{"id":9447,"date":"2017-01-17T19:10:57","date_gmt":"2017-01-17T19:10:57","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/masterybusiness2xngcxmasterspring2016\/?post_type=chapter&p=9447"},"modified":"2017-04-18T22:25:05","modified_gmt":"2017-04-18T22:25:05","slug":"need-based-theories","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-introbusiness\/chapter\/need-based-theories\/","title":{"raw":"Need-Based Theories","rendered":"Need-Based Theories"},"content":{"raw":"

Maslow\u2019s Hierarchy of Needs<\/h2>\r\nHuman motivation can be defined as the fulfillment of various needs. These needs can encompass a range of human desires, from basic, tangible needs of survival to complex, emotional needs surrounding an individual's psychological well-being.\r\n\r\nAbraham Maslow<\/strong> was a social psychologist who was interested in a broad spectrum of\u00a0human psychological needs rather than on individual psychological problems. He is best known for\u00a0his\u00a0hierarchy-of-needs theory. Depicted in a pyramid (shown in Figure 1, below), the theory organizes\u00a0the different levels of human psychological and physical needs in order of importance.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_9733\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"600\"]\"Pyramid.<\/a> Figure 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs[\/caption]\r\n\r\n
\r\n\r\nThe needs in Maslow's hierarchy include physiological needs (food and clothing), safety needs (job security), social needs (friendship), self-esteem, and self-actualization. This hierarchy can be used by managers to better understand employees' needs and motivation and address\u00a0them in ways that lead to high productivity and job satisfaction.\r\n\r\nAt the bottom of the pyramid are the physiological (or basic) human needs that are required for survival: food, shelter, water, sleep, etc. If these requirements are not met, the body cannot continue to function. Faced with a lack of food, love, and safety, most people would probably consider food to be their most urgent\u00a0need.\r\n\r\nOnce physical needs are satisfied, individual safety takes precedence. Safety and security needs include personal security, financial security, and health and well-being.\u00a0These first two levels are important to the physical survival of the person. Once individuals have basic nutrition, shelter, and safety, they seek to fulfill higher-level needs.\r\n\r\nThe third level of need is love and belonging, which are psycho-social needs; when individuals have taken care of themselves physically, they can address their need to share and connect with others. Deficiencies at this level, on account of neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc., can impact an individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships. Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group or a small network of family and friends. Other sources of social connection\u00a0may be professional organizations, clubs, religious groups, social media sites, and so forth. Humans need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. Without these attachments,\u00a0people can be\u00a0vulnerable to\u00a0psychological difficulties such as loneliness, social anxiety, and depression (and these conditions, when severe, can impair\u00a0a person's ability to address\u00a0basic\u00a0physiological needs such as eating and sleeping).\r\n\r\nThe fourth level is esteem, which represents the normal human desire to be valued and validated by others, through, for example, the recognition\u00a0of success\u00a0or status. This\u00a0level also includes self-esteem, which refers to the regard\u00a0and acceptance one has for oneself. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People suffering from low self-esteem may find that external validation by others\u2014through fame, glory, accolades, etc.\u2014only partially or temporarily fulfills their needs at this level.\r\n\r\nAt the top of the pyramid is self-actualization. At this stage, people feel that they have reached their full potential and are doing everything they're capable of. Self-actualization is rarely a permanent feeling or state. Rather, it refers to the ongoing need for personal growth and discovery that people have\u00a0throughout their lives. Self-actualization may occur after reaching\u00a0an important goal or overcoming a particular challenge, and it may be marked by a new sense of\u00a0self-confidence or\u00a0contentment.\r\n

Hierarchy of Needs and Organizational Theory<\/h3>\r\nMaslow's hierarchy of needs is relevant to organizational theory because both are concerned with\u00a0human motivation.\u00a0Understanding what people need\u2014and how people's needs differ\u2014is an important part\u00a0of effective management. For example, some people work primarily\u00a0for money (and fulfill their other needs elsewhere), but others like to go\u00a0to work because they enjoy their coworkers or feel\u00a0respected by others and appreciated\u00a0for their good work. Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests that if\u00a0a lower need is not met, then the higher ones will be\u00a0ignored. For example, if employees lack job security and are worried that they will be fired, they will be far more concerned about their financial well-being\u00a0and meeting\u00a0lower needs (paying rent, bills, etc.) than about friendships and respect at work. However, if employees receive adequate\u00a0financial compensation (and have job security), meaningful group relationships and praise for good work may be more important motivators.\r\n\r\nWhen needs aren't met, employees can become very frustrated. For example, if someone works hard for a promotion and doesn't get\u00a0the recognition it represents, she\u00a0may lose motivation and put in less effort. Also, when a need is<\/em> met, it will no longer serve a motivating function\u2014the next level up in the needs hierarchy will become more important. From a management point of view, keeping one's employees motivated can seem like something of a moving target. People seldom fit neatly into pyramids or diagrams, and their needs are complicated\u00a0and often change over time. For example, Maria is a long-time employee who is punctual, does\u00a0high-quality work, and is well liked by her coworkers. However, her supervisor begins to notice that she is coming in late and seems distracted at work. He concludes that Maria is bored with her job and wants to leave. When he calls her into his office for her semiannual performance appraisal, he brings up these matters. To his surprise and chagrin, the supervisor learns that Maria's husband lost his job six months ago and, unable to keep up with mortgage payments, the two have been living in a local hotel. Maria has moved down the needs pyramid, and, if the supervisor wants to be an effective manager, he must adapt the motivational approaches he uses with her. In short, a manager's best strategy is to recognize this complexity and try to remain\u00a0attuned to\u00a0what employees say they need.<\/span>\r\n

Alderfer's ERG Theory<\/h2>\r\n\"Photo<\/a>\r\n\r\nClayton Paul Alderfer is an American psychologist who developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs into a theory of his own. Alderfer's\u00a0ERG theory<\/strong> suggests that there are three groups of core needs: existence<\/strong> (E<\/strong>), relatedness<\/strong> (R<\/strong>), and growth<\/strong> (G<\/strong>)\u2014hence the acronym ERG<\/em>. These groups align with Maslow's levels of physiological needs, social needs, and self-actualization needs, respectively.\r\n\r\n\"Existence\" needs concern\u00a0our basic material requirements for living. These include what Maslow categorized as physiological needs (such as air, food, water, and shelter) and safety-related needs (such as health, secure employment, and property).\r\n\r\n\"Relatedness\" needs have to do with the importance of maintaining interpersonal relationships. These needs are based in social interactions with others and align with Maslow's levels of love\/belonging-related needs (such as friendship, family, and sexual intimacy) and esteem-related needs (gaining the respect of others).\r\n\r\nFinally, \"growth\" needs describe our intrinsic desire for personal development. These needs align with the other portion of Maslow's esteem-related needs (self-esteem, self-confidence, and achievement) and self-actualization needs (such as morality, creativity, problem-solving, and discovery).\r\n\r\nAlderfer proposed that when a certain category of needs isn't being met, people will redouble their efforts to fulfill needs in a lower category. For example, if someone's self-esteem is suffering, he or she\u00a0will\u00a0invest more effort in the relatedness category of needs.\r\n

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory<\/h2>\r\n\"Photo<\/a>\r\n\r\nAmerican psychologist Frederick Herzberg<\/strong> is regarded as one of the great original thinkers in management and motivational theory.\u00a0<\/span>Herzberg set out to determine the effect of attitude on motivation, by simply asking people to describe the times when\u00a0they felt really good, and really bad, about their jobs. What he found was that people who felt good about their jobs gave very different responses from the people who felt bad.<\/span>\r\n\r\nThe results from this inquiry form the basis of Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory (sometimes known as Herzberg's \"Two Factor Theory\"<\/strong>). Published in his famous article, \"One More Time: How do You Motivate Employees,\"\u00a0the conclusions he drew were extraordinarily influential, and still form the bedrock of good motivational practice nearly half a century later. He's especially recognized\u00a0for his two-factor theory, which hypothesized that are two different sets of factors governing job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction:\u00a0 \"hygiene factors,\" or extrinsic motivators and \"motivation factors,\" or intrinsic motivators.\r\n\r\nHygiene factors<\/strong>, or extrinsic motivators, tend to represent more tangible, basic needs\u2014i.e., the kinds of needs included\u00a0in the existence category of needs in the\u00a0ERG theory or in the lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Extrinsic motivators include status, job security, salary, and fringe benefits. It's important for managers to\u00a0realize that not providing the appropriate and expected extrinsic motivators will sow dissatisfaction and decrease motivation among employees.\r\n\r\nMotivation factors,<\/strong> or intrinsic motivators, tend to represent less tangible, more emotional needs\u2014i.e., the kinds of needs identified in the\u00a0\"relatedness\" and \"growth\" categories of needs in the\u00a0ERG theory and in the higher levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Intrinsic motivators include challenging work, recognition, relationships, and growth potential. Managers need to\u00a0recognize that while these needs may fall outside the more traditional scope of what a\u00a0workplace ought to\u00a0provide, they can be critical\u00a0to strong individual and team performance.\r\n\r\nThe factor that differentiates two-factor theory from the others we've discussed is the role\u00a0of employee expectations<\/em>. According to Herzberg, intrinsic motivators and extrinsic motivators have an inverse relationship. That is,\u00a0intrinsic motivators tend to increase\u00a0motivation when they are present, while extrinsic motivators tend to reduce motivation when they are absent. This is due\u00a0to employees' expectations. Extrinsic motivators (e.g., salary, benefits) are expected, so they won't increase motivation when they are in place, but they will cause dissatisfaction when they are missing. Intrinsic motivators (e.g., challenging work, growth potential), on the other hand, can be a source of additional motivation when they are available.\r\n\r\n\"Chart<\/a>\r\n\r\nIf management wants to increase employees' job satisfaction, they should be concerned with the nature of the work itself\u2014the opportunities it presents employees for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment\u2014policies, procedures, supervision, and working conditions. To ensure a satisfied and productive workforce, managers must pay attention to both sets of job factors.\r\n\r\nWatch the following videos to hear\u00a0these principles explained\u00a0by Frederick Herzberg himself (in a smoke-filled 1970s lecture theater no less!).\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/o87s-2YtG4Y\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/gtYi4102OvU\r\n

McClelland's Acquired-Needs Theory<\/h2>\r\n\"Photo<\/a>\r\n\r\nPsychologist David McClelland's acquired-needs theory<\/strong> splits the needs of employees into three categories rather than the two we discussed\u00a0in Herzberg's theory. These three categories are\u00a0achievement<\/strong>, affiliation<\/strong>, and power<\/strong>.\r\n\r\nEmployees\u00a0who are strongly achievement-motivated<\/em> are driven by the desire for mastery. They prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty in which outcomes are the result of their effort rather than luck. They value receiving feedback on their work.\r\n\r\nEmployees who are strongly affiliation-motivated<\/em> are driven by the desire to create and maintain social relationships. They enjoy belonging to a group and want to feel loved and accepted. They may not make effective managers because they may worry too much about how others will feel about them.\r\n\r\nEmployees who are strongly power-motivated<\/em> are driven by the desire to influence, teach, or encourage others. They enjoy work and place a high value on discipline. However, they may take a zero-sum approach to group work\u2014for one person to win, or succeed, another must lose, or fail. If channeled appropriately, though, this can positively support group goals and help others in the group feel competent.\r\n\r\nThe acquired-needs theory doesn't\u00a0claim that people can be neatly categorized into one of three types. Rather, it asserts that all people are motivated by all of these needs in varying degrees and proportions. An individual's balance of these needs forms a kind of profile that can be useful in creating\u00a0a tailored motivational paradigm for her. It is important to note that needs do not necessarily correlate with competencies; it is possible for an employee to be strongly affiliation-motivated, for example, but still be successful in a situation in which her\u00a0affiliation needs are not met.\r\n\r\nMcClelland proposes that those in top management positions generally\u00a0have a high need for power and a low need for affiliation. He also believes that although individuals with a need for achievement can make good managers, they are not generally suited to being in top management positions.\r\n

Check Your Understanding<\/h2>\r\nAnswer the question(s) below to see how well you understand the topics covered above. This short quiz does not<\/strong> count toward your grade in the class, and you can retake it an unlimited number of times.\r\n\r\nUse this quiz to check your understanding and decide whether to (1) study the previous section further or (2) move on to the next section.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/assessments.lumenlearning.com\/assessments\/3028\r\n\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"

Maslow\u2019s Hierarchy of Needs<\/h2>\n

Human motivation can be defined as the fulfillment of various needs. These needs can encompass a range of human desires, from basic, tangible needs of survival to complex, emotional needs surrounding an individual’s psychological well-being.<\/p>\n

Abraham Maslow<\/strong> was a social psychologist who was interested in a broad spectrum of\u00a0human psychological needs rather than on individual psychological problems. He is best known for\u00a0his\u00a0hierarchy-of-needs theory. Depicted in a pyramid (shown in Figure 1, below), the theory organizes\u00a0the different levels of human psychological and physical needs in order of importance.<\/p>\n

\"Pyramid.<\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

The needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include physiological needs (food and clothing), safety needs (job security), social needs (friendship), self-esteem, and self-actualization. This hierarchy can be used by managers to better understand employees’ needs and motivation and address\u00a0them in ways that lead to high productivity and job satisfaction.<\/p>\n

At the bottom of the pyramid are the physiological (or basic) human needs that are required for survival: food, shelter, water, sleep, etc. If these requirements are not met, the body cannot continue to function. Faced with a lack of food, love, and safety, most people would probably consider food to be their most urgent\u00a0need.<\/p>\n

Once physical needs are satisfied, individual safety takes precedence. Safety and security needs include personal security, financial security, and health and well-being.\u00a0These first two levels are important to the physical survival of the person. Once individuals have basic nutrition, shelter, and safety, they seek to fulfill higher-level needs.<\/p>\n

The third level of need is love and belonging, which are psycho-social needs; when individuals have taken care of themselves physically, they can address their need to share and connect with others. Deficiencies at this level, on account of neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc., can impact an individual’s ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships. Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group or a small network of family and friends. Other sources of social connection\u00a0may be professional organizations, clubs, religious groups, social media sites, and so forth. Humans need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. Without these attachments,\u00a0people can be\u00a0vulnerable to\u00a0psychological difficulties such as loneliness, social anxiety, and depression (and these conditions, when severe, can impair\u00a0a person’s ability to address\u00a0basic\u00a0physiological needs such as eating and sleeping).<\/p>\n

The fourth level is esteem, which represents the normal human desire to be valued and validated by others, through, for example, the recognition\u00a0of success\u00a0or status. This\u00a0level also includes self-esteem, which refers to the regard\u00a0and acceptance one has for oneself. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People suffering from low self-esteem may find that external validation by others\u2014through fame, glory, accolades, etc.\u2014only partially or temporarily fulfills their needs at this level.<\/p>\n

At the top of the pyramid is self-actualization. At this stage, people feel that they have reached their full potential and are doing everything they’re capable of. Self-actualization is rarely a permanent feeling or state. Rather, it refers to the ongoing need for personal growth and discovery that people have\u00a0throughout their lives. Self-actualization may occur after reaching\u00a0an important goal or overcoming a particular challenge, and it may be marked by a new sense of\u00a0self-confidence or\u00a0contentment.<\/p>\n

Hierarchy of Needs and Organizational Theory<\/h3>\n

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is relevant to organizational theory because both are concerned with\u00a0human motivation.\u00a0Understanding what people need\u2014and how people’s needs differ\u2014is an important part\u00a0of effective management. For example, some people work primarily\u00a0for money (and fulfill their other needs elsewhere), but others like to go\u00a0to work because they enjoy their coworkers or feel\u00a0respected by others and appreciated\u00a0for their good work. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggests that if\u00a0a lower need is not met, then the higher ones will be\u00a0ignored. For example, if employees lack job security and are worried that they will be fired, they will be far more concerned about their financial well-being\u00a0and meeting\u00a0lower needs (paying rent, bills, etc.) than about friendships and respect at work. However, if employees receive adequate\u00a0financial compensation (and have job security), meaningful group relationships and praise for good work may be more important motivators.<\/p>\n

When needs aren’t met, employees can become very frustrated. For example, if someone works hard for a promotion and doesn’t get\u00a0the recognition it represents, she\u00a0may lose motivation and put in less effort. Also, when a need is<\/em> met, it will no longer serve a motivating function\u2014the next level up in the needs hierarchy will become more important. From a management point of view, keeping one’s employees motivated can seem like something of a moving target. People seldom fit neatly into pyramids or diagrams, and their needs are complicated\u00a0and often change over time. For example, Maria is a long-time employee who is punctual, does\u00a0high-quality work, and is well liked by her coworkers. However, her supervisor begins to notice that she is coming in late and seems distracted at work. He concludes that Maria is bored with her job and wants to leave. When he calls her into his office for her semiannual performance appraisal, he brings up these matters. To his surprise and chagrin, the supervisor learns that Maria’s husband lost his job six months ago and, unable to keep up with mortgage payments, the two have been living in a local hotel. Maria has moved down the needs pyramid, and, if the supervisor wants to be an effective manager, he must adapt the motivational approaches he uses with her. In short, a manager’s best strategy is to recognize this complexity and try to remain\u00a0attuned to\u00a0what employees say they need.<\/span><\/p>\n

Alderfer’s ERG Theory<\/h2>\n

\"Photo<\/a><\/p>\n

Clayton Paul Alderfer is an American psychologist who developed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into a theory of his own. Alderfer’s\u00a0ERG theory<\/strong> suggests that there are three groups of core needs: existence<\/strong> (E<\/strong>), relatedness<\/strong> (R<\/strong>), and growth<\/strong> (G<\/strong>)\u2014hence the acronym ERG<\/em>. These groups align with Maslow’s levels of physiological needs, social needs, and self-actualization needs, respectively.<\/p>\n

“Existence” needs concern\u00a0our basic material requirements for living. These include what Maslow categorized as physiological needs (such as air, food, water, and shelter) and safety-related needs (such as health, secure employment, and property).<\/p>\n

“Relatedness” needs have to do with the importance of maintaining interpersonal relationships. These needs are based in social interactions with others and align with Maslow’s levels of love\/belonging-related needs (such as friendship, family, and sexual intimacy) and esteem-related needs (gaining the respect of others).<\/p>\n

Finally, “growth” needs describe our intrinsic desire for personal development. These needs align with the other portion of Maslow’s esteem-related needs (self-esteem, self-confidence, and achievement) and self-actualization needs (such as morality, creativity, problem-solving, and discovery).<\/p>\n

Alderfer proposed that when a certain category of needs isn’t being met, people will redouble their efforts to fulfill needs in a lower category. For example, if someone’s self-esteem is suffering, he or she\u00a0will\u00a0invest more effort in the relatedness category of needs.<\/p>\n

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory<\/h2>\n

\"Photo<\/a><\/p>\n

American psychologist Frederick Herzberg<\/strong> is regarded as one of the great original thinkers in management and motivational theory.\u00a0<\/span>Herzberg set out to determine the effect of attitude on motivation, by simply asking people to describe the times when\u00a0they felt really good, and really bad, about their jobs. What he found was that people who felt good about their jobs gave very different responses from the people who felt bad.<\/span><\/p>\n

The results from this inquiry form the basis of Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory (sometimes known as Herzberg’s “Two Factor Theory”<\/strong>). Published in his famous article, “One More Time: How do You Motivate Employees,”\u00a0the conclusions he drew were extraordinarily influential, and still form the bedrock of good motivational practice nearly half a century later. He’s especially recognized\u00a0for his two-factor theory, which hypothesized that are two different sets of factors governing job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction:\u00a0 “hygiene factors,” or extrinsic motivators and “motivation factors,” or intrinsic motivators.<\/p>\n

Hygiene factors<\/strong>, or extrinsic motivators, tend to represent more tangible, basic needs\u2014i.e., the kinds of needs included\u00a0in the existence category of needs in the\u00a0ERG theory or in the lower levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Extrinsic motivators include status, job security, salary, and fringe benefits. It’s important for managers to\u00a0realize that not providing the appropriate and expected extrinsic motivators will sow dissatisfaction and decrease motivation among employees.<\/p>\n

Motivation factors,<\/strong> or intrinsic motivators, tend to represent less tangible, more emotional needs\u2014i.e., the kinds of needs identified in the\u00a0“relatedness” and “growth” categories of needs in the\u00a0ERG theory and in the higher levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Intrinsic motivators include challenging work, recognition, relationships, and growth potential. Managers need to\u00a0recognize that while these needs may fall outside the more traditional scope of what a\u00a0workplace ought to\u00a0provide, they can be critical\u00a0to strong individual and team performance.<\/p>\n

The factor that differentiates two-factor theory from the others we’ve discussed is the role\u00a0of employee expectations<\/em>. According to Herzberg, intrinsic motivators and extrinsic motivators have an inverse relationship. That is,\u00a0intrinsic motivators tend to increase\u00a0motivation when they are present, while extrinsic motivators tend to reduce motivation when they are absent. This is due\u00a0to employees’ expectations. Extrinsic motivators (e.g., salary, benefits) are expected, so they won’t increase motivation when they are in place, but they will cause dissatisfaction when they are missing. Intrinsic motivators (e.g., challenging work, growth potential), on the other hand, can be a source of additional motivation when they are available.<\/p>\n

\"Chart<\/a><\/p>\n

If management wants to increase employees’ job satisfaction, they should be concerned with the nature of the work itself\u2014the opportunities it presents employees for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment\u2014policies, procedures, supervision, and working conditions. To ensure a satisfied and productive workforce, managers must pay attention to both sets of job factors.<\/p>\n

Watch the following videos to hear\u00a0these principles explained\u00a0by Frederick Herzberg himself (in a smoke-filled 1970s lecture theater no less!).<\/p>\n