \u201ctraditional\u201d male and female roles, sexual abstinence-virginity, and the \u201csanctity\u201d of heterosexual marriage.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\">[footnote]See the excellent film\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Purity Myth: The Virginity Movement\u2019s War Against Women<\/span><\/em>. Available through Media Education Foundation.[\/footnote]<\/span> Some would argue that backlash elements were at work in the 2016 Presidential and Congressional elections (see Text Box 3).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">Cultural origin stories also persist because they are <b>legitimizing ideologies<\/b>\u2014complex belief systems often developed by those in power to rationalize, explain, and perpetuate systems of inequality. The hunting-way-of-life theory of human evolution, for example, both naturalizes and essentializes male dominance and other gender-related traits and provides an origin story and a legitimizing ideology for the \u201ctraditional\u201d U.S. nuclear family as \u201cfundamental to human social organization and life.\u201d It also can be used to justify \u201cspousal rape\u201d and domestic violence, treating both as private family matters and, in the past, as male \u201crights.\u201d Not surprisingly, elements of the traditional nuclear family model appear in the 2015 U.S. Supreme Court case that legalized same-sex marriage, especially in the <a href=\"http:\/\/apps.washingtonpost.com\/g\/documents\/national\/roberts-dissent-on-supreme-court-same-sex-marriage-ruling\/1606\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">dissenting views<\/span><\/a>. And cultural models of gender and family played a role in the 2016 U.S. Presidential election.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3 class=\"H3\">EXAMPLE OF\u00a0<b>legitimizing ideologies<\/b>: the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election<\/h3>\r\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-author\">By Carol C. Mukhopadhyay<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">The 2016 presidential election was gender precedent-setting in ways that will take decades to analyze (see for example <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/11\/13\/opinion\/sunday\/the-glass-ceiling-holds.html?&amp;moduleDetail=section-news-2&amp;action=click&amp;contentCollection=Opinion&amp;region=Footer&amp;module=MoreInSection&amp;version=WhatsNext&amp;contentID=WhatsNext&amp;pgtype=article\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Gail Collins<\/span><\/a>). For the first time, a major U.S. political party chose a woman as its presidential candidate. And while Hillary Rodham Clinton did not win the electoral college, she won the popular vote, the first woman to do so, and by nearly three million votes. As a cultural anthropologist who has long studied women and politics, I offer a few preliminary observations on the role of gender in the 2016 presidential election.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\">[footnote]Carol C. Mukhopadhyay. 1982. \u201cSati or Shakti: Women, Culture and Politics in India.\u201d <em>In\u00a0<\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Perspectives on Power: Women in Asia, Africa and Latin America<\/em>,\u00a0<\/span>edited by Jean O\u2019Barr, 11\u201326. Durham, NC: Center for International Studies, Duke University; Carol C. Mukhopadhyay. 2008. \u201cSati or Shakti: An Update in Light of Contemporary U.S. Presidential Politics.\u201d Paper presented at\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Gender and Politics from a Feminist Anthropological Perspective<\/span><\/em>. November 2008, San Francisco. On the 2016 Election, see: Carol\u00a0Mukhopadhyay.. \u201cGender and Trump,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Social Justice<\/span><\/em>\u00a0blog,\u00a0<span class=\"aqj\">January 19<\/span>, 2017,<a href=\"http:\/\/www.socialjusticejournal.org\/gender-and-trump\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\" xml:lang=\"ar-SA\">http:\/\/www.socialjusticejournal.org\/gender-and-trump\/<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">Women on the Political Leadership Stage<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">From a positive perspective, for the first time, two women (Republican Carly Fiorina and Democrat Hillary Clinton) participated in televised presidential primary debates and one went on to the \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/www.c-span.org\/2016presidentialDebates\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">finals<\/span><\/a>.\u201d Millions of people, including children, saw articulate, accomplished, powerful women competing with men to be \u201cCommander-in-Chief.\u201d During the 2016 <a href=\"http:\/\/2016.democratic-convention.org\/day-4\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Democratic National Convention<\/span><\/a>, the country watched a major political party and key male leaders celebrate the life and professional and leadership-relevant achievements of a woman, its presidential nominee. The role-modeling impacts are enormous\u2014and, one hopes, long-lasting.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">The Gendered White House Family<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">The 2016 presidential campaign challenged, at least momentarily, the traditional, taken-for-granted, gendered institution of the White House first \u201cfamily.\u201d What if the president\u2019s spouse were male? This would wreck havoc with the conventional \u201cfirst lady\u201d role! Traditionally, the spouse, even if highly educated, becomes the \u201chelp mate\u201d and \u201clistener,\u201d handles \u201cdomestic affairs,\u201d organizes and attends important social occasions, and works on gender-appropriate projects such as children\u2019s health. Hillary Clinton was roundly criticized, as first lady, for venturing beyond the \u201cdomestic sphere\u201d and pursuing health care reform in Bill Clinton\u2019s administration even though she had indisputably relevant professional expertise. Michelle Obama, with her Harvard law degree and prior career as a lawyer, became best known as \u201cFirst Mom\u201d and a \u201cfashion-setter\u201d whose clothing was discussed and emulated. While she was a very positive role model, especially for African-Americans, and developed major initiatives to combat childhood obesity and promote fresh food, she did not challenge <a href=\"https:\/\/www.yahoo.com\/news\/race-gender-and-the-legacy-michelle-obama-will-leave-behind-2-202649864.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink CharOverride-10\">gender conventions<\/span><\/a>. How many girls remember her professional credentials and achievements?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-last\">Had Hillary Clinton won, the need to confront gendered elements of the conventional White House family would have come to the forefront as the \u201cfirst gentleman\u201d role gradually evolved. Certainly, no one would have expected Bill Clinton to choose china patterns, redecorate the living quarters, or become a \u201cfashion trend-setter.\u201d<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">Consensual Sexual Interactions: Which Century Are We In?<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">The 2016 presidential campaign stimulated discussion of other often-ignored gender-related topics. Despite some progress, sexual harassment and sexual assault, including rape, remain widespread in the workplace and on college campuses (cf. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/news\/archive\/2016\/06\/stanford-sexual-assault-letters\/485837\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Stanford case<\/span><\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.imdb.com\/title\/tt4185572\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">The Hunting Ground<\/span><\/a>). Yet there has been enormous pressure on women\u2014and institutions\u2014to remain silent.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">In October 2016, after a video was released of Donald Trump bragging about his ability to sexually grope women he did not know, the presidential candidate said it was only \u201clocker room talk\u201d...not anything he had ever done. Hearing these denials, several women, some well-known, came forth with convincing claims that Trump had groped them or in other ways engaged in inappropriate, non-consensual sexual behavior. Trump responded by denying the charges, insulting the accusers, and threatening lawsuits against the claimants and news media organizations that published the reports.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\">[footnote]<\/span>For more information on the initial Trump video, see\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/time.com\/4523755\/donald-trump-leaked-tape-impact\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/time.com\/4523755\/donald-trump-leaked-tape-impact<\/span><\/a>. For coverage of the women accusing Trump and his response, see\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2016\/10\/14\/politics\/trump-women-accusers\/index.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2016\/10\/14\/politics\/trump-women-accusers\/index.html<\/span><\/a>. For coverage of Trumps\u2019 response to the allegations, see\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/time.com\/4531872\/donald-trump-sexual-assault-accusers-attack\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/time.com\/4531872\/donald-trump-sexual-assault-accusers-attack<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\">[\/footnote]<\/span> For many women, the video aroused memories of their own recurring experiences with sexual harassment and assault. After the video was released, Kelly Oxford started a tidal wave of women unburdening long-kept secrets with her tweet: \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2016\/10\/11\/497530709\/one-tweet-unleashes-a-torrent-of-stories-of-sexual-assault\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Women: tweet me your first assaults<\/span><\/a>.\u201d Others went on record denouncing Trumps\u2019 talk and behavior, and the hashtag #NotOkay surged on Twitter.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">In a normal U.S. presidential election, the video and repeated accusations of sexual assault would have forced the candidate to withdraw (as happened with <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2014\/09\/21\/magazine\/how-gary-harts-downfall-forever-changed-american-politics.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Gary Hart<\/span><\/a> in a previous election). Instead, accusers experienced a backlash not only from Trump but from some media organizations and Trump supporters, illustrating why women are reluctant to come forth or press sexual charges, especially against powerful men (see the 1991 <a href=\"http:\/\/www.msnbc.com\/msnbc\/anita-hill-her-regrets\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Anita Hill-Clarence Thomas case<\/span><\/a>). These voters\u2019 reactions and the continued willingness of so many others to vote for the candidate suggest that \u201clocker room banter\u201d and unwanted sexual advances are still considered normal and acceptable among significant segments of our population. After all, \u201cboys will be boys,\u201d at least in the old (false) baboon stereotype of male behavior! Clearly, we need more public conversations about what constitutes appropriate and consensual sexually related behavior.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">Sexism: Alive and Well<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">The 2016 presidential campaign revealed that sexism is alive and well, though not always <a href=\"https:\/\/www.thenation.com\/article\/now-im-with-her\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">recognized<\/span><\/a>, explicit, or acknowledged even when obvious (see article by <a href=\"http:\/\/billmoyers.com\/author\/lynnsherr1\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Lynn Sherr<\/span><\/a>). The media, both before and after the election, generally underplayed the impact of sexism despite research showing that sexist attitudes, not political party, were more likely to predict voters preference for Donald Trump over <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/monkey-cage\/wp\/2016\/10\/23\/how-sexism-drives-support-for-donald-trump\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Hillary Clinton<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\">[footnote]<span class=\"pb-byline\">Carly Wayne, Nicholas Valentino and Marzia Oceno. 2016. \u201c<\/span>How Sexism Drives Support for Donald Trump.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Washington Post<\/span><\/em>, October\u00a0<span class=\"pb-byline\">23.\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/monkey-cage\/wp\/2016\/10\/23\/how-sexism-drives-support-for-donald-trump\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/monkey-cage\/wp\/2016\/10\/23\/how-sexism-drives-support-for-donald-trump<\/span><\/a>. Also see Libby Nelson. 2016. \u201cHostility toward Women Is One of the Strongest Predictors of Trump Support.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Vox<\/span><\/em>. November 1.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.vox.com\/2016\/11\/1\/13480416\/trump-supporters-sexism\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.vox.com\/2016\/11\/1\/13480416\/trump-supporters-sexism<\/span><\/a>. For an article that also covers research by psychologists, see Emily Crockett. 2016. \u201cWhy Misogyny Won.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Vox<\/span><\/em>. November 15.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.vox.com\/identities\/2016\/11\/15\/13571478\/trump-president-sexual-assault-sexism-misogyny-won\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.vox.com\/identities\/2016\/11\/15\/13571478\/trump-president-sexual-assault-sexism-misogyny-won<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">The campaign also reflected a persistent double standard. Despite widespread agreement that Hillary Clinton was highly qualified to be president, her judgment, competence, \u201cstamina,\u201d and even her proven accomplishments were subjected to scrutiny and criticism not normally applied to similarly experienced male candidates. Additional gender-specific criteria were imposed: \u201clikeability,\u201d \u201csmiling enough,\u201d \u201cwarmth,\u201d and appearance. She did not \u201clook\u201d \u201cpresidential\u201d\u2014an image of leadership that evoked the stereotype baboon model! But being six feet tall with large biceps and acting \u201ctough\u201d and \u201caggressive\u201d probably would have disqualified her, as a woman, from the start! Other traits that are acceptable in men\u2014ambitious, goal-focused, strategic, \u201cwanting\u201d the presidency\u2014were treated as liabilities in Clinton, part of a \u201cpower-hungry\u201d critique, as though women are not legitimately supposed to pursue or hold power.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3><a href=\"http:\/\/www.cc.com\/video-clips\/09yfp5\/the-daily-show-with-jon-stewart-the-broads-must-be-crazy---belittled-women\">Take a break from reading and WATCH this clip from the Daily Show with John Stewart<\/a><\/h3>\r\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">Patriarchal Stereotypes of Women<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Hillary Clinton\u2019s candidacy seems to have activated long-standing patriarchal stereotypes and images of women. One is the \u201cgood vs. bad\u201d woman opposition. The \u201cgood\u201d woman is chaste, obedient, nurturing, self-sacrificing, gentle\u2014the Virgin Mary\/Mother figure. The \u201cbad\u201d woman is greedy, selfish, independent, aggressive, and often, sexually active\u2014importantly, she lies, deceives, is totally untrustworthy. Bad (\u201cnasty\u201d) women in myths and reality must be punished for their transgressions; they are dangerous to men and threaten the social order.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">As a researcher and someone who had many conversations with voters during this election, I was shocked by the intensity and level of animosity directed at Hillary Clinton. It was palpable, and it went far beyond a normal critique of a normal candidate. At Republican rallies, mass shouts of \u201clock her up\u201d and T-shirts and bumper stickers bearing slogans like \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.washingtonexaminer.com\/team-hillary-horrified-at-trump-that-bitch-t-shirts-at-trump-rally\/article\/2594163\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Trump that Bitch<\/span><\/a>\u201d (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/entry\/deplorable-anti-clinton-merch-at-trump-rallies_us_572836e1e4b016f378936c22\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">and worse<\/span><\/a>) bore a frightening resemblance to violence-inciting hate-speech historically directed at African-Americans and at Jews, gays, and socialists in Nazi Germany, as well as to hate-filled speech that fueled Medieval European witch-burnings in which thousands (if not millions), mainly women, were burned at the stake [\u201cburn the witch\u201d].<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\">[footnote]For examples of anti-Clinton rhetoric, see article and associated video at\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/entry\/deplorable-anti-clinton-merch-at-trump-rallies_us_572836e1e4b016f378936c22\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/entry\/deplorable-anti-clinton-merch-at-trump-rallies_us_572836e1e4b016f378936c22<\/span><\/a>. Figures for numbers of witches killed range from thousands to millions, with most suggesting at least 60,000\u201380,000 and probably far more. Regardless, it is estimated that 75\u201380 percent were women. See for example Douglas Linder. 2005. \u201cA Brief History of Witchcraft Persecutions before Salem\u201d\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/law2.umkc.edu\/faculty\/projects\/ftrials\/salem\/witchhistory.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/law2.umkc.edu\/faculty\/projects\/ftrials\/salem\/witchhistory.html<\/span><\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/womenshistory.about.com\/od\/witcheseurope\/a\/Witch-Hunts-In-Europe-Timeline.htm\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/womenshistory.about.com\/od\/witcheseurope\/a\/Witch-Hunts-In-Europe-Timeline.htm<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span> Clinton was indeed challenging \u201ctraditional\u201d gender roles in U.S. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.vox.com\/identities\/2016\/11\/15\/13571478\/trump-president-sexual-assault-sexism-misogyny-won\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">politics<\/span><\/a>, the workplace, and at home. Patriarchy was being threatened, and many, though not all, voters found that profoundly disturbing even though they did not necessarily recognize it or admit it.[footnote]Mark DiCamillo of the Field Poll suggested one reason polls were wrong is that female Trump voters hid their actual voting preferences from pollsters. DiCamillo is quoted in Debra J. Saunders. 2016. \u201cHow Herd Mentality Blinded Pollsters to Trump Potential.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">San Francisco Chronicle<\/span><\/em>. November 13, E3.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Beyond that, there is a long tradition of blaming women for personal and societal disasters\u2014for convincing Adam to eat the forbidden fruit, for the breakup of joint family households in places like India. Women often become the repository for people\u2019s frustrations when things \u201cgo wrong\u201d (Remember the spoiled sausage in Portuguese culture discussed earlier in this chapter?). Women\u2014like minorities, immigrants, and \u201cevil empires\u201d\u2014are culturally familiar, available targets to which one can legitimately assign blame, frustration, and even rage, as we saw in the <a href=\"http:\/\/presidentialgenderwatch.org\/no-women-didnt-abandon-clinton-fail-win-support\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">2016 election<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\">[footnote]\u00a0For a critique of those who \u201cblame\u201d Euro-American (\u201cwhite\u201d) women for Hillary Clinton\u2019s defeat, see the article by Kelly Dittmar. 2016. \u201cNo, Women Didn\u2019t Abandon Clinton, Nor Did She Fail to Win Their Support.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Ms. Magazine<\/span><\/em>. November 14.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/msmagazine.com\/blog\/2016\/11\/14\/women-didnt-abandon-clinton\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/msmagazine.com\/blog\/2016\/11\/14\/women-didnt-abandon-clinton\/<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">Hillary Clinton as a Symbol of Change<\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Ironically, Hillary Clinton was depicted and criticized during the campaign as a symbol of the \u201cestablishment\u201d while her key opponents stood for \u201cchange.\u201d I think it is just the opposite. Hillary Clinton and her campaign and coalition symbolized (and embraced) the major transformations\u2014indeed, upheavals\u2014that have occurred in the United States since the 1960s. It is not just feminism and a new definition of masculinity that rejects the old baboon male-dominance tough-guy model, although that is one change.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\">[footnote]See Women in the World. 2016. \u201cDonald Trump\u2019s Victory Threatens to Upend Progressive Notions of Masculinity.\u201d November 20.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/nytlive.nytimes.com\/womenintheworld\/2016\/11\/20\/donald-trumps-victory-threatens-to-upend-progressive-notions-of-masculinity\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/nytlive.nytimes.com\/womenintheworld\/2016\/11\/20\/donald-trumps-victory-threatens-to-upend-progressive-notions-of-masculinity\/<\/span><\/a>.[\/footnote]<\/span> While economic anxiety and \u201cwhite nationalism\u201d both played roles, the election was also about an \u201cAmerica\u201d that is changing demographically, socially, religiously, sexually, linguistically, technologically, and ideologically\u2014changing what constitutes \u201ctruth\u201d and reality. For many in rural areas, outside forces\u2014especially the government<span class=\"CharOverride-10\">, <\/span>run by liberal, urban elites\u2014are seen as trying to control one\u2019s way of life with gun control, environmental regulations, ending coal mining, banning school (Christian) prayer, requiring schools to teach evolution and comprehensive sex education (vs. abstinence only). Hillary Clinton, her coalition, and her alignment with the Obama White House, not just with its policies but with an African-American \u201cfirst family,\u201d symbolized the intersection of all these social, demographic, and cultural transformations. She truly represented \u201cchange.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Ironically, Clinton\u2019s opponents, even in the Democratic Party, were more \u201cestablishment\u201d candidates culturally, demographically, and in their gender relationships. Bernie Sanders attracted an enormous, enthusiastic following and came close to winning the Democratic presidential primary. Yet his rhetoric and policy proposals, while unusual in twenty-first century mainstream politics, resembled the economic inequality, anti-Wall Street, \u201cit\u2019s only about economics\u201d focus of early twentieth century democratic socialists such as Eugene Debs and Norman Thomas and of progressive Henry Wallace. And, not surprisingly, Sanders appealed largely to Euro-American demographic groups rather than to the broader spectrum of twenty-first century voters.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">In short, the election and the candidacy of Hillary Rodham Clinton symbolized more than half a century of enormous change\u2014and a choice between continuing that change or selecting a candidate who symbolized what was traditional, familiar, and, to many, more comfortable. Whether the transformations of the past fifty years will be reversed remains to be seen.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\">[footnote]<\/span>For a powerful video reaction and interpretation of this election, see\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/vimeo.com\/191751334\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/vimeo.com\/191751334<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\">[\/footnote]<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\"><span class=\"CharOverride-7\">Discussion<\/span><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">From a global perspective, the United States lags behind many countries in women\u2019s political leadership and representation. For national legislative bodies, U.S. women constitute only 19 percent of Congress, <span class=\"CharOverride-7\">below <\/span>the world average of 23 percent, below the average in the Americas, 28 percent, and far below Nordic countries, 41 percent. The U.S. ranks 104th of 193 countries in the world (see <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ipu.org\/wmn-e\/classif.htm\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.ipu.org\/wmn-e\/classif.htm<\/span><\/a>). When it comes to political leadership, over 65 nations have elected at least one woman as their head of state, including countries with predominantly Muslim, Christian, Jewish, Hindu, and\/or Buddhist populations. (see <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theglobalist.com\/women-on-top-of-the-political-world\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.theglobalist.com\/women-on-top-of-the-political-world\/<\/span><\/a>.) Yet the U.S. still has never elected a woman President (or even Vice-President). Are you surprised by these data or by some of the countries that rank higher than the United States? Why? What do you think are some of the reasons the US lags behind so many other countries?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-para ParaOverride-4\"><span class=\"CharOverride-7\">Additional Resources and Links<\/span><\/h4>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para ParaOverride-4\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.cawp.rutgers.edu\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Center for American Women and Politics<\/span><\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para ParaOverride-4\">Presidential Gender Watch: <a href=\"http:\/\/presidentialgenderwatch.org\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/presidentialgenderwatch.org\/<\/span><\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para ParaOverride-4\"><a href=\"http:\/\/statusofwomendata.org\/explore-the-data\/political-participation\/political-participation-full-section\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Institute for Women\u2019s Policy Research<\/span><\/a><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para ParaOverride-4\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2015\/01\/26\/despite-progress-u-s-still-lags-many-nations-in-women-leadership\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Pew Research Institute<\/span><\/a> (U.S. and international data)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-last ParaOverride-4\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.unwomen.org\/en\/what-we-do\/leadership-and-political-participation\/facts-and-figures\">United Nations, UN Women<\/a><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2><strong>Feminism <em>by Deborah Amory<\/em><\/strong><\/h2>\r\nIf we want to learn about sex and gender from a global perspective, anthropology is a good place to start. \u00a0But not all anthropology escaped the gender ideologies of the time and place where anthropology first started. \u00a0In fact, it wasn\u2019t until the Women\u2019s Rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s that anthropologists started to ask some key questions. \u00a0And it was feminist anthropologists who were some of the first researchers to ask how social constructions of sex and gender varies cross-culturally. \u00a0Why were they interested in knowing the answer to this question? These feminist anthropologists reasoned that if gender roles and statuses are different in different places and times, then it means that there is nothing \u201cnatural\u201d about the ways in which men dominated women in our own culture.\r\n\r\nFeminism is a concept we will be encountering in some of our readings and it seems like a good idea to lay out a working definition before we embark. I take the following definition from Estelle Freedman\u2019s book, No Turning Back: the history of feminism and the future of women. This fascinating book is often used in Women\u2019s Studies courses and covers the history of feminism and the struggles for women\u2019s rights, primarily in the US and the west, but does include some cross-cultural material. Freedman defines feminism as follows:\r\n\r\n\u201cFeminism is a belief that women and men are inherently of equal worth. Because most societies privilege men as a group, social movements are necessary to achieve equality between women and men, with the understanding that gender always intersects with other social hierarchies\u201d (Freedman 2002: 7).\r\n\r\nFreedman continues with some clarifications of the terms in her definition. She uses the term \u201cequal worth\u201d to emphasize that we need to value the traditionally female tasks, such as child rearing, as highly as the types of work usually done by men. She is not saying men and women are the same or that they have to be the same, but she is saying that men\u2019s and women\u2019s labor should be valued equally. By men being privileged in most societies, she is referring to not only formal legal and political rights, but also to cultural preferences and double standards that give men more freedoms and opportunities than women. Finally, by pointing out that gender always \u201cintersects\u201d with other \u201csocial hierarchies\u201d, she is referring to the ways in which the experience of being a woman is fundamentally changed by other social structures such as class, race, age, sexuality, etc. \u00a0Perhaps most importantly, she is not arguing that there is a universal identity as \u201cwoman\u201d that in and of itself communicates something about the experiences of ALL women in the world. There are other social inequalities that disadvantage both men and women, and feminism cannot ignore those other systems of power and inequality \u2014 like poverty, racism, homophobia, etc. Feminism has been given a bad name because it is often oversimplified and misunderstood. When presented as Freedman does, it becomes a stance that both men and women can embrace.\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>WATCH: Confessions of a Bad Feminist, Roxane Gay's TED Talk<\/h3>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/roxane_gay_confessions_of_a_bad_feminist?utm_campaign=tedspread&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_source=tedcomshare\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Introduction to Masculinity Studies <em>by\u00a0Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and\u00a0<\/em><em>Tami Blumenfield<\/em><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Students in gender studies and anthropology courses on gender are often surprised to find that they will be learning about men as well as women. Early women\u2019s studies initially employed what has been called an \u201cadd women and stir\u201d approach, which led to examinations of gender as a social construct and of women\u2019s issues in contemporary society. In the 1990s, women\u2019s studies expanded to become gender studies, incorporating the study of other genders, sexuality, and issues of gender and social justice.[footnote]See Agatha M. Beins and Judith L. Kennedy, <em>Women\u2019s Studies for the Future: Foundations, Interrogations, Politics<\/em> (Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005); Florence Howe and Mari Jo Buhl, <em>The Politics of Women\u2019s Studies: Testimony from the 30 Founding Mothers<\/em> (New York: The Feminist Press, 2000); Marilyn J. Boxer and Caroline Stimpson, <em>When Women Ask the Questions: Creating Women\u2019s Studies in America<\/em> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); Susan Shaw and Janet Lee, <em>Women\u2019s Voices, Feminist Visions<\/em> (New York: McGraw Hill, 2014).[\/footnote]\u00a0Gender was recognized as being fundamentally relational: femaleness is linked to maleness, femininity to masculinity. One outgrowth of that work is the field of \u201cmasculinity studies.\u201d[footnote]Rachel Adams and Michael Savan, <em>The Masculinity Studies Reader<\/em> (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002); Judith Keagan Gardiner, <em>Masculinity Studies and Feminist Theory<\/em> (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Matthew C. Gutmann, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d <em>Annual Review of Anthropology<\/em> 26 no. 1 (2007): 385\u2013409. There were a number of earlier explorations of masculinity, several focused on African-American males. See for example Michelle Wallace, <em>Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman<\/em> (New York: Warner Books, 1980).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Masculinity studies goes beyond men and their roles to explore the relational aspects of gender. One focus is the enculturation processes through which boys learn about and learn to perform \u201cmanhood.\u201d Many U.S. studies (and several excellent videos, such as <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Tough Guise<\/span> by Jackson Katz), have examined the role of popular culture in teaching boys our culture\u2019s key concepts of masculinity, such as being \u201ctough\u201d and \u201cstrong,\u201d and shown how this \u201ctough guise\u201d stance affects men\u2019s relationships with women, with other men, and with societal institutions, reinforcing a culture of violent masculinity. Sociologist Michael Kimmel has further suggested that boys are taught that they live in a \u201cperilous world\u201d he terms \u201cGuyland.\u201d[footnote]See especially numerous films available through Media Education Foundation and Women Make Movies. See also Susan Bordo, <em>The Male Body: A New Look at Men in Public and in Private<\/em> (New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 1999); Rebecca Solnit, <em>Men Explain Things to Me<\/em> (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2014). Also, Jackson Katz\u2019 film <em>Tough Guise 2: Violence, Media, and the Crisis in Masculinity<\/em> (2013) and the website www.jacksonkatz.com\/ have other books, articles, and workshops on gender violence prevention. See also Michael Kimmel, <em>Guyland: The Perilous World Where Boys Become Men<\/em> (New York: Harper Perennial, 2009).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists began exploring concepts of masculinity cross-culturally as early as the 1970s, resulting in several key publications in 1981, including Herdt\u2019s first book on the Sambia of New Guinea and Ortner and Whitehead\u2019s volume, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Sexual Meanings<\/span>. In 1990, Gilmore analyzed cross-cultural ethnographic data in his <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts in Masculinity<\/span>.[footnote]Thomas Grego, <em>Mehinaku: The Drama of Daily Life in a Brazilian Indian Village<\/em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977). See also Paula Brown and Georgeda Buchbinder, <em>Man and Woman in the New Guinea Highlands<\/em> (Washington DC: American Anthropological Association, 1976); Gilbert Herdt, <em>Guardians of the Flutes<\/em> (film); Stanley Brandeis, <em>Metaphors of Masculinity: Sex and Status in Andalusian Folklore<\/em> (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980); Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, <em>Sexual Meanings<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); David Gilmore, <em>Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity<\/em> (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).[\/footnote]Other work followed, including a provocative video on the Sambia, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Guardians of the Flutes<\/span>. But the growth of studies of men and masculinity in the United States also stimulated new research approaches, such as \u201cperformative\u201d aspects of masculinity and how gender functions in wealthier, post-industrial societies and communities with access to new technologies and mass media.[footnote]See article by Matthew C. Guttman, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d <em>Annual Review of Anthropology<\/em> 26 (2007): 385\u2013409.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists sometimes turn to unconventional information sources as they explore gendered culture, including popular television commercials. Interestingly, the 2015 Super Bowl commercials produced for the Always feminine product brand also focused on gender themes in its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=XjJQBjWYDTs\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">#Likeagirl campaign<\/span><\/a>, which probed the damaging connotations of the phrases \u201cthrow like a girl\u201d and \u201crun like a girl\u201d by first asking boys and girls to act out running and throwing, and then asking them to act out a <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">girl<\/span> running and throwing. A <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VhB3l1gCz2E\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">companion clip<\/span><\/a> further explored the negative impacts of anti-girl messages, provoking dialogue among Super Bowl viewers and in social media spaces (though, ironically, that dialogue was intended to promote consumption of feminine products). As the clips remind us, while boys and men play major roles in perceptions related to gender, so do the women who raise them, often reinforcing gendered expectations for play and aspiration. Of course, women, like men, are enculturated into their culture\u2019s gender ideology.[footnote]See several excellent videos through Media Education Foundation including <em>Dreamworlds 3, Killing Us Softly 4<\/em>, The Purity Myth as well as those addressing masculinity such as <em>Tough Guise 2, Joystick Warriors, and Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes<\/em>.[\/footnote]\u00a0Both girls and boys\u2014and adults\u2014are profoundly influenced by popular culture.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Though scholars from many disciplines publish important work on masculinity, anthropologists, with their cross-cultural research and perspectives, have significantly deepened and enriched interdisciplinary understandings. Anthropologists have made strong contributions not only by providing nuanced portrayals (of, for example, men in prison, heroin users, migrant laborers, college students, and athletes in the United States) but also through offering vivid accounts of expectations of men in other societies, including the relationship between those expectations and warfare. This can include differences in expectations based on a person\u2019s age, other role-based variations, and transformation of traditional roles as a result of globalization.[footnote]Philippe Bourgois and Jeffrey Schonberg, <em>Righteous Dopefiend<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009); Seth M. Holmes, <em>Fresh Fruit, Broken Bodies: Migrant Farmworkers in the United States<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013); Mary H. Moran, \u201cWarriors or Soldiers? Masculinity and Ritual Transvestism in the Liberian Civil War,\u201d in<em> Situated Lives<\/em>, ed. Louise Lamphere, Helena Ragone, and Patricia Zavella, 440\u2013450. New York: Routledge, 1997); Kimberly Theidon, \u201cReconstructing Masculinities: The Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colombia,\u201d in <em>The Gender, Culture, and Power Reader<\/em>, ed. Dorothy Hodgson, 420\u2013429 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Casey High, \u201cWarriors, Hunters, and Bruce Lee: Gendered Agency and the Transformation of Amazonian Masculinity\u201d <em>American Ethnologist<\/em> 37 no. 4 (2010): 753\u2013770.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Not all societies expect men to be \u201ctough guys\/guise,\u201d and those that do go about it in different ways and result in different impacts on men and women.[footnote]James W. Messerschmidt, <em>Masculinities in the Making: From the Local to the Global<\/em> (Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield, 2015).[\/footnote]For example, in Sichuan Province in China, young Nuosu men must prove their maturity through risky behavior such as theft. In recent years, theft has been supplanted for many by heroin use, particularly as young men have left their home communities for urban areas (where they are often feared by city residents and attract suspicion).[footnote]Liu Shao-hua, <em>Passage to Manhood: Youth, Masculinity, and Migration in Southwest China<\/em> (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010).[\/footnote]\u00a0Meanwhile, in the Middle East, technologies such as assisted reproduction are challenging and reshaping ideas about masculinity among some Arab men, particularly men who acknowledge and struggle with infertility. There and elsewhere, conceptions of fatherhood are considered crucial components of masculinity. In Japan, for example, a man who has not fathered a child is not considered to be fully adult.[footnote]See Marcia C. Inhorn, <em>The New Arab Man: Emergent Masculinities, Technologies, and Islam in the Middle East<\/em> (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Marcia C. Inhorn, Wendy Chavkin, and Jose-Alberto Navarro, <em>Globalized Fatherhood<\/em>. New York: Berghahn. For discussion of Japan, see Mark J. McLelland. 2005. \u201cSalarymen Doing Queer: Gay Men and the Heterosexual Public Sphere in Japan,\u201d in <em>Genders, Transgenders and Sexualities in Japan<\/em>, edited by M. J. McLelland and R. Dasgupta, 96\u2013110 (New York: Routledge, 2014).[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Elsewhere, men are expected to be gentle nurturers of young children and to behave in ways that do not fit typical U.S. stereotypes. In Na communities, men dote on babies and small children, often rushing to pick them up when they enter a room. In South Korea, men in wildly popular singing groups wear eyeliner and elaborate clothing that would be unusual for U.S. groups, and throughout China and India, as in many other parts of the world, heterosexual men walk down the street holding hands or arm-in-arm without causing raised eyebrows. Physical contact between men, especially in sex-segregated societies, is probably far more common than contact between men and women! Touch is a human form of intimacy that need not have sexual implications. So if male-male relations are the most intimate in a society, physical expressions of those relations are \u201cnormal\u201d overall unless there is a cultural fear of male physical intimacy. There is much more nuance in actual behavior than initial appearances lead people to believe.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists are also applying approaches taken in American studies to other cultures. They are engaging in more-intimate discussions of males\u2019 self-perceptions, dilemmas, and challenges and have not hesitated to intercede, carefully, in the communities in which they work. Visual anthropologist Harjant Gill, conducting research in the Punjab region of India, began asking men about pressures they faced and found that the conversations prompted unexpected reflection. Gill titled his film <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=EJ16hle9EiM),\"><span class=\"Hyperlink CharOverride-5\">Mardistan<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-5\"> (Macholand)<\/span> and shepherded the film through television broadcasts and smaller-scale viewings to encourage wide discussion in India of the issues he explored.[footnote]Dipanita Nath, \u201cMardistan: Four Men Talk about Masculinity in Harjant Gill\u2019s Film,\u201d <em>The Indian Express,<\/em> August 25, 2014. http:\/\/indianexpress.com\/article\/cities\/delhi\/be-a-super-man.\/ The film is available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=tSrGuXTEHsk.[\/footnote]\u00a0For a related activity, see Activity 5: Analyzing Gendered Stereotypes and Masculinity in Music Videos.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2>Discrimination Against LGBTQQIA+ People <em>by\u00a0Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and\u00a0<\/em><em>Tami Blumenfield<\/em><\/h2>\r\nWhile U.S. culture on the whole has become more supportive and accepting of LGBTQQIA+ people, they still face challenges. Sexual orientation and gender identity are not federally protected statuses. Thus, in 32 states (as of 2016), employers can legally refuse to hire and can fire someone simply for being LGBTQ.[footnote]Luke Malone, \u201cHere Are The 32 States Where You Can Be Fired For Being LGBT,\u201d Vocativ.com, February 12, 2015. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.vocativ.com\/culture\/lgbt\/lgbt-rights-kansas\/\">http:\/\/www.vocativ.com\/culture\/lgbt\/lgbt-rights-kansas\/<\/a>.[\/footnote] Even in states where queer people have legal protection, transgender and other gender-diverse people do not. LGBTQQIA+ people can be legally denied housing and other important resources heterosexual people take for granted. LGBTQQIA+ youth made up 40 percent of homeless young people in the United States in 2012 and are often thrust into homelessness by family rejection.[footnote]The Williams Institute. 2012. \u201cAmerica\u2019s Shame: 40% of Homeless Youth are LGBT Kids.\u201d San Diego Gay and Lesbian News, 13 July. <a href=\"http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/americas-shame-40-of-homeless-youth-are-lgbt-kids\/\">http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/americas-shame-40-of-homeless-youth-are-lgbt-kids\/<\/a>.[\/footnote] Transgender people are the most vulnerable and experience high levels of violence, including homicide.\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div id=\"_idContainer352\" class=\"Basic-Text-Frame\">\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<div id=\"_idContainer352\" class=\"Basic-Text-Frame\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"Learning-Objectives\">Describe the Man the Hunter myth and explain how it informs ideologies that promote cisgender men&#8217;s power and gender stratification.<\/li>\n<li>Describe two examples of gender inequality<\/li>\n<li>Define the concept: legitimizing ideologies.<\/li>\n<li>Explain what anthropologists mean by &#8220;masculinity studies.&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"_idContainer469\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyleOverride-1\">\n<h2 class=\"H2\">Unraveling Our Gender Myths: \u00a0\u201cMan the Hunter,<span class=\"CharOverride-6\">\u201d <\/span>and Other \u201cOrigin Stories\u201d of Gender Inequality and Male Dominance <em>by\u00a0Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and\u00a0<\/em><em>Tami Blumenfield<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"Normal\">All cultures have \u201ccreation\u201d stories. Many have elaborate gender-related creation stories that describe the origins of males and females, their gender-specific traits, their relationships and sexual proclivities, and, sometimes, how one gender came to \u201cdominate\u201d the other. Our culture is no different. The Judeo-Christian Bible, like the Koran and other religious texts, addresses origins and gender (think of Adam and Eve), and traditional folk tales, songs, dances, and epic stories, such as the Ramayana in Hinduism and Shakespeare\u2019s <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Taming of the Shrew<\/span><\/em>, treat similar themes.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Science, too, has sought to understand gender differences. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a number of scientists, immersed in Darwinian theories, began to explore the evolutionary roots of what they assumed to be universal: male dominance. Of course, scientists, like the rest of us, view the world partially through their own cultural lenses and through a gendered version. Prior to the 1970s, women and gender relations were largely invisible in the research literature and most researchers were male so it is not surprising that 1960s theories reflected prevailing male-oriented folk beliefs about gender.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For example, the major symposium on Man the Hunter sponsored by Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research included only four women among more than sixty listed participants. See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore,\u00a0Man the Hunter(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]), xiv\u2013xvi.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-1\" href=\"#footnote-307-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"_idGenObjectLayout-1\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer426\">\n<div id=\"_idContainer425\">\n<h3 id=\"_idContainer424\" class=\"_idGenObjectStyle-Disabled\">The Myth: The Hunting Way of Life \u201cMolds Man\u201d (and Woman)<\/h3>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">The most popular and persistent theories argued that male dominance is universal, rooted in species-wide gendered biological traits that we acquired, first as part of our primate heritage, and further developed as we evolved from apes into humans. Emergence of \u201cthe hunting way of life\u201d plays a major role in this story. Crucial components include: a diet consisting primarily of meat, obtained through planned, cooperative hunts, by all-male groups, that lasted several days and covered a wide territory. Such hunts would require persistence, skill, and physical stamina; tool kits to kill, butcher, transport, preserve, and share the meat; and a social organization consisting of a stable home base and a monogamous nuclear family. Several biological changes were attributed to adopting this way of life: a larger and more complex brain, human language, an upright posture (and humans\u2019 unique foot and stride), loss of body hair, a long period of infant dependency, and the absence of \u201cestrus\u201d (ovulation-related female sexual arousal), which made females sexually \u201creceptive\u201d throughout the monthly cycle. Other human characteristics purportedly made sex more enjoyable: frontal sex and fleshier breasts, buttocks, and genitals, especially the human penis. Making sex \u201csexier,\u201d some speculated, cemented the pair-bond, helping to keep the man \u201caround\u201d and the family unit stable.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mukhopadhyay, Lecture Notes, Human Sexuality, Gender and Culture.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-2\" href=\"#footnote-307-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Hunting was also linked to a \u201cworld view\u201d in which the flight of animals from humans seemed natural and (male) aggression became normal, frequent, easy to learn, rewarded, and enjoyable. War, some have suggested, might psychologically be simply a form of hunting and pleasurable for male participants.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"S.Washburn and C.S. Lancaster, \u201cThe Evolution of Hunting.\u201d in\u00a0Man the Hunter, 299.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-3\" href=\"#footnote-307-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> The Hunting Way of Life, in short, \u201cmolded man,\u201d giving our species its distinctive characteristics. And as a result, we contemporary humans cannot erase the effects of our hunting past even though we live in cities, stalk nothing but a parking place, and can omit meat from our diets.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Gender roles and male dominance were supposed to be part of our evolutionary heritage. Males evolved to be food-providers\u2014stronger, more aggressive, more effective leaders with cooperative and bonding capacities, planning skills, and technological inventiveness (tool-making). In this creation story, females never acquired those capacities because they were burdened by their reproductive roles\u2014pregnancy, giving birth, lactation, and child care\u2014and thus became dependent on males for food and protection. The gender gap widened over time. As males initiated, explored, invented, women stayed at home, nurtured, immersed themselves in domestic life. The result: men are active, women are passive; men are leaders, women are followers; men are dominant, women are subordinate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Many of us have heard pieces of this <em>Hunting Way of Life<\/em> story. Some of the men I interviewed in Los Angeles in the late 1970s invoked \u201cour hunting past\u201d to explain why they\u2014and men generally\u2014operated barbeques rather than their wives. Women\u2019s qualifications to be president were questioned on biological grounds such as \u201cstamina\u201d and \u201ctoughness.\u201d Her women informants, all hospital nurses, doubted their navigational abilities, courage, and strength despite working in intensive care and regularly lifting heavy male patients. Mukhopadhyay encountered serious scholars who cited women\u2019s menstrual cycle and \u201cemotional instability\u201d during ovulation to explain why women \u201ccan\u2019t\u201d hunt.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Similar stories are invoked today for everything from some men\u2019s love of hunting to why men dominate \u201ctechnical\u201d fields, accumulate tools, have extra-marital affairs or commit the vast majority of homicides. Strength and toughness remain defining characteristics of masculinity in the United States, and these themes often permeate national political debates.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Jackson Katz,\u00a0Tough Guise 2: Violence, Manhood and American Culture\u00a0(Northampton, MA: Media Education Foundation, 2013).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-4\" href=\"#footnote-307-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> One element in the complex debate over gun control is the male-masculine strength-through-guns and man-the-hunter association, and it is still difficult for some males in the United States to feel comfortable with their soft, nurturant, emotional, and artistic sides.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Abigail Disney and Kathleen Hughes,\u00a0The Armor of Light\u00a0(New York: Fork Films, 2015).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-5\" href=\"#footnote-307-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">What is most striking about man-the-hunter scenarios is how closely they resemble 1950s U.S. models of family and gender, which were rooted in the late nineteenth century \u201ccult of domesticity\u201d and \u201ctrue womanhood.\u201d Father is \u201chead\u201d of the family and the final authority, whether in household decisions or in disciplining children. As \u201cprovider,\u201d Father goes \u201coutside\u201d into the cold, cruel world, hunting for work. Mother, as \u201cchief mom,\u201d remains \u201cinside\u201d at the home base, creating a domestic refuge against the \u201csurvival of the fittest\u201d \u201cjungle.\u201d American anthropologists seemed to have subconsciously projected their own folk models onto our early human ancestors.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Altering this supposedly \u201cfundamental\u201d gender system, according to widely read authors in the 1970s, would go against our basic \u201chuman nature.\u201d This belief was applied to the political arena, then a virtually all-male domain, especially at state and national levels. The following quote from 1971 is particularly relevant and worthy of critical evaluation since, for the first time, a major U.S. political party selected a woman as its 2016 presidential candidate (See Text Box 3, Gender and the Presidential Election).<\/p>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-space-above\">To make women equal participants in the political process, we will have to change the very process itself, which means changing a pattern bred into our behavior over the millennia.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Quotation-w-o-space ParaOverride-8\">\u2014Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Lionel\u00a0Tiger and Robin Fox,The Imperial Animal(New York:\u00a0Transaction Publishers,\u00a01997 [1971]), 101.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-6\" href=\"#footnote-307-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h3 class=\"H3\">The Reality<\/h3>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Decades of research, much of it by a new generation of women scholars, have altered our view of the hunting way of life in our evolutionary past.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Some useful reviews include the following: Linda M. Fedigan, \u201cThe Changing Role of Women in Models of Human Evolution\u201d\u00a0Annual Review of Anthropology\u00a016 (1986): 25\u201366; Linda Fedigan,\u00a0Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992);\u00a0Pamela L. Geller and Miranda K. Stockett.Feminist Anthropology: Past, Present, and Future (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2006); Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey,\u00a0Engendering Archeology: Women and Prehistory\u00a0(Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1991);\u00a0Shirley Strum and Linda Fedigan\u00a0Primate Encounters: Models of Science, Gender and Society. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Meredith F. Small,\u00a0What\u2019s Love Got to Do with It? The Evolution of Human Mating(New York: Doubleday, 1995);\u00a0Nancy Makepeace Tanner,\u00a0On Becoming Human(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). For a readable short article, see Meredith Small, \u201cWhat\u2019s Love Got to Do with It,\u201d\u00a0Discover Magazine,\u00a0June 1991, 46\u201351.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-7\" href=\"#footnote-307-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> For example, the old stereotype of primates as living in male-centered, male-dominated groups does not accurately describe our closest primate relatives, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos. The stereotypes came from 1960s research on savannah, ground-dwelling baboons that suggested they were organized socially by a stable male-dominance hierarchy, the \u201ccore\u201d of the group, that was established through force, regulated sexual access to females, and provided internal and external defense of the \u201ctroop\u201d in a supposedly hostile savannah environment.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Irven DeVore, ed.\u00a0Primate Behavior\u00a0(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-8\" href=\"#footnote-307-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Females lacked hierarchies or coalitions, were passive, and were part of dominant male \u201charems.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Critics first argued that baboons, as monkeys rather than apes, were too far removed from humans evolutionarily to tell us much about early human social organization. Then, further research on baboons living in other environments by primatologists such as Thelma Rowell discovered that those baboons were neither male-focused nor male-dominated. Instead, the stable group core was matrifocal\u2014a mother and her offspring constituted the central and enduring ties. Nor did males control female sexuality. Quite the contrary in fact. Females mated freely and frequently, choosing males of all ages, sometimes establishing special relationships\u2014 \u201cfriends with favors.\u201d Dominance, while infrequent, was not based simply on size or strength; it was learned, situational, and often stress-induced. And like other primates, both male and female baboons used sophisticated strategies, dubbed \u201cprimate politics,\u201d to predict and manipulate the intricate social networks in which they lived.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ibid. Also, for primate politics in particular, see Sarah B.\u00a0Hrdy,\u00a0The Woman That Never Evolved\u00a0(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999 [1981]). See also Hrdy\u2019s website\u00a0http:\/\/www.citrona.com\/hrdy.html.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-9\" href=\"#footnote-307-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Rowell also restudied the savannah baboons. Even they did not fit the baboon \u201cstereotype.\u201d She found that their groups were loosely structured with no specialized stable male-leadership coalitions and were sociable, matrifocal, and infant-centered much like the Rhesus monkeys pictured below (see Figure 15). Females actively initiated sexual encounters with a variety of male partners. When attacked by predators or frightened by some other major threat, males, rather than \u201cdefending the troop,\u201d typically would flee, running away first and leaving the females carrying infants to follow behind (Figures 16).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Thelma Rowell.\u00a0Social Behaviour of Monkeys\u00a0(New York: Penguin Books, 1972). For an excellent online article on Rowell\u2019s work with additional references, read Vinciane Despret, \u201cCulture and Gender Do Not Dissolve into How Scientists \u2018Read\u2019 Nature: Thelma Rowell\u2019s Heterodoxy.\u201d In\u00a0Rebels of Life. Iconoclastic Biologists in the Twentieth Century, edited byO. Hartman and M. Friedrich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 340\u2013355.\u00a0http:\/\/www.vincianedespret.be\/2010\/04\/culture-and-gender-do-not-dissolve-into-how-scientists-read-nature-thelma-rowells-heterodoxy\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-10\" href=\"#footnote-307-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Man the Hunter, the Meat-Eater?<\/em><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">The second, more important challenge was to key assumptions about the hunting way of life. Archaeological and paleontological fossil evidence and ethnographic data from contemporary foragers revealed that hunting and meat it provided were not the primary subsistence mode. Instead, gathered foods such as plants, nuts, fruits, roots and small fish found in rivers and ponds constituted the bulk of such diets and provided the most stable food source in all but a few settings (northerly climates, herd migration routes, and specific geographical and historical settings). When meat was important, it was more often \u201cscavenged\u201d or \u201ccaught\u201d than hunted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">A major symposium on human evolution concluded that \u201copportunistic\u201d \u201cscavenging\u201d was probably the best description of early human hunting activities. Often, tools found in pre-modern human sites such as caves would have been more appropriate for \u201csmashing\u201d scavenged bones than hunting live animals.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds.\u00a0Man the Hunter\u00a0(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-11\" href=\"#footnote-307-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Hunting, when carried out, generally did not involve large-scale, all-male, cooperative expeditions involving extensive planning and lengthy expeditions over a wide territorial range. Instead, as among the Hadza of Tanzania, hunting was likely typically conducted by a single male, or perhaps two males, for a couple of hours, often without success. When hunting collectively, as occurs among the Mbuti in the Central African rainforest, groups of families likely participated with women and men driving animals into nets. Among the Agta of the Philippines, women rather than men hunt collectively using dogs to herd animals to a place where they can be killed.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Estioko-Griffin, Agnes A. Daughters of the Forest.\u00a0Natural History\u00a095(5):36\u201343 (May 1986).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-12\" href=\"#footnote-307-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> And !Kung San men, despite what was shown in the 1957 ethnographic film <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Hunters<\/span><\/em>, do not normally hunt giraffe; they usually pursue small animals such as hares, rats, and gophers.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Discrediting the Hunting Hypothesis<\/em><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Once the \u201chunting-meat\u201d hypothesis was discredited, other parts of the theory began to unravel, especially the link between male dominance and female economic dependency. We now know that for most of human history\u201499 percent of it prior to the invention of agriculture some 10,000 or so years ago\u2014women have \u201cworked,\u201d often providing the stable sources of food for their family. Richard Lee, Marjorie Shostak, and others have detailed, with caloric counts and time-work estimates, the significance of women\u2019s gathering contributions even in societies such as the !Kung San, in which hunting occurs regularly.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Richard B.\u00a0Lee,\u00a0The !Kung San. Men, Women and Work in a Foraging Society(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-13\" href=\"#footnote-307-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> In foraging societies that rely primarily on fish, women also play a major role, \u201ccollecting\u201d fish from rivers, lakes, and ponds. The exceptions are atypical environments such as the Arctic.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Of course, \u201cmeat-getting\u201d is a narrow definition of \u201cfood getting\u201d or \u201csubsistence\u201d work. Many food processing activities are time-consuming. Collecting water and firewood is crucial, heavy work and is often done by women (Figure 17). Making and maintaining clothing, housing, and tools also occupy a significant amount of time. Early humans, both male and female, invented an array of items for carrying things (babies, wood, water), dug tubers, processed nuts, and cooked food. The invention of string some 24,000 years ago, a discovery so essential that it produced what some have called the \u201cString Revolution,\u201d is attributed to women.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0A World Full of Women,\u00a026.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-14\" href=\"#footnote-307-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> There is the work of kinship, of healing, of ritual, of &#8220;teaching the next generation, and emotional work. All are part of the work of living and of the \u201cinvisible\u201d work that women do.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_291\" style=\"width: 410px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-291\" class=\"wp-image-291 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2795\/2017\/12\/06163935\/gender_figure_17-e1512756411787.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"400\" height=\"319\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"caption-attachment-291\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 17: Collecting firewood in Bansankusu,<br \/>Democratic Republic of Congo.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Nor is it just hunting that requires intelligence, planning, cooperation, and detailed knowledge. Foragers have lived in a wide variety of environments across the globe, some more challenging than others (such as Alaska). In all of these groups, both males and females have needed and have developed intensive detailed knowledge of local flora and fauna and strategies for using those resources. Human social interactions also require sophisticated mental and communication skills, both verbal and nonverbal. In short, humans\u2019 complex brains and other modern traits developed as an adaptation to complex social life, a lengthy period of child-dependency and child-rearing that required cooperative nurturing, and many different kinds of \u201cwork\u201d that even the simplest human societies performed.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"H3\"><em>Refuting Pregnancy and Motherhood as Debilitating<\/em><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Finally, cross-cultural data refutes another central man-the-hunter stereotype: the \u201cburden\u201d of pregnancy and child care. Women\u2019s reproductive roles do not generally prevent them from food-getting, including hunting; among the Agta, women hunt when pregnant. Foraging societies accommodate the work-reproduction \u201cconflict\u201d by spacing out their pregnancies using indigenous methods of \u201cfamily planning\u201d such as prolonged breast feeding, long post-pregnancy periods of sexual inactivity, and native herbs and medicinal plants. Child care, even for infants, is rarely solely the responsibility of the birth mother. Instead, multiple caretakers are the norm: spouses, children, other relatives, and neighbors.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Susan\u00a0Seymour, \u201cMultiple Caretaking of Infants and Young Children: An Area in Critical Need of a Feminist Psychological Anthropology,\u201dEthos\u00a032 no. (2004): 538\u2013556.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-15\" href=\"#footnote-307-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a>Reciprocity is the key to human social life and to survival in small-scale societies, and reciprocal child care is but one example of such reciprocity. Children and infants accompany their mothers (or fathers) on gathering trips, as among the !Kung San, and on Aka collective net-hunting expeditions. Agta women carry nursing infants with them when gathering-hunting, leaving older children at home in the care of spouses or other relatives.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Serena Nanda and Richard L. Warms,\u00a0Cultural Anthropology\u00a0(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2006), 274.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-16\" href=\"#footnote-307-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In pre-industrial horticultural and agricultural societies, having children and \u201cworking\u201d are not incompatible\u2014quite the opposite! Anthropologists long ago identified \u201cfemale farming systems,\u201d especially in parts of Africa and Southeast Asia, in which farming is predominantly a woman\u2019s job and men \u201chelp out\u201d as needed.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ester Boserup,\u00a0Women\u2019s Role in Economic Development\u00a0(New York: St. Martin\u2019s Press, 1970);\u00a0Barbara D. Miller,\u00a0Cultural Anthropology(Pearson\/Allyn and Bacon, 2012).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-17\" href=\"#footnote-307-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In most agricultural societies, women who do not come from high-status or wealthy families perform a significant amount of agricultural labor, though it often goes unrecognized in the dominant gender ideology. Wet-rice agriculture, common in south and southeast Asia, is labor-intensive, particularly weeding and transplanting rice seedlings, which are often done by women (Figure 10). Harvesting rice, wheat, and other grains also entails essential input by women. Yet the Indian Census traditionally records only male family members as \u201cfarmers.\u201d In the United States, women\u2019s work on family-owned farms is often invisible.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mauma Downie and Christina Gladwin,Florida Farm Wives: They Help the Family Farm Survive\u00a0(Gainesville: Food and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida, 1981).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-18\" href=\"#footnote-307-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Women may accommodate their reproductive and child-rearing roles by engaging in work that is more compatible with child care, such as cooking, and in activities that occur closer to home and are interruptible and perhaps less dangerous, though cooking fires, stoves, and implements such as knives certainly can cause harm!<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Judith K.\u00a0Brown, \u201cA Note on the Division of Labor by Sex,\u201d\u00a0American Anthropologist72 (1970):1073\u201378.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-19\" href=\"#footnote-307-19\" aria-label=\"Footnote 19\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[19]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> More often, women adjust their food-getting \u201cwork\u201d in response to the demands of pregnancy, breast-feeding, and other child care activities. They gather or process nuts while their children are napping; they take their children with them to the fields to weed or harvest and, in more recent times, to urban construction sites in places such as India, where women often do the heaviest (and lowest-paid) work.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">In the United States, despite a long-standing cultural model of the stay-at-home mom, some mothers have always worked outside the home, mainly out of economic necessity. This shifting group includes single-divorced-widowed mothers and married African-Americans (pre- and post-slavery), immigrants, and Euro-American women with limited financial resources. But workplace policies (except during World War II) have historically made it harder rather than easier for women (and men) to carry out family responsibilities, including requiring married women and pregnant women to quit their jobs.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See\u00a0www.momsrising.org\u00a0for some contemporary examples of the challenges and obstacles workplaces pose for working mothers, as well as efforts to advocate for improved accommodation of parenting and working.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-20\" href=\"#footnote-307-20\" aria-label=\"Footnote 20\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[20]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Circumstances have not improved much. While pregnant people in the United States are no longer automatically dismissed from their jobs\u2014at least not legally\u2014the United States lags far behind most European countries in providing affordable <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC3202345\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">child care<\/span><\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2013\/02\/23\/your-money\/us-trails-much-of-the-world-in-providing-paid-family-leave.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">paid parental leave<\/span><\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"H2-below-TB-LO\">Male Dominance: Universal and Biologically Rooted?<\/h3>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Unraveling the myth of the hunting way of life and women\u2019s dependence on male hunting undermined the logic behind the argument for biologically rooted male dominance. Still, for feminist scholars, the question of male dominance remained important. Was it universal, \u201cnatural,\u201d inevitable, and unalterable? Were some societies gender-egalitarian? Was gender inequality a cultural phenomenon, a product of culturally and historically specific conditions?<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Research in the 1970s and 1980s addressed these questions.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See reviews in Naomi\u00a0Quinn, \u201cAnthropological Studies of Women\u2019s Status,\u201d\u00a0Annual Review of Anthropology\u00a06 (1977): 181\u2013225; Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0\u201cAnthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987\u201d\u00a0Annual Review of Anthropology\u00a017 (1988):461\u201395.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-21\" href=\"#footnote-307-21\" aria-label=\"Footnote 21\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[21]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Some argued that \u201csexual asymmetry\u201d was universal and resulted from complex cultural processes related to women\u2019s reproductive roles.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Michelle Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere, ed.\u00a0Woman, Culture and Society\u00a0(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-22\" href=\"#footnote-307-22\" aria-label=\"Footnote 22\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[22]<\/sup><\/a>Others presented evidence of gender equality in small-scale societies (such as the !Kung San and Native American Iroquois) but argued that it had disappeared with the rise of private property and \u201cthe state.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Rayna Rapp Reiter, ed.\u00a0Toward an Anthropology of Women\u00a0(New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Karen\u00a0Sacks,\u00a0Sisters and Wives. The Past and Future of Sexual Equality\u00a0(Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1979).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-23\" href=\"#footnote-307-23\" aria-label=\"Footnote 23\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[23]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Still others focused on evaluating the \u201cstatus of women\u201d using multiple \u201cvariables\u201d or identifying \u201ckey determinants\u201d (e.g., economic, political, ecological, social, and cultural) of women\u2019s status.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Peggy\u00a0Sanday,\u00a0Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality\u00a0(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-24\" href=\"#footnote-307-24\" aria-label=\"Footnote 24\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[24]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> By the late 1980s, scholars realized how difficult it was to define, much less measure, male dominance across cultures and even the \u201cstatus of women\u201d in one culture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Think of our own society or the area in which you live. How would you go about assessing the \u201cstatus of women\u201d to determine whether it is male-dominated? What would you examine? What information would you gather and from whom? What difficulties might you encounter when making a judgment? Might men and women have different views? Then imagine trying to compare the status of women in your region to the status of women in, let\u2019s say, the Philippines, Japan, or China or in a kin-based, small society like that of the Minangkabau living in Indonesia and the !Kung San in Botswana. Next, how might Martians, upon arriving in your city, decide whether you live in a \u201cmale dominated\u201d culture? What would they notice? What would they have difficulty deciphering? This experiment gives you an idea of what anthropologists confronted\u2014except they were trying to include all societies that ever existed. Many were accessible only through archaeological and paleontological evidence or through historical records, often made by travelers, sailors, or missionaries. Surviving small-scale cultures were surrounded by more-powerful societies that often imposed their cultures and gender ideologies on those under their control.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">For example, the !Kung San of Southern Africa when studied by anthropologists, had already been pushed by European colonial rulers into marginal areas. Most were living on \u201creserves\u201d similar to Indian reservations in the United States. Others lived in market towns and were sometimes involved in the tourist industry and in films such as the ethnographically flawed and ethnocentric film <em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Gods Must Be Crazy <\/span><\/em>(1980). !Kung San women at the time were learning European Christian ideas about sexuality, clothing, and covering their breasts, and children were attending missionary-established schools, which taught the church\u2019s and European views of gender and spousal roles along with the Bible, Jesus, and the Virgin Mary. During the struggle against apartheid in South Africa, the South African military tried to recruit San to fight against the South West Africa People\u2019s Organization (SWAPO), taunting reluctant !Kung San men by calling them \u201cchicken\u201d and assuming, erroneously, that the !Kung San shared their \u201ctough guys\u00a0\/ tough guise\u201d version of masculinity.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For an alternative ethnographic, research based video see\u00a0N!ai: The Story of a !Kung Woman.\u00a01980.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-25\" href=\"#footnote-307-25\" aria-label=\"Footnote 25\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[25]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Given the complexity of evaluating \u201cuniversal male dominance,\u201d scholars abandoned the search for simple \u201cglobal\u201d answers, for key \u201cdeterminants\u201d of women\u2019s status that would apply to all societies. A 1988 <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span> article by Mukhopadhyay and Higgins concluded that \u201cOne of the profound realizations of the past ten years is that the original questions, still unanswerable, may be both naive and inappropriate.\u201d<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0\u201cAnthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987,\u201d\u00a0Annual Review of Anthropology\u00a017 (1988), 462.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-26\" href=\"#footnote-307-26\" aria-label=\"Footnote 26\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[26]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Among other things, the concept of \u201cstatus\u201d contains at least five separate, potentially independent components: economics, power\/authority, prestige, autonomy, and gender ideologies\/beliefs. One\u2019s life-cycle stage, kinship role, class, and other socio-economic and social-identity variables affect one\u2019s gender status. Thus, even within a single culture, women\u2019s lives are not uniform.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ibid.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-27\" href=\"#footnote-307-27\" aria-label=\"Footnote 27\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[27]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"Text-Box-head\">Has Civilization Advanced Women&#8217;s Positions? <em>by\u00a0Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and\u00a0<\/em><em>Tami Blumenfield<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Ironically, some nineteenth- and twentieth-century writers and social scientists, such as Herbert Spencer, have argued that women\u2019s positions \u201cadvanced\u201d with civilization, especially under European influence, at least relative to so-called \u201cprimitive\u201d societies. The picture is complicated, but the opposite may actually be true. Most anthropological studies have suggested that \u201ccivilization,\u201d \u201ccolonialism,\u201d \u201cdevelopment,\u201d and \u201cglobalization\u201d have been mixed blessings for women.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Nandini Gunewardena and Ann Kingsolver,\u00a0The Gender of Globalization: Women Navigating Cultural and Economic Marginalities(Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press, 2008).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-28\" href=\"#footnote-307-28\" aria-label=\"Footnote 28\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[28]<\/sup><\/a><\/span>Their traditional workloads tend to increase while they are simultaneously excluded from new opportunities in agricultural cash crops, trading, and technology. Sometimes they lose traditional rights (e.g., to property) within extended family kinship groups or experience increased pressure from men to be the upholders of cultural traditions, whether in clothing or marriage practices. On the other hand, new political, economic, and educational opportunities can open up for women, allowing them not only to contribute to their families but to delay marriage, pursue alternatives to marriage, and, if they marry, to have a more powerful voice in their marriages.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u00a0Women\u2019s political power, when exerted, may go unnoticed by the global media. For an example, see the documentaryPray the Devil to Hell\u00a0on women\u2019s role in forcing Liberian President Charles Taylor from office and leading to the election of Ellen Johnson Sirleaf as President. For an excellent documentary on some of the alternative paths contemporary women in India are taking, see\u00a0The World before Her. For more on changes in women\u2019s education in India, see Carol C.\u00a0Mukhopadhyay. 2001. \u201cThe Cultural Context of Gendered Science: The Case of India.\u201d Available at\u00a0http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\/papers\/\" id=\"return-footnote-307-29\" href=\"#footnote-307-29\" aria-label=\"Footnote 29\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[29]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Deeply embedded cultural-origin stories are extremely powerful, difficult to unravel, and can persist despite contradictory evidence, in part because of their familiarity. They resemble what people have seen and experienced throughout their lifetimes, even in the twenty-first century, despite all the changes. Yet, nineteenth and twentieth century cultural models are also continuously reinforced and reproduced in every generation through powerful devices: children\u2019s stories; rituals like Valentine\u2019s Day; fashion, advertisements, music, video games, and popular culture generally; and in financial, political, legal, and military institutions and leaders. But profound transformations can produce a \u201cbacklash,\u201d as in U.S. movements to restore \u201ctraditional\u201d family forms, \u201ctraditional\u201d male and female roles, sexual abstinence-virginity, and the \u201csanctity\u201d of heterosexual marriage.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See the excellent film\u00a0The Purity Myth: The Virginity Movement\u2019s War Against Women. Available through Media Education Foundation.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-30\" href=\"#footnote-307-30\" aria-label=\"Footnote 30\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[30]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Some would argue that backlash elements were at work in the 2016 Presidential and Congressional elections (see Text Box 3).<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal ParaOverride-2\">Cultural origin stories also persist because they are <b>legitimizing ideologies<\/b>\u2014complex belief systems often developed by those in power to rationalize, explain, and perpetuate systems of inequality. The hunting-way-of-life theory of human evolution, for example, both naturalizes and essentializes male dominance and other gender-related traits and provides an origin story and a legitimizing ideology for the \u201ctraditional\u201d U.S. nuclear family as \u201cfundamental to human social organization and life.\u201d It also can be used to justify \u201cspousal rape\u201d and domestic violence, treating both as private family matters and, in the past, as male \u201crights.\u201d Not surprisingly, elements of the traditional nuclear family model appear in the 2015 U.S. Supreme Court case that legalized same-sex marriage, especially in the <a href=\"http:\/\/apps.washingtonpost.com\/g\/documents\/national\/roberts-dissent-on-supreme-court-same-sex-marriage-ruling\/1606\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">dissenting views<\/span><\/a>. And cultural models of gender and family played a role in the 2016 U.S. Presidential election.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3 class=\"H3\">EXAMPLE OF\u00a0<b>legitimizing ideologies<\/b>: the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election<\/h3>\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-author\">By Carol C. Mukhopadhyay<\/h4>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">The 2016 presidential election was gender precedent-setting in ways that will take decades to analyze (see for example <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2016\/11\/13\/opinion\/sunday\/the-glass-ceiling-holds.html?&amp;moduleDetail=section-news-2&amp;action=click&amp;contentCollection=Opinion&amp;region=Footer&amp;module=MoreInSection&amp;version=WhatsNext&amp;contentID=WhatsNext&amp;pgtype=article\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Gail Collins<\/span><\/a>). For the first time, a major U.S. political party chose a woman as its presidential candidate. And while Hillary Rodham Clinton did not win the electoral college, she won the popular vote, the first woman to do so, and by nearly three million votes. As a cultural anthropologist who has long studied women and politics, I offer a few preliminary observations on the role of gender in the 2016 presidential election.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Carol C. Mukhopadhyay. 1982. \u201cSati or Shakti: Women, Culture and Politics in India.\u201d In\u00a0Perspectives on Power: Women in Asia, Africa and Latin America,\u00a0edited by Jean O\u2019Barr, 11\u201326. Durham, NC: Center for International Studies, Duke University; Carol C. Mukhopadhyay. 2008. \u201cSati or Shakti: An Update in Light of Contemporary U.S. Presidential Politics.\u201d Paper presented at\u00a0Gender and Politics from a Feminist Anthropological Perspective. November 2008, San Francisco. On the 2016 Election, see: Carol\u00a0Mukhopadhyay.. \u201cGender and Trump,\u201d\u00a0Social Justice\u00a0blog,\u00a0January 19, 2017,http:\/\/www.socialjusticejournal.org\/gender-and-trump\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-31\" href=\"#footnote-307-31\" aria-label=\"Footnote 31\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[31]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">Women on the Political Leadership Stage<\/h4>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">From a positive perspective, for the first time, two women (Republican Carly Fiorina and Democrat Hillary Clinton) participated in televised presidential primary debates and one went on to the \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/www.c-span.org\/2016presidentialDebates\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">finals<\/span><\/a>.\u201d Millions of people, including children, saw articulate, accomplished, powerful women competing with men to be \u201cCommander-in-Chief.\u201d During the 2016 <a href=\"http:\/\/2016.democratic-convention.org\/day-4\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Democratic National Convention<\/span><\/a>, the country watched a major political party and key male leaders celebrate the life and professional and leadership-relevant achievements of a woman, its presidential nominee. The role-modeling impacts are enormous\u2014and, one hopes, long-lasting.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">The Gendered White House Family<\/h4>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">The 2016 presidential campaign challenged, at least momentarily, the traditional, taken-for-granted, gendered institution of the White House first \u201cfamily.\u201d What if the president\u2019s spouse were male? This would wreck havoc with the conventional \u201cfirst lady\u201d role! Traditionally, the spouse, even if highly educated, becomes the \u201chelp mate\u201d and \u201clistener,\u201d handles \u201cdomestic affairs,\u201d organizes and attends important social occasions, and works on gender-appropriate projects such as children\u2019s health. Hillary Clinton was roundly criticized, as first lady, for venturing beyond the \u201cdomestic sphere\u201d and pursuing health care reform in Bill Clinton\u2019s administration even though she had indisputably relevant professional expertise. Michelle Obama, with her Harvard law degree and prior career as a lawyer, became best known as \u201cFirst Mom\u201d and a \u201cfashion-setter\u201d whose clothing was discussed and emulated. While she was a very positive role model, especially for African-Americans, and developed major initiatives to combat childhood obesity and promote fresh food, she did not challenge <a href=\"https:\/\/www.yahoo.com\/news\/race-gender-and-the-legacy-michelle-obama-will-leave-behind-2-202649864.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink CharOverride-10\">gender conventions<\/span><\/a>. How many girls remember her professional credentials and achievements?<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-last\">Had Hillary Clinton won, the need to confront gendered elements of the conventional White House family would have come to the forefront as the \u201cfirst gentleman\u201d role gradually evolved. Certainly, no one would have expected Bill Clinton to choose china patterns, redecorate the living quarters, or become a \u201cfashion trend-setter.\u201d<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">Consensual Sexual Interactions: Which Century Are We In?<\/h4>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">The 2016 presidential campaign stimulated discussion of other often-ignored gender-related topics. Despite some progress, sexual harassment and sexual assault, including rape, remain widespread in the workplace and on college campuses (cf. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/news\/archive\/2016\/06\/stanford-sexual-assault-letters\/485837\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Stanford case<\/span><\/a>, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.imdb.com\/title\/tt4185572\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">The Hunting Ground<\/span><\/a>). Yet there has been enormous pressure on women\u2014and institutions\u2014to remain silent.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">In October 2016, after a video was released of Donald Trump bragging about his ability to sexually grope women he did not know, the presidential candidate said it was only \u201clocker room talk\u201d&#8230;not anything he had ever done. Hearing these denials, several women, some well-known, came forth with convincing claims that Trump had groped them or in other ways engaged in inappropriate, non-consensual sexual behavior. Trump responded by denying the charges, insulting the accusers, and threatening lawsuits against the claimants and news media organizations that published the reports.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For more information on the initial Trump video, see\u00a0http:\/\/time.com\/4523755\/donald-trump-leaked-tape-impact. For coverage of the women accusing Trump and his response, see\u00a0http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2016\/10\/14\/politics\/trump-women-accusers\/index.html. For coverage of Trumps\u2019 response to the allegations, see\u00a0http:\/\/time.com\/4531872\/donald-trump-sexual-assault-accusers-attack.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-32\" href=\"#footnote-307-32\" aria-label=\"Footnote 32\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[32]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> For many women, the video aroused memories of their own recurring experiences with sexual harassment and assault. After the video was released, Kelly Oxford started a tidal wave of women unburdening long-kept secrets with her tweet: \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.npr.org\/sections\/thetwo-way\/2016\/10\/11\/497530709\/one-tweet-unleashes-a-torrent-of-stories-of-sexual-assault\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Women: tweet me your first assaults<\/span><\/a>.\u201d Others went on record denouncing Trumps\u2019 talk and behavior, and the hashtag #NotOkay surged on Twitter.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">In a normal U.S. presidential election, the video and repeated accusations of sexual assault would have forced the candidate to withdraw (as happened with <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2014\/09\/21\/magazine\/how-gary-harts-downfall-forever-changed-american-politics.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Gary Hart<\/span><\/a> in a previous election). Instead, accusers experienced a backlash not only from Trump but from some media organizations and Trump supporters, illustrating why women are reluctant to come forth or press sexual charges, especially against powerful men (see the 1991 <a href=\"http:\/\/www.msnbc.com\/msnbc\/anita-hill-her-regrets\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Anita Hill-Clarence Thomas case<\/span><\/a>). These voters\u2019 reactions and the continued willingness of so many others to vote for the candidate suggest that \u201clocker room banter\u201d and unwanted sexual advances are still considered normal and acceptable among significant segments of our population. After all, \u201cboys will be boys,\u201d at least in the old (false) baboon stereotype of male behavior! Clearly, we need more public conversations about what constitutes appropriate and consensual sexually related behavior.<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">Sexism: Alive and Well<\/h4>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">The 2016 presidential campaign revealed that sexism is alive and well, though not always <a href=\"https:\/\/www.thenation.com\/article\/now-im-with-her\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">recognized<\/span><\/a>, explicit, or acknowledged even when obvious (see article by <a href=\"http:\/\/billmoyers.com\/author\/lynnsherr1\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Lynn Sherr<\/span><\/a>). The media, both before and after the election, generally underplayed the impact of sexism despite research showing that sexist attitudes, not political party, were more likely to predict voters preference for Donald Trump over <a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/monkey-cage\/wp\/2016\/10\/23\/how-sexism-drives-support-for-donald-trump\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Hillary Clinton<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Carly Wayne, Nicholas Valentino and Marzia Oceno. 2016. \u201cHow Sexism Drives Support for Donald Trump.\u201d\u00a0Washington Post, October\u00a023.\u00a0https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/monkey-cage\/wp\/2016\/10\/23\/how-sexism-drives-support-for-donald-trump. Also see Libby Nelson. 2016. \u201cHostility toward Women Is One of the Strongest Predictors of Trump Support.\u201d\u00a0Vox. November 1.\u00a0http:\/\/www.vox.com\/2016\/11\/1\/13480416\/trump-supporters-sexism. For an article that also covers research by psychologists, see Emily Crockett. 2016. \u201cWhy Misogyny Won.\u201d\u00a0Vox. November 15.\u00a0http:\/\/www.vox.com\/identities\/2016\/11\/15\/13571478\/trump-president-sexual-assault-sexism-misogyny-won.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-33\" href=\"#footnote-307-33\" aria-label=\"Footnote 33\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[33]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">The campaign also reflected a persistent double standard. Despite widespread agreement that Hillary Clinton was highly qualified to be president, her judgment, competence, \u201cstamina,\u201d and even her proven accomplishments were subjected to scrutiny and criticism not normally applied to similarly experienced male candidates. Additional gender-specific criteria were imposed: \u201clikeability,\u201d \u201csmiling enough,\u201d \u201cwarmth,\u201d and appearance. She did not \u201clook\u201d \u201cpresidential\u201d\u2014an image of leadership that evoked the stereotype baboon model! But being six feet tall with large biceps and acting \u201ctough\u201d and \u201caggressive\u201d probably would have disqualified her, as a woman, from the start! Other traits that are acceptable in men\u2014ambitious, goal-focused, strategic, \u201cwanting\u201d the presidency\u2014were treated as liabilities in Clinton, part of a \u201cpower-hungry\u201d critique, as though women are not legitimately supposed to pursue or hold power.<\/p>\n<h3><a href=\"http:\/\/www.cc.com\/video-clips\/09yfp5\/the-daily-show-with-jon-stewart-the-broads-must-be-crazy---belittled-women\">Take a break from reading and WATCH this clip from the Daily Show with John Stewart<\/a><\/h3>\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">Patriarchal Stereotypes of Women<\/h4>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Hillary Clinton\u2019s candidacy seems to have activated long-standing patriarchal stereotypes and images of women. One is the \u201cgood vs. bad\u201d woman opposition. The \u201cgood\u201d woman is chaste, obedient, nurturing, self-sacrificing, gentle\u2014the Virgin Mary\/Mother figure. The \u201cbad\u201d woman is greedy, selfish, independent, aggressive, and often, sexually active\u2014importantly, she lies, deceives, is totally untrustworthy. Bad (\u201cnasty\u201d) women in myths and reality must be punished for their transgressions; they are dangerous to men and threaten the social order.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">As a researcher and someone who had many conversations with voters during this election, I was shocked by the intensity and level of animosity directed at Hillary Clinton. It was palpable, and it went far beyond a normal critique of a normal candidate. At Republican rallies, mass shouts of \u201clock her up\u201d and T-shirts and bumper stickers bearing slogans like \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.washingtonexaminer.com\/team-hillary-horrified-at-trump-that-bitch-t-shirts-at-trump-rally\/article\/2594163\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Trump that Bitch<\/span><\/a>\u201d (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/entry\/deplorable-anti-clinton-merch-at-trump-rallies_us_572836e1e4b016f378936c22\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">and worse<\/span><\/a>) bore a frightening resemblance to violence-inciting hate-speech historically directed at African-Americans and at Jews, gays, and socialists in Nazi Germany, as well as to hate-filled speech that fueled Medieval European witch-burnings in which thousands (if not millions), mainly women, were burned at the stake [\u201cburn the witch\u201d].<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For examples of anti-Clinton rhetoric, see article and associated video at\u00a0http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/entry\/deplorable-anti-clinton-merch-at-trump-rallies_us_572836e1e4b016f378936c22. Figures for numbers of witches killed range from thousands to millions, with most suggesting at least 60,000\u201380,000 and probably far more. Regardless, it is estimated that 75\u201380 percent were women. See for example Douglas Linder. 2005. \u201cA Brief History of Witchcraft Persecutions before Salem\u201d\u00a0http:\/\/law2.umkc.edu\/faculty\/projects\/ftrials\/salem\/witchhistory.html\u00a0and\u00a0http:\/\/womenshistory.about.com\/od\/witcheseurope\/a\/Witch-Hunts-In-Europe-Timeline.htm.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-34\" href=\"#footnote-307-34\" aria-label=\"Footnote 34\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[34]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> Clinton was indeed challenging \u201ctraditional\u201d gender roles in U.S. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.vox.com\/identities\/2016\/11\/15\/13571478\/trump-president-sexual-assault-sexism-misogyny-won\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">politics<\/span><\/a>, the workplace, and at home. Patriarchy was being threatened, and many, though not all, voters found that profoundly disturbing even though they did not necessarily recognize it or admit it.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Mark DiCamillo of the Field Poll suggested one reason polls were wrong is that female Trump voters hid their actual voting preferences from pollsters. DiCamillo is quoted in Debra J. Saunders. 2016. \u201cHow Herd Mentality Blinded Pollsters to Trump Potential.\u201d\u00a0San Francisco Chronicle. November 13, E3.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-35\" href=\"#footnote-307-35\" aria-label=\"Footnote 35\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[35]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Beyond that, there is a long tradition of blaming women for personal and societal disasters\u2014for convincing Adam to eat the forbidden fruit, for the breakup of joint family households in places like India. Women often become the repository for people\u2019s frustrations when things \u201cgo wrong\u201d (Remember the spoiled sausage in Portuguese culture discussed earlier in this chapter?). Women\u2014like minorities, immigrants, and \u201cevil empires\u201d\u2014are culturally familiar, available targets to which one can legitimately assign blame, frustration, and even rage, as we saw in the <a href=\"http:\/\/presidentialgenderwatch.org\/no-women-didnt-abandon-clinton-fail-win-support\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">2016 election<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u00a0For a critique of those who \u201cblame\u201d Euro-American (\u201cwhite\u201d) women for Hillary Clinton\u2019s defeat, see the article by Kelly Dittmar. 2016. \u201cNo, Women Didn\u2019t Abandon Clinton, Nor Did She Fail to Win Their Support.\u201d\u00a0Ms. Magazine. November 14.\u00a0http:\/\/msmagazine.com\/blog\/2016\/11\/14\/women-didnt-abandon-clinton\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-36\" href=\"#footnote-307-36\" aria-label=\"Footnote 36\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[36]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\">Hillary Clinton as a Symbol of Change<\/h4>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Ironically, Hillary Clinton was depicted and criticized during the campaign as a symbol of the \u201cestablishment\u201d while her key opponents stood for \u201cchange.\u201d I think it is just the opposite. Hillary Clinton and her campaign and coalition symbolized (and embraced) the major transformations\u2014indeed, upheavals\u2014that have occurred in the United States since the 1960s. It is not just feminism and a new definition of masculinity that rejects the old baboon male-dominance tough-guy model, although that is one change.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Women in the World. 2016. \u201cDonald Trump\u2019s Victory Threatens to Upend Progressive Notions of Masculinity.\u201d November 20.\u00a0http:\/\/nytlive.nytimes.com\/womenintheworld\/2016\/11\/20\/donald-trumps-victory-threatens-to-upend-progressive-notions-of-masculinity\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-37\" href=\"#footnote-307-37\" aria-label=\"Footnote 37\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[37]<\/sup><\/a><\/span> While economic anxiety and \u201cwhite nationalism\u201d both played roles, the election was also about an \u201cAmerica\u201d that is changing demographically, socially, religiously, sexually, linguistically, technologically, and ideologically\u2014changing what constitutes \u201ctruth\u201d and reality. For many in rural areas, outside forces\u2014especially the government<span class=\"CharOverride-10\">, <\/span>run by liberal, urban elites\u2014are seen as trying to control one\u2019s way of life with gun control, environmental regulations, ending coal mining, banning school (Christian) prayer, requiring schools to teach evolution and comprehensive sex education (vs. abstinence only). Hillary Clinton, her coalition, and her alignment with the Obama White House, not just with its policies but with an African-American \u201cfirst family,\u201d symbolized the intersection of all these social, demographic, and cultural transformations. She truly represented \u201cchange.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">Ironically, Clinton\u2019s opponents, even in the Democratic Party, were more \u201cestablishment\u201d candidates culturally, demographically, and in their gender relationships. Bernie Sanders attracted an enormous, enthusiastic following and came close to winning the Democratic presidential primary. Yet his rhetoric and policy proposals, while unusual in twenty-first century mainstream politics, resembled the economic inequality, anti-Wall Street, \u201cit\u2019s only about economics\u201d focus of early twentieth century democratic socialists such as Eugene Debs and Norman Thomas and of progressive Henry Wallace. And, not surprisingly, Sanders appealed largely to Euro-American demographic groups rather than to the broader spectrum of twenty-first century voters.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">In short, the election and the candidacy of Hillary Rodham Clinton symbolized more than half a century of enormous change\u2014and a choice between continuing that change or selecting a candidate who symbolized what was traditional, familiar, and, to many, more comfortable. Whether the transformations of the past fifty years will be reversed remains to be seen.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\"><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"For a powerful video reaction and interpretation of this election, see\u00a0https:\/\/vimeo.com\/191751334.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-38\" href=\"#footnote-307-38\" aria-label=\"Footnote 38\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[38]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-subhead\"><span class=\"CharOverride-7\">Discussion<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para\">From a global perspective, the United States lags behind many countries in women\u2019s political leadership and representation. For national legislative bodies, U.S. women constitute only 19 percent of Congress, <span class=\"CharOverride-7\">below <\/span>the world average of 23 percent, below the average in the Americas, 28 percent, and far below Nordic countries, 41 percent. The U.S. ranks 104th of 193 countries in the world (see <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ipu.org\/wmn-e\/classif.htm\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.ipu.org\/wmn-e\/classif.htm<\/span><\/a>). When it comes to political leadership, over 65 nations have elected at least one woman as their head of state, including countries with predominantly Muslim, Christian, Jewish, Hindu, and\/or Buddhist populations. (see <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theglobalist.com\/women-on-top-of-the-political-world\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.theglobalist.com\/women-on-top-of-the-political-world\/<\/span><\/a>.) Yet the U.S. still has never elected a woman President (or even Vice-President). Are you surprised by these data or by some of the countries that rank higher than the United States? Why? What do you think are some of the reasons the US lags behind so many other countries?<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"Text-Box-para ParaOverride-4\"><span class=\"CharOverride-7\">Additional Resources and Links<\/span><\/h4>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para ParaOverride-4\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.cawp.rutgers.edu\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Center for American Women and Politics<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para ParaOverride-4\">Presidential Gender Watch: <a href=\"http:\/\/presidentialgenderwatch.org\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/presidentialgenderwatch.org\/<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para ParaOverride-4\"><a href=\"http:\/\/statusofwomendata.org\/explore-the-data\/political-participation\/political-participation-full-section\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Institute for Women\u2019s Policy Research<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para ParaOverride-4\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/fact-tank\/2015\/01\/26\/despite-progress-u-s-still-lags-many-nations-in-women-leadership\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">Pew Research Institute<\/span><\/a> (U.S. and international data)<\/p>\n<p class=\"Text-Box-para-last ParaOverride-4\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\"><a href=\"http:\/\/www.unwomen.org\/en\/what-we-do\/leadership-and-political-participation\/facts-and-figures\">United Nations, UN Women<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2><strong>Feminism <em>by Deborah Amory<\/em><\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>If we want to learn about sex and gender from a global perspective, anthropology is a good place to start. \u00a0But not all anthropology escaped the gender ideologies of the time and place where anthropology first started. \u00a0In fact, it wasn\u2019t until the Women\u2019s Rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s that anthropologists started to ask some key questions. \u00a0And it was feminist anthropologists who were some of the first researchers to ask how social constructions of sex and gender varies cross-culturally. \u00a0Why were they interested in knowing the answer to this question? These feminist anthropologists reasoned that if gender roles and statuses are different in different places and times, then it means that there is nothing \u201cnatural\u201d about the ways in which men dominated women in our own culture.<\/p>\n<p>Feminism is a concept we will be encountering in some of our readings and it seems like a good idea to lay out a working definition before we embark. I take the following definition from Estelle Freedman\u2019s book, No Turning Back: the history of feminism and the future of women. This fascinating book is often used in Women\u2019s Studies courses and covers the history of feminism and the struggles for women\u2019s rights, primarily in the US and the west, but does include some cross-cultural material. Freedman defines feminism as follows:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cFeminism is a belief that women and men are inherently of equal worth. Because most societies privilege men as a group, social movements are necessary to achieve equality between women and men, with the understanding that gender always intersects with other social hierarchies\u201d (Freedman 2002: 7).<\/p>\n<p>Freedman continues with some clarifications of the terms in her definition. She uses the term \u201cequal worth\u201d to emphasize that we need to value the traditionally female tasks, such as child rearing, as highly as the types of work usually done by men. She is not saying men and women are the same or that they have to be the same, but she is saying that men\u2019s and women\u2019s labor should be valued equally. By men being privileged in most societies, she is referring to not only formal legal and political rights, but also to cultural preferences and double standards that give men more freedoms and opportunities than women. Finally, by pointing out that gender always \u201cintersects\u201d with other \u201csocial hierarchies\u201d, she is referring to the ways in which the experience of being a woman is fundamentally changed by other social structures such as class, race, age, sexuality, etc. \u00a0Perhaps most importantly, she is not arguing that there is a universal identity as \u201cwoman\u201d that in and of itself communicates something about the experiences of ALL women in the world. There are other social inequalities that disadvantage both men and women, and feminism cannot ignore those other systems of power and inequality \u2014 like poverty, racism, homophobia, etc. Feminism has been given a bad name because it is often oversimplified and misunderstood. When presented as Freedman does, it becomes a stance that both men and women can embrace.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>WATCH: Confessions of a Bad Feminist, Roxane Gay&#8217;s TED Talk<\/h3>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Roxane Gay: Confessions of a bad feminist\" src=\"https:\/\/embed.ted.com\/talks\/roxane_gay_confessions_of_a_bad_feminist\" width=\"500\" height=\"282\" frameborder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Introduction to Masculinity Studies <em>by\u00a0Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and\u00a0<\/em><em>Tami Blumenfield<\/em><\/h2>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Students in gender studies and anthropology courses on gender are often surprised to find that they will be learning about men as well as women. Early women\u2019s studies initially employed what has been called an \u201cadd women and stir\u201d approach, which led to examinations of gender as a social construct and of women\u2019s issues in contemporary society. In the 1990s, women\u2019s studies expanded to become gender studies, incorporating the study of other genders, sexuality, and issues of gender and social justice.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Agatha M. Beins and Judith L. Kennedy, Women\u2019s Studies for the Future: Foundations, Interrogations, Politics (Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005); Florence Howe and Mari Jo Buhl, The Politics of Women\u2019s Studies: Testimony from the 30 Founding Mothers (New York: The Feminist Press, 2000); Marilyn J. Boxer and Caroline Stimpson, When Women Ask the Questions: Creating Women\u2019s Studies in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); Susan Shaw and Janet Lee, Women\u2019s Voices, Feminist Visions (New York: McGraw Hill, 2014).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-39\" href=\"#footnote-307-39\" aria-label=\"Footnote 39\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[39]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Gender was recognized as being fundamentally relational: femaleness is linked to maleness, femininity to masculinity. One outgrowth of that work is the field of \u201cmasculinity studies.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Rachel Adams and Michael Savan, The Masculinity Studies Reader (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002); Judith Keagan Gardiner, Masculinity Studies and Feminist Theory (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Matthew C. Gutmann, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d Annual Review of Anthropology 26 no. 1 (2007): 385\u2013409. There were a number of earlier explorations of masculinity, several focused on African-American males. See for example Michelle Wallace, Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman (New York: Warner Books, 1980).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-40\" href=\"#footnote-307-40\" aria-label=\"Footnote 40\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[40]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Masculinity studies goes beyond men and their roles to explore the relational aspects of gender. One focus is the enculturation processes through which boys learn about and learn to perform \u201cmanhood.\u201d Many U.S. studies (and several excellent videos, such as <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Tough Guise<\/span> by Jackson Katz), have examined the role of popular culture in teaching boys our culture\u2019s key concepts of masculinity, such as being \u201ctough\u201d and \u201cstrong,\u201d and shown how this \u201ctough guise\u201d stance affects men\u2019s relationships with women, with other men, and with societal institutions, reinforcing a culture of violent masculinity. Sociologist Michael Kimmel has further suggested that boys are taught that they live in a \u201cperilous world\u201d he terms \u201cGuyland.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See especially numerous films available through Media Education Foundation and Women Make Movies. See also Susan Bordo, The Male Body: A New Look at Men in Public and in Private (New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 1999); Rebecca Solnit, Men Explain Things to Me (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2014). Also, Jackson Katz\u2019 film Tough Guise 2: Violence, Media, and the Crisis in Masculinity (2013) and the website www.jacksonkatz.com\/ have other books, articles, and workshops on gender violence prevention. See also Michael Kimmel, Guyland: The Perilous World Where Boys Become Men (New York: Harper Perennial, 2009).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-41\" href=\"#footnote-307-41\" aria-label=\"Footnote 41\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[41]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists began exploring concepts of masculinity cross-culturally as early as the 1970s, resulting in several key publications in 1981, including Herdt\u2019s first book on the Sambia of New Guinea and Ortner and Whitehead\u2019s volume, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Sexual Meanings<\/span>. In 1990, Gilmore analyzed cross-cultural ethnographic data in his <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts in Masculinity<\/span>.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Thomas Grego, Mehinaku: The Drama of Daily Life in a Brazilian Indian Village (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977). See also Paula Brown and Georgeda Buchbinder, Man and Woman in the New Guinea Highlands (Washington DC: American Anthropological Association, 1976); Gilbert Herdt, Guardians of the Flutes (film); Stanley Brandeis, Metaphors of Masculinity: Sex and Status in Andalusian Folklore (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980); Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, Sexual Meanings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); David Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-42\" href=\"#footnote-307-42\" aria-label=\"Footnote 42\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[42]<\/sup><\/a>Other work followed, including a provocative video on the Sambia, <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Guardians of the Flutes<\/span>. But the growth of studies of men and masculinity in the United States also stimulated new research approaches, such as \u201cperformative\u201d aspects of masculinity and how gender functions in wealthier, post-industrial societies and communities with access to new technologies and mass media.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See article by Matthew C. Guttman, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (2007): 385\u2013409.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-43\" href=\"#footnote-307-43\" aria-label=\"Footnote 43\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[43]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists sometimes turn to unconventional information sources as they explore gendered culture, including popular television commercials. Interestingly, the 2015 Super Bowl commercials produced for the Always feminine product brand also focused on gender themes in its <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=XjJQBjWYDTs\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">#Likeagirl campaign<\/span><\/a>, which probed the damaging connotations of the phrases \u201cthrow like a girl\u201d and \u201crun like a girl\u201d by first asking boys and girls to act out running and throwing, and then asking them to act out a <span class=\"CharOverride-5\">girl<\/span> running and throwing. A <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VhB3l1gCz2E\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">companion clip<\/span><\/a> further explored the negative impacts of anti-girl messages, provoking dialogue among Super Bowl viewers and in social media spaces (though, ironically, that dialogue was intended to promote consumption of feminine products). As the clips remind us, while boys and men play major roles in perceptions related to gender, so do the women who raise them, often reinforcing gendered expectations for play and aspiration. Of course, women, like men, are enculturated into their culture\u2019s gender ideology.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See several excellent videos through Media Education Foundation including Dreamworlds 3, Killing Us Softly 4, The Purity Myth as well as those addressing masculinity such as Tough Guise 2, Joystick Warriors, and Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-44\" href=\"#footnote-307-44\" aria-label=\"Footnote 44\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[44]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Both girls and boys\u2014and adults\u2014are profoundly influenced by popular culture.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Though scholars from many disciplines publish important work on masculinity, anthropologists, with their cross-cultural research and perspectives, have significantly deepened and enriched interdisciplinary understandings. Anthropologists have made strong contributions not only by providing nuanced portrayals (of, for example, men in prison, heroin users, migrant laborers, college students, and athletes in the United States) but also through offering vivid accounts of expectations of men in other societies, including the relationship between those expectations and warfare. This can include differences in expectations based on a person\u2019s age, other role-based variations, and transformation of traditional roles as a result of globalization.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Philippe Bourgois and Jeffrey Schonberg, Righteous Dopefiend (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009); Seth M. Holmes, Fresh Fruit, Broken Bodies: Migrant Farmworkers in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013); Mary H. Moran, \u201cWarriors or Soldiers? Masculinity and Ritual Transvestism in the Liberian Civil War,\u201d in Situated Lives, ed. Louise Lamphere, Helena Ragone, and Patricia Zavella, 440\u2013450. New York: Routledge, 1997); Kimberly Theidon, \u201cReconstructing Masculinities: The Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colombia,\u201d in The Gender, Culture, and Power Reader, ed. Dorothy Hodgson, 420\u2013429 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Casey High, \u201cWarriors, Hunters, and Bruce Lee: Gendered Agency and the Transformation of Amazonian Masculinity\u201d American Ethnologist 37 no. 4 (2010): 753\u2013770.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-45\" href=\"#footnote-307-45\" aria-label=\"Footnote 45\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[45]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Not all societies expect men to be \u201ctough guys\/guise,\u201d and those that do go about it in different ways and result in different impacts on men and women.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"James W. Messerschmidt, Masculinities in the Making: From the Local to the Global (Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield, 2015).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-46\" href=\"#footnote-307-46\" aria-label=\"Footnote 46\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[46]<\/sup><\/a>For example, in Sichuan Province in China, young Nuosu men must prove their maturity through risky behavior such as theft. In recent years, theft has been supplanted for many by heroin use, particularly as young men have left their home communities for urban areas (where they are often feared by city residents and attract suspicion).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Liu Shao-hua, Passage to Manhood: Youth, Masculinity, and Migration in Southwest China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-47\" href=\"#footnote-307-47\" aria-label=\"Footnote 47\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[47]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0Meanwhile, in the Middle East, technologies such as assisted reproduction are challenging and reshaping ideas about masculinity among some Arab men, particularly men who acknowledge and struggle with infertility. There and elsewhere, conceptions of fatherhood are considered crucial components of masculinity. In Japan, for example, a man who has not fathered a child is not considered to be fully adult.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"See Marcia C. Inhorn, The New Arab Man: Emergent Masculinities, Technologies, and Islam in the Middle East (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Marcia C. Inhorn, Wendy Chavkin, and Jose-Alberto Navarro, Globalized Fatherhood. New York: Berghahn. For discussion of Japan, see Mark J. McLelland. 2005. \u201cSalarymen Doing Queer: Gay Men and the Heterosexual Public Sphere in Japan,\u201d in Genders, Transgenders and Sexualities in Japan, edited by M. J. McLelland and R. Dasgupta, 96\u2013110 (New York: Routledge, 2014).\" id=\"return-footnote-307-48\" href=\"#footnote-307-48\" aria-label=\"Footnote 48\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[48]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Elsewhere, men are expected to be gentle nurturers of young children and to behave in ways that do not fit typical U.S. stereotypes. In Na communities, men dote on babies and small children, often rushing to pick them up when they enter a room. In South Korea, men in wildly popular singing groups wear eyeliner and elaborate clothing that would be unusual for U.S. groups, and throughout China and India, as in many other parts of the world, heterosexual men walk down the street holding hands or arm-in-arm without causing raised eyebrows. Physical contact between men, especially in sex-segregated societies, is probably far more common than contact between men and women! Touch is a human form of intimacy that need not have sexual implications. So if male-male relations are the most intimate in a society, physical expressions of those relations are \u201cnormal\u201d overall unless there is a cultural fear of male physical intimacy. There is much more nuance in actual behavior than initial appearances lead people to believe.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Normal\">Anthropologists are also applying approaches taken in American studies to other cultures. They are engaging in more-intimate discussions of males\u2019 self-perceptions, dilemmas, and challenges and have not hesitated to intercede, carefully, in the communities in which they work. Visual anthropologist Harjant Gill, conducting research in the Punjab region of India, began asking men about pressures they faced and found that the conversations prompted unexpected reflection. Gill titled his film <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=EJ16hle9EiM),\"><span class=\"Hyperlink CharOverride-5\">Mardistan<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-5\"> (Macholand)<\/span> and shepherded the film through television broadcasts and smaller-scale viewings to encourage wide discussion in India of the issues he explored.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Dipanita Nath, \u201cMardistan: Four Men Talk about Masculinity in Harjant Gill\u2019s Film,\u201d The Indian Express, August 25, 2014. http:\/\/indianexpress.com\/article\/cities\/delhi\/be-a-super-man.\/ The film is available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=tSrGuXTEHsk.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-49\" href=\"#footnote-307-49\" aria-label=\"Footnote 49\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[49]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0For a related activity, see Activity 5: Analyzing Gendered Stereotypes and Masculinity in Music Videos.<\/p>\n<h2>Discrimination Against LGBTQQIA+ People <em>by\u00a0Carol C. Mukhopadhyay and\u00a0<\/em><em>Tami Blumenfield<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>While U.S. culture on the whole has become more supportive and accepting of LGBTQQIA+ people, they still face challenges. Sexual orientation and gender identity are not federally protected statuses. Thus, in 32 states (as of 2016), employers can legally refuse to hire and can fire someone simply for being LGBTQ.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Luke Malone, \u201cHere Are The 32 States Where You Can Be Fired For Being LGBT,\u201d Vocativ.com, February 12, 2015. http:\/\/www.vocativ.com\/culture\/lgbt\/lgbt-rights-kansas\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-50\" href=\"#footnote-307-50\" aria-label=\"Footnote 50\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[50]<\/sup><\/a> Even in states where queer people have legal protection, transgender and other gender-diverse people do not. LGBTQQIA+ people can be legally denied housing and other important resources heterosexual people take for granted. LGBTQQIA+ youth made up 40 percent of homeless young people in the United States in 2012 and are often thrust into homelessness by family rejection.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The Williams Institute. 2012. \u201cAmerica\u2019s Shame: 40% of Homeless Youth are LGBT Kids.\u201d San Diego Gay and Lesbian News, 13 July. http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/americas-shame-40-of-homeless-youth-are-lgbt-kids\/.\" id=\"return-footnote-307-51\" href=\"#footnote-307-51\" aria-label=\"Footnote 51\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[51]<\/sup><\/a> Transgender people are the most vulnerable and experience high levels of violence, including homicide.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-307\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Edited by Nina Brown, Laura Tubelle de Gonzalez, and Thomas McIlwraith. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: American Anthropological Association. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/\">http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Gender and Sexuality. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Carol C. Mukhopadhyay. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: San Jose University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/Chapters\/Gender_and_Sexuality.pdf\">http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/Chapters\/Gender_and_Sexuality.pdf<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Gender and Sexuality. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Tami Blumenfield. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Furman University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/Chapters\/Gender_and_Sexuality.pdf\">http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/Chapters\/Gender_and_Sexuality.pdf<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Gender and Sexuality. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Susan Harper. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: Texas Women&#039;s University. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/Chapters\/Gender_and_Sexuality.pdf\">http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/Chapters\/Gender_and_Sexuality.pdf<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Gender and Sexuality. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Abby Gondek. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/Chapters\/Gender_and_Sexuality.pdf\">http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/Chapters\/Gender_and_Sexuality.pdf<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>Confessions of a bad feminist. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Roxane Gay. <strong>Provided by<\/strong>: TED Talks. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/roxane_gay_confessions_of_a_bad_feminist?referrer=playlist-check_your_assumptions\">https:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/roxane_gay_confessions_of_a_bad_feminist?referrer=playlist-check_your_assumptions<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives <\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-307-1\">For example, the major symposium on Man the Hunter sponsored by Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research included only four women among more than sixty listed participants. See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Man the Hunter<\/em><\/span>(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]), xiv\u2013xvi. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-2\">Mukhopadhyay, Lecture Notes, Human Sexuality, Gender and Culture. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-3\">S.Washburn and C.S. Lancaster, \u201cThe Evolution of Hunting.\u201d in\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Man the Hunter<\/span><\/em>, 299. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-4\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Jackson Katz,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Tough Guise 2: Violence, Manhood and American Culture<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Northampton, MA: Media Education Foundation, 2013).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-5\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Abigail Disney and Kathleen Hughes,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Armor of Light<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Fork Films, 2015).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-6\">Lionel\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Tiger and Robin Fox,<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>The Imperial Animal<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(New York:\u00a0<\/span>Transaction Publishers,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">1997 [1971]), 101.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-7\">Some useful reviews include the following: Linda M. Fedigan, \u201cThe Changing Role of Women in Models of Human Evolution\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a016 (1986): 25\u201366; Linda Fedigan,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds<\/em><\/span>(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Pamela L. Geller and Miranda K. Stockett.<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Feminist Anthropology: Past, Present, and Future<\/em> (<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2006); Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Engendering Archeology: Women and Prehistory\u00a0<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1991);\u00a0<\/span>Shirley Strum and Linda Fedigan\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Primate Encounters: Models of Science, Gender and Society<\/span><\/em>. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Meredith F. Small,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>What\u2019s Love Got to Do with It? The Evolution of Human Mating<\/em><\/span>(New York: Doubleday, 1995);\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Nancy Makepeace Tanner,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>On Becoming Human<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)<\/span>. For a readable short article, see Meredith Small, \u201cWhat\u2019s Love Got to Do with It,\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Discover Magazine<\/em>,\u00a0<\/span>June 1991, 46\u201351. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-8\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Irven DeVore, ed.\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Primate Behavior<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-9\">Ibid. Also, for primate politics in particular, see Sarah B.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Hrdy,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The Woman That Never Evolved<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999 [1981]). See also Hrdy\u2019s website\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.citrona.com\/hrdy.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.citrona.com\/hrdy.html<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-10\">Thelma Rowell.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Social Behaviour of Monkeys<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York: Penguin Books, 1972). For an excellent online article on Rowell\u2019s work with additional references, read Vinciane Despret, \u201cCulture and Gender Do Not Dissolve into How Scientists \u2018Read\u2019 Nature: Thelma Rowell\u2019s Heterodoxy.\u201d In\u00a0<span class=\"Emphasis _idGenCharOverride-2\"><em>Rebels of Life. Iconoclastic Biologists in the Twentieth Century, edited by<\/em><\/span>O. Hartman and M. Friedrich (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 340\u2013355.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.vincianedespret.be\/2010\/04\/culture-and-gender-do-not-dissolve-into-how-scientists-read-nature-thelma-rowells-heterodoxy\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.vincianedespret.be\/2010\/04\/culture-and-gender-do-not-dissolve-into-how-scientists-read-nature-thelma-rowells-heterodoxy\/<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-11\"><\/span>See Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, eds.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Man the Hunter<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972[1968]).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-12\">See Estioko-Griffin, Agnes A. Daughters of the Forest.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Natural History<\/span><\/em>\u00a095(5):36\u201343 (May 1986). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-13\"><\/span>Richard B.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Lee,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>The !Kung San. Men, Women and Work in a Foraging Society<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-14\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Martha Ward and Monica Edelstein,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">A World Full of Women<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">,\u00a0<\/span>26. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-15\">Susan\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Seymour, \u201cMultiple Caretaking of Infants and Young Children: An Area in Critical Need of a Feminist Psychological Anthropology,\u201d<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Ethos<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a032 no. (2004): 538\u2013556.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-16\">Serena Nanda and Richard L. Warms,\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Cultural Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2006), 274. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-17\"><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Ester Boserup,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Women\u2019s Role in Economic Development<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(New York: St. Martin\u2019s Press, 1970);<\/span>\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Barbara D. Miller,\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-16\"><em>Cultural Anthropology<\/em><\/span><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">(Pearson\/Allyn and Bacon, 2012).<\/span><span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-18\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Mauma Downie and Christina Gladwin,<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Florida Farm Wives: They Help the Family Farm Survive<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Gainesville: Food and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida, 1981).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-19\">Judith K.\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Brown, \u201cA Note on the Division of Labor by Sex,\u201d\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">American Anthropologist<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">72 (1970):1073\u201378.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-19\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 19\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-20\"><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">See\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/www.momsrising.org\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">www.momsrising.org<\/span><\/a><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0for some contemporary examples of the challenges and obstacles workplaces pose for working mothers, as well as efforts to advocate for improved accommodation of parenting and working.<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-20\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 20\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-21\">See reviews in Naomi\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Quinn, \u201c<\/span>Anthropological Studies of Women\u2019s Status,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a06 (1977): 181\u2013225; Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">,\u00a0<\/span><em>\u201c<\/em>Anthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987<em>\u201d\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-17\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span>\u00a01<\/em>7 (1988):461\u201395. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-21\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 21\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-22\">Michelle Rosaldo and Louise Lamphere, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Woman, Culture and Society<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1974). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-22\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 22\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-23\"><\/span>Rayna Rapp Reiter, ed.\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Toward an Anthropology of Women<\/span><\/em>\u00a0(New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975); Karen\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Sacks,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Sisters and Wives. The Past and Future of Sexual Equality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1979)<\/span>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-23\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 23\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-24\">Peggy\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-13\">Sanday,\u00a0<\/span><em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\">\u00a0(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).<\/span> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-24\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 24\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-25\">For an alternative ethnographic, research based video see\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>N!ai: The Story of a !Kung Woman<\/em>.\u00a0<\/span>1980. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-25\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 25\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-26\"><\/span>Carol Mukhopadhyay and Patricia Higgins,\u00a0<em>\u201c<\/em>Anthropological Studies of the Status of Women Revisited: l977-l987,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-17\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/em>\u00a017 (1988), 462.<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-26\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 26\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-27\">Ibid. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-27\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 27\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-28\"><\/span>Nandini Gunewardena and Ann Kingsolver,\u00a0<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>The Gender of Globalization: Women Navigating Cultural and Economic Marginalities<\/em><\/span>(Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press, 2008).<span class=\"Endnote-reference _idGenCharOverride-1\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-28\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 28\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-29\">\u00a0Women\u2019s political power, when exerted, may go unnoticed by the global media. For an example, see the documentary<span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Pray the Devil to Hell<\/em><\/span>\u00a0on women\u2019s role in forcing Liberian President Charles Taylor from office and leading to the election of Ellen Johnson Sirleaf as President. For an excellent documentary on some of the alternative paths contemporary women in India are taking, see\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-16\">The World before Her<\/span><\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-13\"><em>.<\/em> For more on changes in women\u2019s education in India, see Carol C.\u00a0<\/span>Mukhopadhyay. 2001. \u201cThe Cultural Context of Gendered Science: The Case of India.\u201d Available at\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\/papers\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.sjsu.edu\/people\/carol.mukhopadhyay\/papers\/<\/span><\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-29\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 29\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-30\">See the excellent film\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">The Purity Myth: The Virginity Movement\u2019s War Against Women<\/span><\/em>. Available through Media Education Foundation. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-30\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 30\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-31\">Carol C. Mukhopadhyay. 1982. \u201cSati or Shakti: Women, Culture and Politics in India.\u201d <em>In\u00a0<\/em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\"><em>Perspectives on Power: Women in Asia, Africa and Latin America<\/em>,\u00a0<\/span>edited by Jean O\u2019Barr, 11\u201326. Durham, NC: Center for International Studies, Duke University; Carol C. Mukhopadhyay. 2008. \u201cSati or Shakti: An Update in Light of Contemporary U.S. Presidential Politics.\u201d Paper presented at\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Gender and Politics from a Feminist Anthropological Perspective<\/span><\/em>. November 2008, San Francisco. On the 2016 Election, see: Carol\u00a0Mukhopadhyay.. \u201cGender and Trump,\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Social Justice<\/span><\/em>\u00a0blog,\u00a0<span class=\"aqj\">January 19<\/span>, 2017,<a href=\"http:\/\/www.socialjusticejournal.org\/gender-and-trump\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\" xml:lang=\"ar-SA\">http:\/\/www.socialjusticejournal.org\/gender-and-trump\/<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-31\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 31\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-32\"><\/span>For more information on the initial Trump video, see\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/time.com\/4523755\/donald-trump-leaked-tape-impact\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/time.com\/4523755\/donald-trump-leaked-tape-impact<\/span><\/a>. For coverage of the women accusing Trump and his response, see\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2016\/10\/14\/politics\/trump-women-accusers\/index.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2016\/10\/14\/politics\/trump-women-accusers\/index.html<\/span><\/a>. For coverage of Trumps\u2019 response to the allegations, see\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/time.com\/4531872\/donald-trump-sexual-assault-accusers-attack\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/time.com\/4531872\/donald-trump-sexual-assault-accusers-attack<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-32\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 32\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-33\"><span class=\"pb-byline\">Carly Wayne, Nicholas Valentino and Marzia Oceno. 2016. \u201c<\/span>How Sexism Drives Support for Donald Trump.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Washington Post<\/span><\/em>, October\u00a0<span class=\"pb-byline\">23.\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/monkey-cage\/wp\/2016\/10\/23\/how-sexism-drives-support-for-donald-trump\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/monkey-cage\/wp\/2016\/10\/23\/how-sexism-drives-support-for-donald-trump<\/span><\/a>. Also see Libby Nelson. 2016. \u201cHostility toward Women Is One of the Strongest Predictors of Trump Support.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Vox<\/span><\/em>. November 1.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.vox.com\/2016\/11\/1\/13480416\/trump-supporters-sexism\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.vox.com\/2016\/11\/1\/13480416\/trump-supporters-sexism<\/span><\/a>. For an article that also covers research by psychologists, see Emily Crockett. 2016. \u201cWhy Misogyny Won.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Vox<\/span><\/em>. November 15.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.vox.com\/identities\/2016\/11\/15\/13571478\/trump-president-sexual-assault-sexism-misogyny-won\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.vox.com\/identities\/2016\/11\/15\/13571478\/trump-president-sexual-assault-sexism-misogyny-won<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-33\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 33\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-34\">For examples of anti-Clinton rhetoric, see article and associated video at\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/entry\/deplorable-anti-clinton-merch-at-trump-rallies_us_572836e1e4b016f378936c22\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/www.huffingtonpost.com\/entry\/deplorable-anti-clinton-merch-at-trump-rallies_us_572836e1e4b016f378936c22<\/span><\/a>. Figures for numbers of witches killed range from thousands to millions, with most suggesting at least 60,000\u201380,000 and probably far more. Regardless, it is estimated that 75\u201380 percent were women. See for example Douglas Linder. 2005. \u201cA Brief History of Witchcraft Persecutions before Salem\u201d\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/law2.umkc.edu\/faculty\/projects\/ftrials\/salem\/witchhistory.html\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/law2.umkc.edu\/faculty\/projects\/ftrials\/salem\/witchhistory.html<\/span><\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/womenshistory.about.com\/od\/witcheseurope\/a\/Witch-Hunts-In-Europe-Timeline.htm\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/womenshistory.about.com\/od\/witcheseurope\/a\/Witch-Hunts-In-Europe-Timeline.htm<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-34\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 34\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-35\">Mark DiCamillo of the Field Poll suggested one reason polls were wrong is that female Trump voters hid their actual voting preferences from pollsters. DiCamillo is quoted in Debra J. Saunders. 2016. \u201cHow Herd Mentality Blinded Pollsters to Trump Potential.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">San Francisco Chronicle<\/span><\/em>. November 13, E3. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-35\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 35\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-36\">\u00a0For a critique of those who \u201cblame\u201d Euro-American (\u201cwhite\u201d) women for Hillary Clinton\u2019s defeat, see the article by Kelly Dittmar. 2016. \u201cNo, Women Didn\u2019t Abandon Clinton, Nor Did She Fail to Win Their Support.\u201d\u00a0<em><span class=\"CharOverride-5\">Ms. Magazine<\/span><\/em>. November 14.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/msmagazine.com\/blog\/2016\/11\/14\/women-didnt-abandon-clinton\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/msmagazine.com\/blog\/2016\/11\/14\/women-didnt-abandon-clinton\/<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-36\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 36\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-37\">See Women in the World. 2016. \u201cDonald Trump\u2019s Victory Threatens to Upend Progressive Notions of Masculinity.\u201d November 20.\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/nytlive.nytimes.com\/womenintheworld\/2016\/11\/20\/donald-trumps-victory-threatens-to-upend-progressive-notions-of-masculinity\/\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">http:\/\/nytlive.nytimes.com\/womenintheworld\/2016\/11\/20\/donald-trumps-victory-threatens-to-upend-progressive-notions-of-masculinity\/<\/span><\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-37\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 37\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-38\"><\/span>For a powerful video reaction and interpretation of this election, see\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/vimeo.com\/191751334\"><span class=\"Hyperlink\">https:\/\/vimeo.com\/191751334<\/span><\/a>.<span class=\"Endnote-reference CharOverride-9\"> <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-38\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 38\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-39\">See Agatha M. Beins and Judith L. Kennedy, <em>Women\u2019s Studies for the Future: Foundations, Interrogations, Politics<\/em> (Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005); Florence Howe and Mari Jo Buhl, <em>The Politics of Women\u2019s Studies: Testimony from the 30 Founding Mothers<\/em> (New York: The Feminist Press, 2000); Marilyn J. Boxer and Caroline Stimpson, <em>When Women Ask the Questions: Creating Women\u2019s Studies in America<\/em> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001); Susan Shaw and Janet Lee, <em>Women\u2019s Voices, Feminist Visions<\/em> (New York: McGraw Hill, 2014). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-39\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 39\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-40\">Rachel Adams and Michael Savan, <em>The Masculinity Studies Reader<\/em> (New York: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002); Judith Keagan Gardiner, <em>Masculinity Studies and Feminist Theory<\/em> (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Matthew C. Gutmann, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d <em>Annual Review of Anthropology<\/em> 26 no. 1 (2007): 385\u2013409. There were a number of earlier explorations of masculinity, several focused on African-American males. See for example Michelle Wallace, <em>Black Macho and the Myth of the Superwoman<\/em> (New York: Warner Books, 1980). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-40\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 40\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-41\">See especially numerous films available through Media Education Foundation and Women Make Movies. See also Susan Bordo, <em>The Male Body: A New Look at Men in Public and in Private<\/em> (New York: Farrar Straus and Giroux, 1999); Rebecca Solnit, <em>Men Explain Things to Me<\/em> (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2014). Also, Jackson Katz\u2019 film <em>Tough Guise 2: Violence, Media, and the Crisis in Masculinity<\/em> (2013) and the website www.jacksonkatz.com\/ have other books, articles, and workshops on gender violence prevention. See also Michael Kimmel, <em>Guyland: The Perilous World Where Boys Become Men<\/em> (New York: Harper Perennial, 2009). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-41\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 41\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-42\">Thomas Grego, <em>Mehinaku: The Drama of Daily Life in a Brazilian Indian Village<\/em> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977). See also Paula Brown and Georgeda Buchbinder, <em>Man and Woman in the New Guinea Highlands<\/em> (Washington DC: American Anthropological Association, 1976); Gilbert Herdt, <em>Guardians of the Flutes<\/em> (film); Stanley Brandeis, <em>Metaphors of Masculinity: Sex and Status in Andalusian Folklore<\/em> (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980); Sherry B. Ortner and Harriet Whitehead, <em>Sexual Meanings<\/em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); David Gilmore, <em>Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity<\/em> (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-42\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 42\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-43\">See article by Matthew C. Guttman, \u201cTrafficking in Men: The Anthropology of Masculinity,\u201d <em>Annual Review of Anthropology<\/em> 26 (2007): 385\u2013409. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-43\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 43\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-44\">See several excellent videos through Media Education Foundation including <em>Dreamworlds 3, Killing Us Softly 4<\/em>, The Purity Myth as well as those addressing masculinity such as <em>Tough Guise 2, Joystick Warriors, and Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes<\/em>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-44\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 44\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-45\">Philippe Bourgois and Jeffrey Schonberg, <em>Righteous Dopefiend<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009); Seth M. Holmes, <em>Fresh Fruit, Broken Bodies: Migrant Farmworkers in the United States<\/em> (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013); Mary H. Moran, \u201cWarriors or Soldiers? Masculinity and Ritual Transvestism in the Liberian Civil War,\u201d in<em> Situated Lives<\/em>, ed. Louise Lamphere, Helena Ragone, and Patricia Zavella, 440\u2013450. New York: Routledge, 1997); Kimberly Theidon, \u201cReconstructing Masculinities: The Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Colombia,\u201d in <em>The Gender, Culture, and Power Reader<\/em>, ed. Dorothy Hodgson, 420\u2013429 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Casey High, \u201cWarriors, Hunters, and Bruce Lee: Gendered Agency and the Transformation of Amazonian Masculinity\u201d <em>American Ethnologist<\/em> 37 no. 4 (2010): 753\u2013770. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-45\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 45\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-46\">James W. Messerschmidt, <em>Masculinities in the Making: From the Local to the Global<\/em> (Lanham, MD: Rowman Littlefield, 2015). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-46\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 46\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-47\">Liu Shao-hua, <em>Passage to Manhood: Youth, Masculinity, and Migration in Southwest China<\/em> (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-47\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 47\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-48\">See Marcia C. Inhorn, <em>The New Arab Man: Emergent Masculinities, Technologies, and Islam in the Middle East<\/em> (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Marcia C. Inhorn, Wendy Chavkin, and Jose-Alberto Navarro, <em>Globalized Fatherhood<\/em>. New York: Berghahn. For discussion of Japan, see Mark J. McLelland. 2005. \u201cSalarymen Doing Queer: Gay Men and the Heterosexual Public Sphere in Japan,\u201d in <em>Genders, Transgenders and Sexualities in Japan<\/em>, edited by M. J. McLelland and R. Dasgupta, 96\u2013110 (New York: Routledge, 2014). <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-48\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 48\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-49\">Dipanita Nath, \u201cMardistan: Four Men Talk about Masculinity in Harjant Gill\u2019s Film,\u201d <em>The Indian Express,<\/em> August 25, 2014. http:\/\/indianexpress.com\/article\/cities\/delhi\/be-a-super-man.\/ The film is available online: https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=tSrGuXTEHsk. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-49\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 49\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-50\">Luke Malone, \u201cHere Are The 32 States Where You Can Be Fired For Being LGBT,\u201d Vocativ.com, February 12, 2015. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.vocativ.com\/culture\/lgbt\/lgbt-rights-kansas\/\">http:\/\/www.vocativ.com\/culture\/lgbt\/lgbt-rights-kansas\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-50\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 50\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-307-51\">The Williams Institute. 2012. \u201cAmerica\u2019s Shame: 40% of Homeless Youth are LGBT Kids.\u201d San Diego Gay and Lesbian News, 13 July. <a href=\"http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/americas-shame-40-of-homeless-youth-are-lgbt-kids\/\">http:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/americas-shame-40-of-homeless-youth-are-lgbt-kids\/<\/a>. <a href=\"#return-footnote-307-51\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 51\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":311,"menu_order":14,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology\",\"author\":\"Edited by Nina Brown, Laura Tubelle de Gonzalez, and Thomas McIlwraith\",\"organization\":\"American Anthropological Association\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/perspectives.americananthro.org\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Gender and Sexuality\",\"author\":\"Carol C. 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