{"id":152,"date":"2017-05-16T19:49:38","date_gmt":"2017-05-16T19:49:38","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-massmedia\/chapter\/7-4-radios-impact-on-culture\/"},"modified":"2017-05-16T19:49:38","modified_gmt":"2017-05-16T19:49:38","slug":"7-4-radios-impact-on-culture","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-massmedia\/chapter\/7-4-radios-impact-on-culture\/","title":{"raw":"7.4 Radio\u2019s Impact on Culture","rendered":"7.4 Radio\u2019s Impact on Culture"},"content":{"raw":"
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Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n
  1. Analyze radio as a form of mass media.<\/li>\n
  2. Describe the effects of radio on the spread of different types of music.<\/li>\n
  3. Analyze the effects of the Fairness Doctrine on political radio.<\/li>\n
  4. Formulate opinions on controversial issues in radio.<\/li>\n <\/ol><\/div>\n

    Since its inception, radio\u2019s impact on American culture has been immense. Modern popular culture is unthinkable without the early influence of radio. Entire genres of music that are now taken for granted, such as country and rock, owe their popularity and even existence to early radio programs that publicized new forms.<\/p>\n

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    A New Kind of Mass Media<\/h2>\n

    Mass media such as newspapers had been around for years before the existence of radio. In fact, radio was initially considered a kind of disembodied newspaper. Although this idea gave early proponents a useful, familiar way to think about radio, it underestimated radio\u2019s power as a medium. Newspapers had the potential to reach a wide audience, but radio had the potential to reach almost everyone. Neither illiteracy nor even a busy schedule impeded radio\u2019s success\u2014one could now perform an activity and listen to the radio at the same time. This unprecedented reach made radio an instrument of social cohesion as it brought together members of different classes and backgrounds to experience the world as a nation.<\/p>\n

    Radio programs reflected this nationwide cultural aspect of radio. Vox Pop<\/em>, a show originally based on person-in-the-street interviews, was an early attempt to quantify the United States\u2019 growing mass culture. Beginning in 1935, the program billed itself as an unrehearsed \u201ccross-section of what the average person really knows\u201d by asking random people an assortment of questions. Many modern television shows still employ this format not only for viewers\u2019 amusement and information but also as an attempt to sum up national culture (Loviglio, 2002). Vox Pop<\/em> functioned on a cultural level as an acknowledgement of radio\u2019s entrance into people\u2019s private lives to make them public (Loviglio, 2002).<\/p>\n

    Radio news was more than just a quick way to find out about events; it was a way for U.S. citizens to experience events with the same emotions. During the Ohio and Mississippi river floods of 1937, radio brought the voices of those who suffered as well as the voices of those who fought the rising tides. A West Virginia newspaper explained the strengths of radio in providing emotional voices during such crises: \u201cThanks to radio\u2026the nation as a whole has had its nerves, its heart, its soul exposed to the needs of its unfortunates\u2026We are a nation integrated and interdependent. We are \u2018our brother\u2019s keeper (Brown).\u2019\u201d<\/p>\n

    Radio\u2019s presence in the home also heralded the evolution of consumer culture in the United States. In 1941, two-thirds of radio programs carried advertising. Radio allowed advertisers to sell products to a captive audience. This kind of mass marketing ushered in a new age of consumer culture (Cashman).<\/p>\n

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    \nWar of the Worlds<\/em> and the Power of Radio<\/h4>\n

    During the 1930s, radio\u2019s impact and powerful social influence was perhaps most obvious in the aftermath of the Orson Welles\u2019s notorious War of the Worlds<\/em> broadcast. On Halloween night in 1938, radio producer Orson Welles told listeners of the Mercury Theatre on the Air<\/em> that they would be treated to an original adaptation of H. G. Wells\u2019s classic science fiction novel of alien invasion War of the Worlds<\/em>. The adaptation started as if it were a normal music show that was interrupted by news reports of an alien invasion. Many listeners had tuned in late and did not hear the disclaimer, and so were caught up by the realism of the adaptation, believing it to be an actual news story.<\/p>\n

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    Figure 7.5<\/span> <\/p>\n \"7.4.0\"<\/a>

    Orson Welles\u2019s War of the Worlds<\/em> broadcast terrified listeners, many of whom actually believed a Martian invasion was actually occurring.<\/p>

    Wikimedia Commons<\/a> - public domain.<\/p>\n <\/div><\/div><\/div>\n

    According to some, an estimated 6 million people listened to the show, with an incredible 1.7 million believing it to be true (Lubertozzi & Holmsten, 2005). Some listeners called loved ones to say goodbye or ran into the street armed with weapons to fight off the invading Martians of the radio play (Lubertozzi & Holmsten, 2005). In Grovers Mill, New Jersey\u2014where the supposed invasion began\u2014some listeners reported nonexistent fires and fired gunshots at a water tower thought to be a Martian landing craft. One listener drove through his own garage door in a rush to escape the area. Two Princeton University professors spent the night searching for the meteorite that had supposedly preceded the invasion (Lubertozzi & Holmsten, 2005). As calls came in to local police stations, officers explained that they were equally concerned about the problem (Lubertozzi & Holmsten, 2005).<\/p>\n

    Although the story of the War of the Worlds<\/em> broadcast may be funny in retrospect, the event traumatized those who believed the story. Individuals from every education level and walk of life had been taken in by the program, despite the producers\u2019 warnings before, during the intermission, and after the program (Lubertozzi & Holmsten, 2005). This event revealed the unquestioning faith that many Americans had in radio. Radio\u2019s intimate communication style was a powerful force during the 1930s and 1940s.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n

    \n

    Radio and the Development of Popular Music<\/h2>\n

    One of radio\u2019s most enduring legacies is its impact on music. Before radio, most popular songs were distributed through piano sheet music and word of mouth. This necessarily limited the types of music that could gain national prominence. Although recording technology had also emerged several decades before radio, music played live over the radio sounded better than it did on a record played in the home. Live music performances thus became a staple of early radio. Many performance venues had their own radio transmitters to broadcast live shows\u2014for example, Harlem\u2019s Cotton Club broadcast performances that CBS picked up and broadcast nationwide.<\/p>\n

    Radio networks mainly played swing jazz, giving the bands and their leaders a widespread audience. Popular bandleaders including Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, and Tommy Dorsey and their jazz bands became nationally famous through their radio performances, and a host of other jazz musicians flourished as radio made the genre nationally popular (Wald, 2009). National networks also played classical music. Often presented in an educational context, this programming had a different tenor than did dance-band programming. NBC promoted the genre through shows such as the Music Appreciation Hour<\/em>, which sought to educate both young people and the general public on the nuances of classical music (Howe, 2003). It created the NBC Symphony Orchestra, a 92-piece band under the direction of famed conductor Arturo Toscanini. The orchestra made its first performance in 1937 and was so popular that Toscanini stayed on as conductor for 17 years (Horowitz, 2005). The Metropolitan Opera was also popular; its broadcasts in the early 1930s had an audience of 9 million listeners (Horowitz, 2005).<\/p>\n

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    Regional Sounds Take Hold<\/h2>\n

    The promotional power of radio also gave regional music an immense boost. Local stations often carried their own programs featuring the popular music of the area. Stations such as Nashville, Tennessee\u2019s WSM played early country, blues, and folk artists. The history of this station illustrates the ways in which radio\u2014and its wide range of broadcasting\u2014created new perspectives on American culture. In 1927, WSM\u2019s program Barn Dance<\/em>, which featured early country music and blues, followed an hour-long program of classical music. George Hay, the host of Barn Dance<\/em>, used the juxtaposition of classical and country genres to spontaneously rename the show: \u201cFor the past hour we have been listening to music taken largely from Grand Opera, but from now on we will present \u2018The Grand Ole Opry (Kyriakoudes).\u2019\u201d NBC picked up the program for national syndication in 1939, and it is currently one of the longest-running radio programs of all time.<\/p>\n

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    Figure 7.6<\/span> <\/p>\n [caption id=\"attachment_1241\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]\"image\"\/<\/a> Country musician Dolly Parton sings a song on stage during a Grand Ole Opry live broadcast in Nashville, Tenn. as U.S. soldiers watch the show simultaneously in Iraq on April 23, 2005. Secretary of Defense Donald. H. Rumsfeld also visited Nashville to thank Dolly Parton, the Grand Ole Opry and the American people for their support of our troops. DoD photo by Tech. Sgt. Cherie A. Thurlby, U.S. Air Force.[\/caption]

    The Grand Ole Opry<\/em> gave a national stage to country and early rock musicians.<\/p>

    Wikimedia Commons<\/a> - public domain.<\/p>\n <\/div><\/div>\n

    Shreveport, Louisiana\u2019s KWKH aired an Opry<\/em>-type show called Louisiana Hayride<\/em>. This program propelled stars such as Hank Williams into the national spotlight. Country music, formerly a mix of folk, blues, and mountain music, was made into a genre that was accessible by the nation through this show. Without programs that featured these country and blues artists, Elvis Presley and Johnny Cash would not have become national stars, and country music may not have risen to become a popular genre (DiMeo, 2010).<\/p>\n

    In the 1940s, other Southern stations also began playing rhythm and blues records recorded by Black artists. Artists such as Wynonie Harris, famous for his rendition of Roy Brown\u2019s \u201cGood Rockin\u2019 Tonight,\u201d were often played by White disc jockeys who tried to imitate Black Southerners (Laird, 2005). During the late 1940s, both Memphis, Tennessee\u2019s WDIA and Atlanta, Georgia\u2019s WERD were owned and operated by Black individuals. These disc jockeys often provided a measure of community leadership at a time when few Black individuals were in powerful positions (Walker).<\/p>\n <\/div>\n

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    Radio\u2019s Lasting Influences<\/h2>\n

    Radio technology changed the way that dance and popular music were performed. Because of the use of microphones, vocalists could be heard better over the band, allowing singers to use a greater vocal range and create more expressive styles, an innovation that led singers to become an important part of popular music\u2019s image. The use of microphones similarly allowed individual performers to be featured playing solos and lead parts, features that were less encouraged before radio. The exposure of radio also led to more rapid turnover in popular music. Before radio, jazz bands played the same arrangement for several years without it getting old, but as radio broadcasts reached wide audiences, new arrangements and songs had to be produced at a more rapid pace to keep up with changing tastes (Wald).<\/p>\n

    The spotlight of radio allowed the personalities of artists to come to the forefront of popular music, giving them newfound notoriety. Phil Harris, the bandleader from the Jack Benny Show<\/em>, became the star of his own program. Other famous musicians used radio talent shows to gain fame. Popular programs such as Major Bowes and His Original Amateur Hour<\/em> featured unknown entertainers trying to gain fame through exposure to the show\u2019s large audience. Major Bowes used a gong to usher bad performers offstage, often contemptuously dismissing them, but not all the performers struck out; such successful singers as Frank Sinatra debuted on the program (Sterling & Kitross).<\/p>\n

    Television, much like modern popular music, owes a significant debt to the Golden Age of Radio. Major radio networks such as NBC, ABC, and CBS became\u2014and remain\u2014major forces in television, and their programming decisions for radio formed the basis for television. Actors, writers, and directors who worked in radio simply transferred their talents into the world of early television, using the successes of radio as their models.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n

    \n

    Radio and Politics<\/h2>\n

    Over the years, radio has had a considerable influence on the political landscape of the United States. In the past, government leaders relied on radio to convey messages to the public, such as President Franklin D. Roosevelt\u2019s \u201cfireside chats.\u201d Radio was also used as a way to generate propaganda for World War II. The War Department established a Radio Division in its Bureau of Public Relations as early as 1941. Programs such as the Treasury Hour<\/em> used radio drama to raise revenue through the sale of war bonds, but other government efforts took a decidedly political turn. Norman Corwin\u2019s This Is War!<\/em> was funded by the federal Office of Facts and Figures (OFF) to directly garner support for the war effort. It featured programs that prepared listeners to make personal sacrifices\u2014including death\u2014to win the war. The program was also directly political, popularizing the idea that the New Deal was a success and bolstering Roosevelt\u2019s image through comparisons with Lincoln (Horten).<\/p>\n

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    FDR\u2019s Fireside Chats<\/h4>\n
    \n

    Figure 7.7<\/span> <\/p>\n \"7.4.2\"<\/a>

    During his presidency, Franklin D. Roosevelt delivered fireside chats, a series of radio broadcasts in which he spoke directly to the American people.<\/p>

    UNC Greensboro Special Collections and University Archives - Franklin Roosevelt photograph, 1940s<\/a> - CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.<\/p>\n <\/div><\/div><\/div>\n

    President Franklin D. Roosevelt\u2019s Depression-era radio talks, or \u201cfireside chats,\u201d remain one of the most famous uses of radio in politics. While governor of New York, Roosevelt had used radio as a political tool, so he quickly adopted it to explain the unprecedented actions that his administration was taking to deal with the economic fallout of the Great Depression. His first speech took place only 1 week after being inaugurated. Roosevelt had closed all of the banks in the country for 4 days while the government dealt with a national banking crisis, and he used the radio to explain his actions directly to the American people (Grafton, 1999).<\/p>\n

    Roosevelt\u2019s first radio address set a distinct tone as he employed informal speech in the hopes of inspiring confidence in the American people and of helping them stave off the kind of panic that could have destroyed the entire banking system. Roosevelt understood both the intimacy of radio and its powerful outreach (Grafton, 1999). He was thus able to balance a personal tone with a message that was meant for millions of people. This relaxed approach inspired a CBS executive to name the series the \u201cfireside chats (Grafton, 1999).\u201d<\/p>\n

    Roosevelt delivered a total of 27 of these 15- to 30-minute-long addresses to estimated audiences of 30 million to 40 million people, then a quarter of the U.S. population (Grafton, 1999). Roosevelt\u2019s use of radio was both a testament to his own skills and savvy as a politician and to the power and ubiquity of radio during this period. At the time, there was no other form of mass media that could have had the same effect.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n

    Certainly, radio has been used by the government for its own purposes, but it has had an even greater impact on politics by serving as what has been called \u201cthe ultimate arena for free speech (Davis & Owen, 1998).\u201d Such infamous radio firebrands as Father Charles Coughlin, a Roman Catholic priest whose radio program opposed the New Deal, criticized Jews, and supported Nazi policies, aptly demonstrated this capability early in radio\u2019s history (Sterling & Kitross). In recent decades, radio has supported political careers, including those of U.S. Senator Al Franken of Minnesota, former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani, and presidential aspirant Fred Thompson. Talk show hosts such as Rush Limbaugh have gained great political influence, with some even viewing Limbaugh as the de facto<\/em> leader of the Republican Party (Halloran, 2009).<\/p>\n

    \n

    The Importance of Talk Radio<\/h2>\n

    An important contemporary convergence of radio and politics can be readily heard on modern talk radio programs. Far from being simply chat shows, the talk radio that became popular in the 1980s features a host who takes callers and discusses a wide assortment of topics. Talk radio hosts gain and keep their listeners by sheer force of personality, and some say shocking or insulting things to get their message across. These hosts range from conservative radio hosts such as Rush Limbaugh to so-called shock jocks such as Howard Stern.<\/p>\n

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    Repeal of the Fairness Doctrine<\/h2>\n

    While talk radio first began during the 1920s, the emergence of the format as a contemporary cultural and political force took place during the mid- to late-1980s following the repeal of the Fairness Doctrine (Cruz, 2007). As you read earlier in this chapter, this doctrine, established in 1949, required any station broadcasting a political point of view over the air to allow equal time to all reasonable dissenting views. Despite its noble intentions of safeguarding public airwaves for diverse views, the doctrine had long attracted a level of dissent. Opponents of the Fairness Doctrine claimed that it had a chilling effect on political discourse as stations, rather than risk government intervention, avoided programs that were divisive or controversial (Cruz, 2007). In 1987, the FCC under the Reagan administration repealed the regulation, setting the stage for an AM talk radio boom; by 2004, the number of talk radio stations had increased by 17-fold (Anderson, 2005).<\/p>\n

    The end of the Fairness Doctrine allowed stations to broadcast programs without worrying about finding an opposing point of view to balance the stated opinions of its host. Radio hosts representing all points of the political spectrum could say anything that they wanted to\u2014within FCC limits\u2014without fear of rebuttal. Media bias and its ramifications will be explored at greater length in Chapter 14 \"Ethics of Mass Media\"<\/a>.<\/p>\n <\/div>\n

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    The Revitalization of AM<\/h2>\n

    The migration of music stations to the FM spectrum during the 1960s and 1970s provided a great deal of space on the AM band for talk shows. With the Fairness Doctrine no longer a hindrance, these programs slowly gained notoriety during the late 1980s and early 1990s. In 1998, talk radio hosts railed against a proposed congressional pay increase, and their listeners became incensed; House Speaker Jim Wright received a deluge of faxes protesting it from irate talk radio listeners from stations all over the country (Douglas). Ultimately, Congress canceled the pay increase, and various print outlets acknowledged the influence of talk radio on the decision. Propelled by events such as these, talk radio stations rose from only 200 in the early 1980s to more than 850 in 1994 (Douglas).<\/p>\n

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    Coast to Coast AM<\/em><\/h4>\n

    Although political programs unquestionably rule AM talk radio, that dial is also home to a kind of show that some radio listeners may have never experienced. Late at night on AM radio, a program airs during which listeners hear stories about ghosts, alien abductions, and fantastic creatures. It\u2019s not a fictional drama program, however, but instead a call-in talk show called Coast to Coast AM<\/em>. In 2006, this unlikely success ranked among the top 10 AM talk radio programs in the nation\u2014a stunning feat considering its 10 p.m. to 2 a.m. time slot and bizarre format (Vigil, 2006).<\/p>\n

    Originally started by host Art Bell in the 1980s, Coast to Coast<\/em> focuses on topics that mainstream media outlets rarely treat seriously. Regular guests include ghost investigators, psychics, Bigfoot biographers, alien abductees, and deniers of the moon landing. The guests take calls from listeners who are allowed to ask questions or talk about their own paranormal experiences or theories.<\/p>\n

    Coast to Coast<\/em>\u2019s current host, George Noory, has continued the show\u2019s format. In some areas, its ratings have even exceeded those of Rush Limbaugh\u2019s (Vigil, 2006). For a late-night show, these kinds of high ratings are rare. The success of Coast to Coast<\/em> is thus a continuing testament to the diversity and unexpected potential of radio (Vigil, 2006).<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n

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    On-Air Political Influence<\/h2>\n

    As talk radio\u2019s popularity grew during the early 1990s, it quickly became an outlet for political ambitions. In 1992, nine talk show hosts ran for U.S. Congress. By the middle of the decade, it had become common for many former\u2014or failed\u2014politicians to attempt to use the format. Former California governor Jerry Brown and former New York mayor Ed Koch were among the mid-1990s politicians that had AM talk shows (Annenberg Public Policy Center, 1996). Both conservatives and liberals widely agree that conservative hosts dominate AM talk radio. Many talk show hosts, such as Limbaugh, who began his popular program 1 year after the repeal of the Fairness Doctrine, have made a profitable business out of their programs.<\/p>\n

    \n

    Figure 7.8<\/span> <\/p>\n \"7.4.3\"<\/a>

    Talk radio shows increased dramatically in number and popularity in the wake of the 1987 repeal of the Fairness Doctrine.<\/p>

    JD Lasica - Blogworld Talk Radio<\/a> - CC BY-NC 2.0.<\/p>\n <\/div><\/div><\/div>\n

    During the 2000s, AM talk radio continued to build. Hosts such as Michael Savage, Sean Hannity, and Bill O\u2019Reilly furthered the trend of popular conservative talk shows, but liberal hosts also became popular through the short-lived Air America network. The network closed abruptly in 2010 amid financial concerns (Stelter, 2010). Although the network was unsuccessful, it provided a platform for such hosts as MSNBC TV news host Rachel Maddow and Minnesota Senator Al Franken. Other liberal hosts such as Bill Press and Ron Reagan, son of President Ronald Reagan, have also found success in the AM political talk radio field (Stelter, 2010). Despite these successes, liberal talk radio is often viewed as unsustainable (Hallowell, 2010). To some, the failure of Air America confirms conservatives\u2019 domination of AM radio. In response to the conservative dominance of talk radio, many prominent liberals, including House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, have advocated reinstating the Fairness Doctrine and forcing stations to offer equal time to contrasting opinions (Stotts, 2008).<\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n

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    Freedom of Speech and Radio Controversies<\/h2>\n

    While the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution gives radio personalities the freedom to say nearly anything they want on the air without fear of prosecution (except in cases of obscenity, slander, or incitement of violence, which will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 15 \"Media and Government\"<\/a>), it does not protect them from being fired from their jobs when their controversial comments create a public outrage. Many talk radio hosts, such as Howard Stern, push the boundaries of acceptable speech to engage listeners and boost ratings, but sometimes radio hosts push too far, unleashing a storm of controversy.<\/p>\n

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    Making (and Unmaking) a Career out of Controversy<\/h2>\n

    Talk radio host Howard Stern has managed to build his career on creating controversy\u2014despite being fined multiple times for indecency by the FCC, Stern remains one of highest-paid and most popular talk radio hosts in the United States. Stern\u2019s radio broadcasts often feature scatological or sexual humor, creating an \u201canything goes\u201d atmosphere. Because his on-air antics frequently generate controversy that can jeopardize advertising sponsorships and drive away offended listeners\u2014in addition to risking fines from the FCC\u2014Stern has a history of uneasy relationships with the radio stations that employ him. In an effort to free himself of conflicts with station owners and sponsors, in 2005 Stern signed a contract with Sirius Satellite Radio, which is exempt from FCC regulation, so that he can continue to broadcast his show without fear of censorship.<\/p>\n

    Stern\u2019s massive popularity gives him a lot of clout, which has allowed him to weather controversy and continue to have a successful career. Other radio hosts who have gotten themselves in trouble with poorly considered on-air comments have not been so lucky. In April 2007, Don Imus, host of the long-running Imus in the Morning<\/em>, was suspended for racist and sexist comments made about the Rutgers University women\u2019s basketball team (MSNBC, 2007). Though he publically apologized, the scandal continued to draw negative attention in the media, and CBS canceled his show to avoid further unfavorable publicity and the withdrawal of advertisers. Though he returned to the airwaves in December of that year with a different station, the episode was a major setback for Imus\u2019s career and his public image. Similarly, syndicated conservative talk show host Dr. Laura Schelssinger ended her radio show in 2010 due to pressure from radio stations and sponsors after her repeated use of a racial epithet on a broadcast incited a public backlash (MSNBC, 2007).<\/p>\n

    As the examples of these talk radio hosts show, the issue of freedom of speech on the airwaves is often complicated by the need for radio stations to be profitable. Outspoken or shocking radio hosts can draw in many listeners, attracting advertisers to sponsor their shows and bringing in money for their radio stations. Although some listeners may be offended by these hosts and may stop tuning in, as long as the hosts continue to attract advertising dollars, their employers are usually content to allow the hosts to speak freely on the air. However, if a host\u2019s behavior ends up sparking a major controversy, causing advertisers to withdraw their sponsorship to avoid tarnishing their brands, the radio station will often fire the host and look to someone who can better sustain advertising partnerships. Radio hosts\u2019 right to free speech does not compel their employer to give them the forum to exercise it. Popular hosts like Don Imus may find a home on the air again once the furor has died down, but for radio hosts concerned about the stability of their careers, the lesson is clear: there are practical limits on their freedom of speech.<\/p>\n

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    Key Takeaways<\/h3>\n