{"id":109,"date":"2014-09-16T21:33:00","date_gmt":"2014-09-16T21:33:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/lifespandevelopment1x1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=109"},"modified":"2016-03-15T02:32:07","modified_gmt":"2016-03-15T02:32:07","slug":"research-methods","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/chapter\/research-methods\/","title":{"raw":"Research Methods","rendered":"Research Methods"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>How do we know what we know?<\/h2>\r\n<img class=\"alignleft size-medium wp-image-706\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/15023037\/question-mark-1098294_1280-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"question mark\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" \/>\r\n\r\nAn important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information.\u00a0The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon.\u00a0Not long ago a friend said to me that he did not trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story.\u00a0That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur.\u00a0Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey.\u00a0In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice.\u00a0So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.\r\n<h2>Personal Knowledge<\/h2>\r\nHow do we know what we know?\u00a0Take a moment to write down two things that you know about childhood...Okay.\u00a0Now, how do you know?\u00a0Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality) or based on what others have told you or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004).\u00a0There are several problems with personal inquiry.\u00a0Read the following sentence aloud:\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 60px;\"><span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">Paris in the<\/span>\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">the spring<\/span><\/p>\r\nAre you sure that is what it said?\u00a0Read it again:\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 60px;\"><span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">Paris in the<\/span>\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">the spring<\/span><\/p>\r\nIf you read it differently the second time (adding the second \u201cthe\u201d) you just experienced one of the problems with personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe.\u00a0Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there.\u00a0This problem may just be a result of cognitive \u2018blinders\u2019 or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views.\u00a0Confirmation bias\u00a0is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence.\u00a0Popper suggests that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005).\u00a0Theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific.\u00a0And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.\r\n\r\nScience offers a more systematic way to make comparisons guard against bias.\u00a0One technique used to avoid\u00a0sampling bias\u00a0is to select participants for a study in a random way.\u00a0This means using a technique to insure that all members have an equal chance of being selected.\u00a0Simple random sampling\u00a0may involve using a set of random numbers as a guide in determining who is to be selected.\u00a0For example, if we have a list of 400 people and wish to randomly select a smaller group or\u00a0sample\u00a0to be studied, we use a list of random numbers and select the case that corresponds with that number (Case 39, 3, 217 etc.).\u00a0This is preferable to asking only those individuals with whom we are familiar to participate in a study; if we conveniently chose only people we know, we know nothing about those who had no opportunity to be selected.\u00a0There are many more elaborate techniques that can be used to obtain samples that represent the composition of the population we are studying.\u00a0But even though a randomly selected representative sample is preferable, it is not always used because of costs and other limitations.\u00a0(As a consumer of research, however, you should know how the sample was obtained and keep this in mind when interpreting results.)\r\n<h2>Scientific Methods<\/h2>\r\nOne method of scientific investigation involves the following steps:\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Determining a research question<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Determining a method of gathering information<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Conducting the study<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Interpreting results<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have your work scrutinized by others)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nYour findings can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest and through this process a literature or knowledge base is established.\u00a0This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question.\u00a0And it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied.\u00a0Many academic journals publish reports on studies conducted in this manner and a good way to become more familiar with these steps is to look at journal articles which will be written in sections that follow these steps.\u00a0For example, after a section entitled \u201cStatement of the Problem\u201d, you might find a second section entitled, \u201cLiterature Review\u201d.\u00a0Other headings will reflect the stages of research mentioned above.\r\n\r\nAnother model of research referred to as qualitative research may involve steps such as these:\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Begin with a broad area of interest<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Gain entrance into a group to be researched<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Ask open ended, broad \u201cgrand tour\u201d types of questions when interviewing subjects<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Modify research questions as study continues<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Note patterns or consistencies<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Report findings<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn this type of research, theoretical ideas are \u201cgrounded\u201d in the experiences of the participants.\u00a0The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer &amp; Strauss, 1967).\u00a0Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.\r\n<h2>Types of Studies<\/h2>\r\nNot all studies are designed to reach the same goal. <strong>Descriptive studies<\/strong>\u00a0focus on describing an occurrence.\u00a0Some examples of descriptive questions include:\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>\u201cHow much time do parents spend with children?\u201d<\/li>\r\n\t<li>\u201cHow many times per week do couples have intercourse?\u201d<\/li>\r\n\t<li>\u201cWhen is marital satisfaction greatest?\u201d<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Explanatory studies\u00a0<\/strong>are efforts to answer the question \u201cwhy\u201d such as:\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>\u201cWhy have rates of divorce leveled off?\u201d<\/li>\r\n\t<li>\u201cWhy are teen pregnancy rates down?\u201d<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Evaluation research<\/strong>\u00a0is designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or programs.\u00a0For instance, a research might be designed to study the effectiveness of safety programs implemented in schools for installing car seats or fitting bicycle helmets.\u00a0Do children wear their helmets?\u00a0Do parents use car seats properly?\u00a0If not, why not?","rendered":"<h2>How do we know what we know?<\/h2>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignleft size-medium wp-image-706\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/15023037\/question-mark-1098294_1280-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"question mark\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" \/><\/p>\n<p>An important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information.\u00a0The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon.\u00a0Not long ago a friend said to me that he did not trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story.\u00a0That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur.\u00a0Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey.\u00a0In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice.\u00a0So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.<\/p>\n<h2>Personal Knowledge<\/h2>\n<p>How do we know what we know?\u00a0Take a moment to write down two things that you know about childhood&#8230;Okay.\u00a0Now, how do you know?\u00a0Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality) or based on what others have told you or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004).\u00a0There are several problems with personal inquiry.\u00a0Read the following sentence aloud:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 60px;\"><span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">Paris in the<\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">the spring<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Are you sure that is what it said?\u00a0Read it again:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 60px;\"><span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">Paris in the<\/span><br \/>\n<span style=\"text-indent: 2em;\">the spring<\/span><\/p>\n<p>If you read it differently the second time (adding the second \u201cthe\u201d) you just experienced one of the problems with personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe.\u00a0Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there.\u00a0This problem may just be a result of cognitive \u2018blinders\u2019 or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views.\u00a0Confirmation bias\u00a0is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence.\u00a0Popper suggests that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005).\u00a0Theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific.\u00a0And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.<\/p>\n<p>Science offers a more systematic way to make comparisons guard against bias.\u00a0One technique used to avoid\u00a0sampling bias\u00a0is to select participants for a study in a random way.\u00a0This means using a technique to insure that all members have an equal chance of being selected.\u00a0Simple random sampling\u00a0may involve using a set of random numbers as a guide in determining who is to be selected.\u00a0For example, if we have a list of 400 people and wish to randomly select a smaller group or\u00a0sample\u00a0to be studied, we use a list of random numbers and select the case that corresponds with that number (Case 39, 3, 217 etc.).\u00a0This is preferable to asking only those individuals with whom we are familiar to participate in a study; if we conveniently chose only people we know, we know nothing about those who had no opportunity to be selected.\u00a0There are many more elaborate techniques that can be used to obtain samples that represent the composition of the population we are studying.\u00a0But even though a randomly selected representative sample is preferable, it is not always used because of costs and other limitations.\u00a0(As a consumer of research, however, you should know how the sample was obtained and keep this in mind when interpreting results.)<\/p>\n<h2>Scientific Methods<\/h2>\n<p>One method of scientific investigation involves the following steps:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Determining a research question<\/li>\n<li>Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)<\/li>\n<li>Determining a method of gathering information<\/li>\n<li>Conducting the study<\/li>\n<li>Interpreting results<\/li>\n<li>Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research<\/li>\n<li>Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have your work scrutinized by others)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Your findings can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest and through this process a literature or knowledge base is established.\u00a0This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question.\u00a0And it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied.\u00a0Many academic journals publish reports on studies conducted in this manner and a good way to become more familiar with these steps is to look at journal articles which will be written in sections that follow these steps.\u00a0For example, after a section entitled \u201cStatement of the Problem\u201d, you might find a second section entitled, \u201cLiterature Review\u201d.\u00a0Other headings will reflect the stages of research mentioned above.<\/p>\n<p>Another model of research referred to as qualitative research may involve steps such as these:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Begin with a broad area of interest<\/li>\n<li>Gain entrance into a group to be researched<\/li>\n<li>Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest<\/li>\n<li>Ask open ended, broad \u201cgrand tour\u201d types of questions when interviewing subjects<\/li>\n<li>Modify research questions as study continues<\/li>\n<li>Note patterns or consistencies<\/li>\n<li>Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed<\/li>\n<li>Report findings<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In this type of research, theoretical ideas are \u201cgrounded\u201d in the experiences of the participants.\u00a0The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer &amp; Strauss, 1967).\u00a0Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.<\/p>\n<h2>Types of Studies<\/h2>\n<p>Not all studies are designed to reach the same goal. <strong>Descriptive studies<\/strong>\u00a0focus on describing an occurrence.\u00a0Some examples of descriptive questions include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u201cHow much time do parents spend with children?\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cHow many times per week do couples have intercourse?\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cWhen is marital satisfaction greatest?\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Explanatory studies\u00a0<\/strong>are efforts to answer the question \u201cwhy\u201d such as:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u201cWhy have rates of divorce leveled off?\u201d<\/li>\n<li>\u201cWhy are teen pregnancy rates down?\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Evaluation research<\/strong>\u00a0is designed to assess the effectiveness of policies or programs.\u00a0For instance, a research might be designed to study the effectiveness of safety programs implemented in schools for installing car seats or fitting bicycle helmets.\u00a0Do children wear their helmets?\u00a0Do parents use car seats properly?\u00a0If not, why not?<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-109\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><li>question mark. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Alexas_Fotos. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/question-mark-tissue-structure-1098294\/\">https:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/question-mark-tissue-structure-1098294\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/cc0\">CC0: No Rights Reserved<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"question mark\",\"author\":\"Alexas_Fotos\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/en\/question-mark-tissue-structure-1098294\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc0\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-109","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":51,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/74"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":707,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/revisions\/707"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/51"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=109"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=109"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=109"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=109"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}