{"id":296,"date":"2014-09-27T15:36:59","date_gmt":"2014-09-27T15:36:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/lifespandevelopment1x1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=296"},"modified":"2016-03-16T18:37:32","modified_gmt":"2016-03-16T18:37:32","slug":"learning-and-intelligence","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/chapter\/learning-and-intelligence\/","title":{"raw":"Learning and Intelligence","rendered":"Learning and Intelligence"},"content":{"raw":"<h1>Schools and Testing<\/h1>\r\n<h2><img class=\"wp-image-836 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/16134345\/Mokapu_Elementary_moves_ahead_of_the_power_curve_150422-M-NV020-001.jpg\" alt=\"four elementary students sit in front of computers taking a standardized test.\" width=\"533\" height=\"355\" \/>The Controversy over Testing In Schools<\/h2>\r\nChildren's academic performance is often measured with the use of standardized tests.\u00a0<strong>Achievement tests<\/strong> are used to measure what a child has already learned.\u00a0Achievement tests\u00a0are often used as measures of teaching effectiveness within a school setting and as a method to make schools that receive tax dollars (such as public schools, charter schools, and private schools that receive vouchers) accountable to the government for their performance.\u00a0In 2001,\u00a0President George W. Bush signed into effect the\u00a0No Child Left Behind Act\u00a0mandating that schools administer achievement tests to students and publish those results so that parents have an idea of their children's performance and the government has information on the gaps in educational achievement between children from various social class, racial, and ethnic groups.\u00a0Schools that show significant gaps in these levels of performance are to work toward narrowing these gaps.\u00a0Educators have criticized the policy for focusing too much on testing as the only indication of performance levels.\r\n\r\n<strong>Aptitude tests<\/strong>\u00a0are designed to measure a student's ability to learn or to determine if a person has potential in a particular program. These are often used at the beginning of a course of study or as part of college entrance requirements.\u00a0The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) are perhaps the most familiar aptitude tests to students in grades 6 and above.\u00a0Learning test taking skills and preparing for SATs has become part of the training that some students in these grades receive as part of their pre-college preparation.\u00a0Other aptitude tests include the MCAT (Medical College Admission Test), the LSAT (Law School Admission Test), and the GRE (Graduate Record Examination).\u00a0Intelligence tests are also a form of aptitude test which designed to measure a person's ability to learn.\r\n<h2>Theories of Intelligence<\/h2>\r\nIntelligence tests and psychological definitions of intelligence have been heavily criticized since the 1970s for being biased in favor of Anglo-American, middle-class respondents and for being inadequate tools for measuring non-academic types of intelligence or talent.\u00a0Intelligence changes with experience and intelligence quotients or scores do not reflect that ability to change. What is considered smart varies culturally as well and most intelligence tests do not take this variation into account.\u00a0For example, in the west, being smart is associated with being quick.\u00a0A person who answers a question the fastest is seen as the smartest.\u00a0But in some cultures, being smart is associated with considering an idea thoroughly before giving an answer.\u00a0A well-thought out, contemplative answer is the best answer.\r\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\r\n<h3>Exercises<\/h3>\r\nWhat do you think?\u00a0As an adult, what kind of intellectual skills do you consider to be most important for your success? Consequently, how would you define intelligence?\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Multiple Intelligences<\/h2>\r\nGardner (1983, 1998, 1999) suggests that there are not one, but nine domains of intelligence. The first three are skills that are measured by IQ tests:\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Logical-mathematical:<\/strong>\u00a0the ability to solve mathematical problems; problems of logic, numerical patterns<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Linguistic<\/strong>: vocabulary, reading comprehension, function of language<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Spatial<\/strong>: visual accuracy, ability to read maps, understand space and distance<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe next six represent skills that are not measured in standard IQ tests but are talents or abilities that can also be important for success in a variety of fields:\u00a0These are:\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Musical<\/strong>: ability to understand patterns in music, hear pitches, recognize rhythms and melodies<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Bodily-kinesthetic<\/strong>: motor coordination, grace of movement, agility, strength<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Naturalistic<\/strong>: knowledge of plants, animals, minerals, climate, weather<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Interpersonal<\/strong>: understand the emotion, mood, motivation of others; able to communicate effectively<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Intrapersonal<\/strong>: understanding of the self, mood, motivation, temperament, realistic knowledge of strengths, weaknesses<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Existential<\/strong>: concern about and understanding of life's larger questions, meaning of life, or spiritual matters<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nGardner contends that these are also forms of intelligence. A\u00a0high IQ does not always ensure success in life or necessarily indicate that a person has common sense, good interpersonal skills or other abilities important for success.\r\n<h2>Triarchic Theory of Intelligence<\/h2>\r\nAnother alternative view of intelligence is presented by Sternberg (1997; 1999).\u00a0Sternberg offers three types of intelligences.\u00a0Sternberg provided background information about his view of intelligence in a conference I attended several years ago.\u00a0He described his frustration as a committee member charged with selecting graduate students for a program in psychology.\u00a0He was concerned that there was too much emphasis placed on aptitude test scores and believed that there were other, less easily measured, qualities necessary for success in a graduate program and in the world of work.\u00a0Aptitude test scores indicate the first type of intelligence-academic.\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Academic<\/strong> (componential): includes the ability to solve problems of logic, verbal comprehension, vocabulary, and spatial abilities.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nSternberg noted that students who have high academic abilities may still not have what is required to be a successful graduate student or a competent professional. To do well as a graduate student, he noted, the person needs to be creative. The second type of intelligence emphasizes this quality.\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Creative<\/strong> (experiential):\u00a0the ability to apply newly found skills to novel situations.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nA potential graduate student might be strong academically and have creative ideas, but still be lacking in the social skills required to work effectively with others or to practice good judgment in a variety of situations.\u00a0This common sense is the third type of intelligence.\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Practical<\/strong> (contextual):\u00a0the ability to use common sense and to know what is called for in a situation.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThis type of intelligence helps a person know when problems need to be solved.\u00a0Practical intelligence can help a person know how to act and what to wear for job interviews, when to get\u00a0out of problematic relationships, how to get along with others at work, and when to make changes to reduce stress.\r\n\r\nLet's apply these theories of intelligence to the world of children.\u00a0To what extent are these types of intelligences cultivated at home and in the schools?\r\n<h2>The World of School<\/h2>\r\nRemember the ecological systems model that we explored in Lesson 2?\u00a0This model helps us understand an individual by examining the contexts in which the person lives and the direct and indirect influences on that person's life.\u00a0School becomes a very important component of children's lives during middle childhood and one way to understand children is to look at the world of school.\u00a0We have discussed educational policies that impact the curriculum in schools above.\u00a0Now let's focus on the school experience from the standpoint of the student, the teacher and parent relationship, and the cultural messages or hidden curriculum taught in school in the United States.\r\n\r\n<strong>Parental Involvement in School:<\/strong>\u00a0Parents vary in their level of involvement with their children's schools.\u00a0Teachers often complain that they have difficulty getting parents to participate in their child's education and devise a variety of techniques to keep parents in touch with daily and overall progress. For\u00a0example, parents may be required to sign a behavior chart each evening to be returned to school or may be given information about the school's events through websites and newsletters.\u00a0There are other factors that need to be considered when looking at parental involvement.\u00a0To explore these, first ask yourself if all parents who enter the school with concerns about their child be received in the same way?\u00a0If not, what would make a teacher or principal more likely to consider the parent's concerns?\u00a0What would make this less likely?\r\n\r\nLareau and Horvat (2004) found that teachers seek a particular type of involvement from particular types of parents.\u00a0While teachers thought they were open and neutral in their responses to parental involvement, in reality teachers were most receptive to support, praise and agreement coming from parents who were most similar in race and social class with the teachers.\u00a0Parents who criticized the school or its policies were less likely to be given voice.\u00a0Parents who have higher levels of income, occupational status, and other qualities favored in society have\u00a0family capital.\u00a0This is a form of power that can be used to improve a child's education.\u00a0Parents who do not have these qualities may find it more difficult to be effectively involved.\u00a0Lareau and Horvat (2004) offer three cases of African-American parents who were each concerned about discrimination in the schools.\u00a0Despite evidence that such discrimination existed, their children's white, middle-class teachers were reluctant to address the situation directly.\u00a0Note the variation in approaches and outcomes for these three families:\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"><strong>The Masons:\u00a0<\/strong>This working class, African-American couple, a minister and a beautician, voiced direct complaints about discrimination in the schools.\u00a0Their claims were thought to undermine the authority of the school and as a result, their daughter was kept in a lower reading class.\u00a0However, her grade was boosted to \"avoid a scene\" and the parents were not told of this grade change.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"><strong>The Irvings:\u00a0<\/strong>This middle class, African-American couple was concerned that the school was discriminating against black students.\u00a0They fought against it without using direct confrontation by staying actively involved in their daughter's schooling and making frequent visits to the school so make sure that discrimination could not occur.\u00a0They also talked with other African-American teachers and parents about their concerns.<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"><strong>Ms. Caldron:\u00a0<\/strong>This poor, single-parent was concerned about discrimination in the school.\u00a0She was a recovering drug addict receiving welfare.\u00a0She did not discuss her concerns with other parents because she did not know the other parents and did not monitor her child's progress or get involved with the school.\u00a0She felt that her concerns would not receive attention.\u00a0She requested spelling lists from the teacher on several occasions but did not receive them.\u00a0The\u00a0teacher complained that Ms. Caldron did not sign forms that were sent home for her signature.<\/p>\r\nWorking within the system without direct confrontation seemed to yield better results for the Irvings, although the issue of discrimination in the school was not completely addressed.\u00a0Ms. Caldron was the least involved and felt powerless in the school setting.\u00a0Her lack of family capital and lack of knowledge and confidence keep her from addressing her concerns with the teachers.\u00a0What do you think would happen if she directly addressed the teachers and complained about discrimination?\u00a0Chances are, she would be dismissed as undermining the authority of the school, just as the Masons, and might be thought to lack credibility because of her poverty and drug addiction.\u00a0The\u00a0authors of this study suggest that teachers closely examine their biases against parents.\u00a0Schools may also need to examine their ability to dialogue with parents about school policies in more open ways.\u00a0What happens when parents have concerns over school policy or view student problems as arising from flaws in the educational system?\u00a0How are parents who are critical of the school treated?\u00a0And are their children treated fairly even when the school is being criticized?\u00a0Certainly, any efforts to improve effective parental involvement should address these concerns.\r\n<h2>Student Perspectives<\/h2>\r\nImagine being a 3rd-grader for one day in public school.\u00a0What would the daily routine involve?\u00a0To what extent would the institution dictate the activities of the day and how much of the day would you spend on those activities?\u00a0Would always be \u2018on task\u2019?\u00a0What would you say if someone asked you how your day went?\u00a0Or \u201cWhat happened in school today?\u201d\u00a0Chances are, you would be more inclined to talk about whom you sat at lunch with or who brought a puppy to class than to describe how fractions are added.\r\n\r\nEthnographer and Professor of Education Peter McLaren (1999) describes the student\u2019s typical day as filled with constrictive and unnecessary ritual that has a damaging effect on the desire to learn.\u00a0Students\u00a0move between various states as they negotiate the demands of the school system and their own personal interests.\u00a0The\u00a0majority of the day (298 minutes) takes place in the\u00a0<strong>student state<\/strong>.\u00a0This state is one in which the student focuses on a task or tries to stay focused on a task, is passive, compliant, and often frustrated.\u00a0Long pauses before getting out the next book or finding materials sometimes indicate that frustration.\u00a0The<strong>\u00a0street corner\u00a0state<\/strong> is one in which the child is playful, energetic, excited, and expresses personal opinions, feelings, and beliefs.\u00a0About 66 minutes a day take place in this state.\u00a0Children try to maximize this by going slowly to assemblies or when getting a hall pass-always eager to say \u2018hello\u2019 to a friend or to wave if one of their classmates is in another room.\u00a0This is the state in which friends talk and play.\u00a0In fact, teachers sometimes reward students with opportunities to move freely or to talk or to be themselves.\u00a0But when students initiate the street corner state on their own, they risk losing recess time, getting extra homework, or being ridiculed in front of their peers.\u00a0The<strong>\u00a0home state<\/strong>\u00a0occurs when parents or siblings visit the school.\u00a0Children in this state may enjoy special privileges such as going home early or being exempt from certain school rules in the mother\u2019s presence.\u00a0Or it can be difficult if the parent is there to discuss trouble at school with a staff member.\u00a0The\u00a0sanctity state\u00a0is a time in which the child is contemplative, quiet, or prayerful and is a very brief part of the day.\r\n\r\nSince students seem to have so much enthusiasm and energy in street corner states, what would happen if the student and street corner states could be combined?\u00a0Would it be possible?\u00a0Many\u00a0educators feel concern about the level of stress children experience in school.\u00a0Some stress can be attributed to problems in friendship.\u00a0And some can be a result of the emphasis on testing and grades, as reflected in a Newsweek article entitled \u201cThe New First Grade: Are Kids Getting Pushed Too Fast Too Soon?\u201d (Tyre, 2006).\u00a0This article reports concerns of a principal who worries that students begin to burn out as early as 3rd\u00a0grade.\u00a0In the book,\u00a0The Homework Myth: Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing, Kohn (2006) argues that neither research nor experience support claims that homework reinforces learning and builds responsibility.\u00a0Why do schools assign homework so frequently?\u00a0A\u00a0look at cultural influences on education my provide some answers.\r\n<h2>Cultural Influences<\/h2>\r\nAnother way to examine the world of school is to look at the cultural values, concepts, behaviors and roles that are part of the school experience but are not part of the formal curriculum.\u00a0These are part of the\u00a0<strong>hidden curriculum<\/strong>\u00a0but are nevertheless very powerful messages.\u00a0The\u00a0hidden curriculum includes ideas of patriotism, gender roles, the ranking of occupations and classes, competition, and other values.\u00a0Teachers, counselors, and other students specify and make known what is considered appropriate for girls and boys.\u00a0The\u00a0gender curriculum continues into high school, college, and professional school.\u00a0Students\u00a0learn a ranking system of occupations and social classes as well.\u00a0Students\u00a0in gifted programs or those moving toward college preparation classes may be viewed as superior to those who are receiving tutoring.\r\n\r\nGracy (2004) suggests that cultural training occurs early.\u00a0Kindergarten is an \"academic boot camp\" in which students are prepared for their future student role-that of complying with an adult imposed structure and routine designed to produce docile, obedient, children who do not question meaningless tasks that will become so much of their future lives as students.\u00a0A\u00a0typical day is filled with structure, ritual, and routine that allows for little creativity or direct, hands-on contact. \"Kindergarten, therefore, can be seen as preparing children not only for participation in the bureaucratic organization of large modern school systems, but also for the large-scale occupational bureaucracies of modern society.\" (Gracy, 2004, p. 148)\r\n\r\nWhat do you think?\u00a0Let's examine a kindergarten class schedule taken from a website found by going to Google and typing in \"kindergarten schedule\".\u00a0You\u00a0can find more of these on your own.\u00a0Most look similar to this one:\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">7:55 to 8:20\u00a0Math tubs (manipulatives) and small group math lessons\r\n8:20 to 8:35\u00a0Class meeting\/restroom and drinks\r\n8:35 to 8:55\u00a0Math board\/calendar\r\n8:55 to 9:10\u00a0Whole class math lesson\r\n9:10 to 9:20\u00a0Daily news chart\r\n9:20 to 9:50\u00a0Shared reading (big books\/poem and song charts)\r\n9:50 to 10:15\u00a0Language Arts Centers\r\n10:15 to 10:30 Morning recess\r\n10:30 to 10:50\u00a0Alphabet\/phonics lesson and paper\r\n10:50 to 11:10\u00a0Reading Workshop (more centers)\r\n11:10 to 11:20\u00a0Picture and word chart\r\n11:20 to 11:40\u00a0Writing workshop (journals)\r\n11:40 to 12:20 Lunch and recess\r\n12:20 to 12:50\u00a0Rainbow Reading Lab\u00a0(sequenced file folder activities) or\u00a0computer lab\u00a0or\u00a0internet computers. Children are divided into two groups and do one of these activities each day, title 1 teacher is in my room at this time.\r\n12:50 to 1:20 Theme related activity or art class one day per week\r\n1:20 to 1:35 Afternoon recess (or still in art one day per week)\r\n1:35 to 2:10\u00a0Nap\/rest time\r\n2:10 to 2:50 Special classes (music, counseling, pe, or library)\r\n2:50 to 3:05 Show and Tell and get ready to go home<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">(Source:\u00a0<a title=\"\" href=\"http:\/\/users.stargate.net\/~cokids\/Classroom_Schedules.html\" target=\"_blank\">Classroom_Schedules<\/a>).<\/p>\r\nTo what extent do you think that students are being prepared for their future student role?\u00a0What are the pros and cons of such preparation?\u00a0Look at the curriculum for kindergarten and the first few grades in your own school district.\u00a0Emphasizing math and reading in preschool and kindergarten classes is becoming more common in some school districts.\u00a0It is not without controversy, however.\u00a0Some suggest that emphasis is warranted in order to help students learn math and reading skills that will be needed throughout school and in the world of work.\u00a0This will also help school districts improve their accountability through test performance.\u00a0Others argue that learning is becoming too structured to be enjoyable or effective and that students are being taught only to focus on performance and test taking.\u00a0Students\u00a0learn\u00a0student incivility\u00a0or lack of sincere concern for politeness and consideration of others is taught in kindergarten through 12th grades through the \"what is on the test\" mentality modeled by teachers.\u00a0Students\u00a0are taught to accept routinized, meaningless information in order to perform well on tests.\u00a0And they are experiencing the stress felt by teachers and school districts focused on test scores and taught that their worth comes from their test scores.\u00a0Genuine interest, an appreciation of the process of learning, and valuing others are important components of success in the workplace that are not part of the hidden curriculum in today's schools.","rendered":"<h1>Schools and Testing<\/h1>\n<h2><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-836 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1496\/2016\/03\/16134345\/Mokapu_Elementary_moves_ahead_of_the_power_curve_150422-M-NV020-001.jpg\" alt=\"four elementary students sit in front of computers taking a standardized test.\" width=\"533\" height=\"355\" \/>The Controversy over Testing In Schools<\/h2>\n<p>Children&#8217;s academic performance is often measured with the use of standardized tests.\u00a0<strong>Achievement tests<\/strong> are used to measure what a child has already learned.\u00a0Achievement tests\u00a0are often used as measures of teaching effectiveness within a school setting and as a method to make schools that receive tax dollars (such as public schools, charter schools, and private schools that receive vouchers) accountable to the government for their performance.\u00a0In 2001,\u00a0President George W. Bush signed into effect the\u00a0No Child Left Behind Act\u00a0mandating that schools administer achievement tests to students and publish those results so that parents have an idea of their children&#8217;s performance and the government has information on the gaps in educational achievement between children from various social class, racial, and ethnic groups.\u00a0Schools that show significant gaps in these levels of performance are to work toward narrowing these gaps.\u00a0Educators have criticized the policy for focusing too much on testing as the only indication of performance levels.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Aptitude tests<\/strong>\u00a0are designed to measure a student&#8217;s ability to learn or to determine if a person has potential in a particular program. These are often used at the beginning of a course of study or as part of college entrance requirements.\u00a0The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) are perhaps the most familiar aptitude tests to students in grades 6 and above.\u00a0Learning test taking skills and preparing for SATs has become part of the training that some students in these grades receive as part of their pre-college preparation.\u00a0Other aptitude tests include the MCAT (Medical College Admission Test), the LSAT (Law School Admission Test), and the GRE (Graduate Record Examination).\u00a0Intelligence tests are also a form of aptitude test which designed to measure a person&#8217;s ability to learn.<\/p>\n<h2>Theories of Intelligence<\/h2>\n<p>Intelligence tests and psychological definitions of intelligence have been heavily criticized since the 1970s for being biased in favor of Anglo-American, middle-class respondents and for being inadequate tools for measuring non-academic types of intelligence or talent.\u00a0Intelligence changes with experience and intelligence quotients or scores do not reflect that ability to change. What is considered smart varies culturally as well and most intelligence tests do not take this variation into account.\u00a0For example, in the west, being smart is associated with being quick.\u00a0A person who answers a question the fastest is seen as the smartest.\u00a0But in some cultures, being smart is associated with considering an idea thoroughly before giving an answer.\u00a0A well-thought out, contemplative answer is the best answer.<\/p>\n<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-info\">\n<h3>Exercises<\/h3>\n<p>What do you think?\u00a0As an adult, what kind of intellectual skills do you consider to be most important for your success? Consequently, how would you define intelligence?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Multiple Intelligences<\/h2>\n<p>Gardner (1983, 1998, 1999) suggests that there are not one, but nine domains of intelligence. The first three are skills that are measured by IQ tests:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Logical-mathematical:<\/strong>\u00a0the ability to solve mathematical problems; problems of logic, numerical patterns<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Linguistic<\/strong>: vocabulary, reading comprehension, function of language<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Spatial<\/strong>: visual accuracy, ability to read maps, understand space and distance<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The next six represent skills that are not measured in standard IQ tests but are talents or abilities that can also be important for success in a variety of fields:\u00a0These are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Musical<\/strong>: ability to understand patterns in music, hear pitches, recognize rhythms and melodies<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Bodily-kinesthetic<\/strong>: motor coordination, grace of movement, agility, strength<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Naturalistic<\/strong>: knowledge of plants, animals, minerals, climate, weather<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Interpersonal<\/strong>: understand the emotion, mood, motivation of others; able to communicate effectively<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Intrapersonal<\/strong>: understanding of the self, mood, motivation, temperament, realistic knowledge of strengths, weaknesses<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span class=\"tight\"><strong>Existential<\/strong>: concern about and understanding of life&#8217;s larger questions, meaning of life, or spiritual matters<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Gardner contends that these are also forms of intelligence. A\u00a0high IQ does not always ensure success in life or necessarily indicate that a person has common sense, good interpersonal skills or other abilities important for success.<\/p>\n<h2>Triarchic Theory of Intelligence<\/h2>\n<p>Another alternative view of intelligence is presented by Sternberg (1997; 1999).\u00a0Sternberg offers three types of intelligences.\u00a0Sternberg provided background information about his view of intelligence in a conference I attended several years ago.\u00a0He described his frustration as a committee member charged with selecting graduate students for a program in psychology.\u00a0He was concerned that there was too much emphasis placed on aptitude test scores and believed that there were other, less easily measured, qualities necessary for success in a graduate program and in the world of work.\u00a0Aptitude test scores indicate the first type of intelligence-academic.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Academic<\/strong> (componential): includes the ability to solve problems of logic, verbal comprehension, vocabulary, and spatial abilities.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Sternberg noted that students who have high academic abilities may still not have what is required to be a successful graduate student or a competent professional. To do well as a graduate student, he noted, the person needs to be creative. The second type of intelligence emphasizes this quality.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Creative<\/strong> (experiential):\u00a0the ability to apply newly found skills to novel situations.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>A potential graduate student might be strong academically and have creative ideas, but still be lacking in the social skills required to work effectively with others or to practice good judgment in a variety of situations.\u00a0This common sense is the third type of intelligence.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Practical<\/strong> (contextual):\u00a0the ability to use common sense and to know what is called for in a situation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>This type of intelligence helps a person know when problems need to be solved.\u00a0Practical intelligence can help a person know how to act and what to wear for job interviews, when to get\u00a0out of problematic relationships, how to get along with others at work, and when to make changes to reduce stress.<\/p>\n<p>Let&#8217;s apply these theories of intelligence to the world of children.\u00a0To what extent are these types of intelligences cultivated at home and in the schools?<\/p>\n<h2>The World of School<\/h2>\n<p>Remember the ecological systems model that we explored in Lesson 2?\u00a0This model helps us understand an individual by examining the contexts in which the person lives and the direct and indirect influences on that person&#8217;s life.\u00a0School becomes a very important component of children&#8217;s lives during middle childhood and one way to understand children is to look at the world of school.\u00a0We have discussed educational policies that impact the curriculum in schools above.\u00a0Now let&#8217;s focus on the school experience from the standpoint of the student, the teacher and parent relationship, and the cultural messages or hidden curriculum taught in school in the United States.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Parental Involvement in School:<\/strong>\u00a0Parents vary in their level of involvement with their children&#8217;s schools.\u00a0Teachers often complain that they have difficulty getting parents to participate in their child&#8217;s education and devise a variety of techniques to keep parents in touch with daily and overall progress. For\u00a0example, parents may be required to sign a behavior chart each evening to be returned to school or may be given information about the school&#8217;s events through websites and newsletters.\u00a0There are other factors that need to be considered when looking at parental involvement.\u00a0To explore these, first ask yourself if all parents who enter the school with concerns about their child be received in the same way?\u00a0If not, what would make a teacher or principal more likely to consider the parent&#8217;s concerns?\u00a0What would make this less likely?<\/p>\n<p>Lareau and Horvat (2004) found that teachers seek a particular type of involvement from particular types of parents.\u00a0While teachers thought they were open and neutral in their responses to parental involvement, in reality teachers were most receptive to support, praise and agreement coming from parents who were most similar in race and social class with the teachers.\u00a0Parents who criticized the school or its policies were less likely to be given voice.\u00a0Parents who have higher levels of income, occupational status, and other qualities favored in society have\u00a0family capital.\u00a0This is a form of power that can be used to improve a child&#8217;s education.\u00a0Parents who do not have these qualities may find it more difficult to be effectively involved.\u00a0Lareau and Horvat (2004) offer three cases of African-American parents who were each concerned about discrimination in the schools.\u00a0Despite evidence that such discrimination existed, their children&#8217;s white, middle-class teachers were reluctant to address the situation directly.\u00a0Note the variation in approaches and outcomes for these three families:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"><strong>The Masons:\u00a0<\/strong>This working class, African-American couple, a minister and a beautician, voiced direct complaints about discrimination in the schools.\u00a0Their claims were thought to undermine the authority of the school and as a result, their daughter was kept in a lower reading class.\u00a0However, her grade was boosted to &#8220;avoid a scene&#8221; and the parents were not told of this grade change.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"><strong>The Irvings:\u00a0<\/strong>This middle class, African-American couple was concerned that the school was discriminating against black students.\u00a0They fought against it without using direct confrontation by staying actively involved in their daughter&#8217;s schooling and making frequent visits to the school so make sure that discrimination could not occur.\u00a0They also talked with other African-American teachers and parents about their concerns.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"><strong>Ms. Caldron:\u00a0<\/strong>This poor, single-parent was concerned about discrimination in the school.\u00a0She was a recovering drug addict receiving welfare.\u00a0She did not discuss her concerns with other parents because she did not know the other parents and did not monitor her child&#8217;s progress or get involved with the school.\u00a0She felt that her concerns would not receive attention.\u00a0She requested spelling lists from the teacher on several occasions but did not receive them.\u00a0The\u00a0teacher complained that Ms. Caldron did not sign forms that were sent home for her signature.<\/p>\n<p>Working within the system without direct confrontation seemed to yield better results for the Irvings, although the issue of discrimination in the school was not completely addressed.\u00a0Ms. Caldron was the least involved and felt powerless in the school setting.\u00a0Her lack of family capital and lack of knowledge and confidence keep her from addressing her concerns with the teachers.\u00a0What do you think would happen if she directly addressed the teachers and complained about discrimination?\u00a0Chances are, she would be dismissed as undermining the authority of the school, just as the Masons, and might be thought to lack credibility because of her poverty and drug addiction.\u00a0The\u00a0authors of this study suggest that teachers closely examine their biases against parents.\u00a0Schools may also need to examine their ability to dialogue with parents about school policies in more open ways.\u00a0What happens when parents have concerns over school policy or view student problems as arising from flaws in the educational system?\u00a0How are parents who are critical of the school treated?\u00a0And are their children treated fairly even when the school is being criticized?\u00a0Certainly, any efforts to improve effective parental involvement should address these concerns.<\/p>\n<h2>Student Perspectives<\/h2>\n<p>Imagine being a 3rd-grader for one day in public school.\u00a0What would the daily routine involve?\u00a0To what extent would the institution dictate the activities of the day and how much of the day would you spend on those activities?\u00a0Would always be \u2018on task\u2019?\u00a0What would you say if someone asked you how your day went?\u00a0Or \u201cWhat happened in school today?\u201d\u00a0Chances are, you would be more inclined to talk about whom you sat at lunch with or who brought a puppy to class than to describe how fractions are added.<\/p>\n<p>Ethnographer and Professor of Education Peter McLaren (1999) describes the student\u2019s typical day as filled with constrictive and unnecessary ritual that has a damaging effect on the desire to learn.\u00a0Students\u00a0move between various states as they negotiate the demands of the school system and their own personal interests.\u00a0The\u00a0majority of the day (298 minutes) takes place in the\u00a0<strong>student state<\/strong>.\u00a0This state is one in which the student focuses on a task or tries to stay focused on a task, is passive, compliant, and often frustrated.\u00a0Long pauses before getting out the next book or finding materials sometimes indicate that frustration.\u00a0The<strong>\u00a0street corner\u00a0state<\/strong> is one in which the child is playful, energetic, excited, and expresses personal opinions, feelings, and beliefs.\u00a0About 66 minutes a day take place in this state.\u00a0Children try to maximize this by going slowly to assemblies or when getting a hall pass-always eager to say \u2018hello\u2019 to a friend or to wave if one of their classmates is in another room.\u00a0This is the state in which friends talk and play.\u00a0In fact, teachers sometimes reward students with opportunities to move freely or to talk or to be themselves.\u00a0But when students initiate the street corner state on their own, they risk losing recess time, getting extra homework, or being ridiculed in front of their peers.\u00a0The<strong>\u00a0home state<\/strong>\u00a0occurs when parents or siblings visit the school.\u00a0Children in this state may enjoy special privileges such as going home early or being exempt from certain school rules in the mother\u2019s presence.\u00a0Or it can be difficult if the parent is there to discuss trouble at school with a staff member.\u00a0The\u00a0sanctity state\u00a0is a time in which the child is contemplative, quiet, or prayerful and is a very brief part of the day.<\/p>\n<p>Since students seem to have so much enthusiasm and energy in street corner states, what would happen if the student and street corner states could be combined?\u00a0Would it be possible?\u00a0Many\u00a0educators feel concern about the level of stress children experience in school.\u00a0Some stress can be attributed to problems in friendship.\u00a0And some can be a result of the emphasis on testing and grades, as reflected in a Newsweek article entitled \u201cThe New First Grade: Are Kids Getting Pushed Too Fast Too Soon?\u201d (Tyre, 2006).\u00a0This article reports concerns of a principal who worries that students begin to burn out as early as 3rd\u00a0grade.\u00a0In the book,\u00a0The Homework Myth: Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing, Kohn (2006) argues that neither research nor experience support claims that homework reinforces learning and builds responsibility.\u00a0Why do schools assign homework so frequently?\u00a0A\u00a0look at cultural influences on education my provide some answers.<\/p>\n<h2>Cultural Influences<\/h2>\n<p>Another way to examine the world of school is to look at the cultural values, concepts, behaviors and roles that are part of the school experience but are not part of the formal curriculum.\u00a0These are part of the\u00a0<strong>hidden curriculum<\/strong>\u00a0but are nevertheless very powerful messages.\u00a0The\u00a0hidden curriculum includes ideas of patriotism, gender roles, the ranking of occupations and classes, competition, and other values.\u00a0Teachers, counselors, and other students specify and make known what is considered appropriate for girls and boys.\u00a0The\u00a0gender curriculum continues into high school, college, and professional school.\u00a0Students\u00a0learn a ranking system of occupations and social classes as well.\u00a0Students\u00a0in gifted programs or those moving toward college preparation classes may be viewed as superior to those who are receiving tutoring.<\/p>\n<p>Gracy (2004) suggests that cultural training occurs early.\u00a0Kindergarten is an &#8220;academic boot camp&#8221; in which students are prepared for their future student role-that of complying with an adult imposed structure and routine designed to produce docile, obedient, children who do not question meaningless tasks that will become so much of their future lives as students.\u00a0A\u00a0typical day is filled with structure, ritual, and routine that allows for little creativity or direct, hands-on contact. &#8220;Kindergarten, therefore, can be seen as preparing children not only for participation in the bureaucratic organization of large modern school systems, but also for the large-scale occupational bureaucracies of modern society.&#8221; (Gracy, 2004, p. 148)<\/p>\n<p>What do you think?\u00a0Let&#8217;s examine a kindergarten class schedule taken from a website found by going to Google and typing in &#8220;kindergarten schedule&#8221;.\u00a0You\u00a0can find more of these on your own.\u00a0Most look similar to this one:<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">7:55 to 8:20\u00a0Math tubs (manipulatives) and small group math lessons<br \/>\n8:20 to 8:35\u00a0Class meeting\/restroom and drinks<br \/>\n8:35 to 8:55\u00a0Math board\/calendar<br \/>\n8:55 to 9:10\u00a0Whole class math lesson<br \/>\n9:10 to 9:20\u00a0Daily news chart<br \/>\n9:20 to 9:50\u00a0Shared reading (big books\/poem and song charts)<br \/>\n9:50 to 10:15\u00a0Language Arts Centers<br \/>\n10:15 to 10:30 Morning recess<br \/>\n10:30 to 10:50\u00a0Alphabet\/phonics lesson and paper<br \/>\n10:50 to 11:10\u00a0Reading Workshop (more centers)<br \/>\n11:10 to 11:20\u00a0Picture and word chart<br \/>\n11:20 to 11:40\u00a0Writing workshop (journals)<br \/>\n11:40 to 12:20 Lunch and recess<br \/>\n12:20 to 12:50\u00a0Rainbow Reading Lab\u00a0(sequenced file folder activities) or\u00a0computer lab\u00a0or\u00a0internet computers. Children are divided into two groups and do one of these activities each day, title 1 teacher is in my room at this time.<br \/>\n12:50 to 1:20 Theme related activity or art class one day per week<br \/>\n1:20 to 1:35 Afternoon recess (or still in art one day per week)<br \/>\n1:35 to 2:10\u00a0Nap\/rest time<br \/>\n2:10 to 2:50 Special classes (music, counseling, pe, or library)<br \/>\n2:50 to 3:05 Show and Tell and get ready to go home<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 30px;\">(Source:\u00a0<a title=\"\" href=\"http:\/\/users.stargate.net\/~cokids\/Classroom_Schedules.html\" target=\"_blank\">Classroom_Schedules<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>To what extent do you think that students are being prepared for their future student role?\u00a0What are the pros and cons of such preparation?\u00a0Look at the curriculum for kindergarten and the first few grades in your own school district.\u00a0Emphasizing math and reading in preschool and kindergarten classes is becoming more common in some school districts.\u00a0It is not without controversy, however.\u00a0Some suggest that emphasis is warranted in order to help students learn math and reading skills that will be needed throughout school and in the world of work.\u00a0This will also help school districts improve their accountability through test performance.\u00a0Others argue that learning is becoming too structured to be enjoyable or effective and that students are being taught only to focus on performance and test taking.\u00a0Students\u00a0learn\u00a0student incivility\u00a0or lack of sincere concern for politeness and consideration of others is taught in kindergarten through 12th grades through the &#8220;what is on the test&#8221; mentality modeled by teachers.\u00a0Students\u00a0are taught to accept routinized, meaningless information in order to perform well on tests.\u00a0And they are experiencing the stress felt by teachers and school districts focused on test scores and taught that their worth comes from their test scores.\u00a0Genuine interest, an appreciation of the process of learning, and valuing others are important components of success in the workplace that are not part of the hidden curriculum in today&#8217;s schools.<\/p>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-296\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Shared previously<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Laura Overstreet. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\">http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">Public domain content<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>students taking a test. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: Cpl. Khalil Ross. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mokapu_Elementary_moves_ahead_of_the_power_curve_150422-M-NV020-001.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mokapu_Elementary_moves_ahead_of_the_power_curve_150422-M-NV020-001.jpg<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/about\/pdm\">Public Domain: No Known Copyright<\/a><\/em><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology\",\"author\":\"Laura Overstreet\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/opencourselibrary.org\/econ-201\/\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"},{\"type\":\"pd\",\"description\":\"students taking a test\",\"author\":\"Cpl. Khalil Ross\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mokapu_Elementary_moves_ahead_of_the_power_curve_150422-M-NV020-001.jpg\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"pd\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","CANDELA_OUTCOMES_GUID":"","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-296","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":265,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/296","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/74"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/296\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1026,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/296\/revisions\/1026"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/265"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/296\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=296"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=296"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=296"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-ss-152-1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=296"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}