{"id":2933,"date":"2017-10-04T23:08:59","date_gmt":"2017-10-04T23:08:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-worldhistory2\/chapter\/voltaire\/"},"modified":"2017-10-04T23:08:59","modified_gmt":"2017-10-04T23:08:59","slug":"voltaire","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-worldhistory2\/chapter\/voltaire\/","title":{"raw":"Voltaire","rendered":"Voltaire"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"concept_1095\">19.4.4: Voltaire<\/h2>\n<div class=\"brief\">\n\nVoltaire was a French Enlightenment\u00a0writer, historian, and philosopher, who attacked the Catholic Church and advocated freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state.\n\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objective<\/h3>\nDiscuss Voltaire's thoughts on the masses and government\n\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Points<\/h3>\n<ul><li>Voltaire was a French Enlightenment\u00a0writer, historian, and philosopher\u00a0famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state.<\/li>\n \t<li>Voltaire's political and philosophical views can be found in nearly all of his prose writings. Most of his prose was written as polemics, with the goal of conveying radical political and philosophical messages.<\/li>\n \t<li>Voltaire's works frequently contain the word\u00a0\"l'inf\u00e2me\"\u00a0and the expression\u00a0\"\u00e9crasez l'inf\u00e2me,\"\u00a0or \"crush the infamous.\" The phrase refers to abuses of the people by royalty and the clergy, \u00a0and the superstition and intolerance that the clergy bred within the people. His two most famous works elaborating the concept are <em>The Treatise on Tolerance <\/em>and The Philosophical Dictionary.<\/li>\n \t<li>Voltaire had an enormous influence on the development of historiography through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. His best-known works are <em>The Age of Louis XIV<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0T<em>he Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations.<\/em><\/li>\n \t<li>In his criticism of the French society and existing social structures, Voltaire hardly spared anyone. He perceived the French bourgeoisie to be too small and ineffective, the aristocracy to be parasitic and corrupt, the commoners as ignorant and superstitious, and the church as a static and oppressive force.<\/li>\n \t<li>Voltaire distrusted democracy, which he saw as propagating the idiocy of the masses. He long thought only an enlightened monarch could bring about change, and that it was in the king's rational interest to improve the education and welfare of his subjects.<\/li>\n<\/ul><\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Key Terms<\/h3>\n<dl class=\"key_terms\"><dt><strong>Ancien R\u00e9gime<\/strong><\/dt>\n \t<dd>The monarchic-aristocratic, social, and political\u00a0system established in the Kingdom of France\u00a0from approximately the 15th century until the latter part of the 18th century (\"early modern France\"), under the late Valois\u00a0and Bourbon Dynasties. The term is occasionally used to refer to the similar feudal\u00a0social and political order of the time elsewhere in Europe.<\/dd>\n \t<dt><strong>The Philosophical Dictionary<\/strong><\/dt>\n \t<dd>An encyclopedic dictionary\u00a0published by Voltaire\u00a0in 1764. The alphabetically arranged articles often criticize the Roman Catholic Church\u00a0and other institutions. It represents the culmination of Voltaire's views on Christianity, God, morality, and other subjects.<\/dd>\n \t<dt><strong>The Treatise on Tolerance<\/strong><\/dt>\n \t<dd>A work by French philosopher Voltaire, published in 1763, in which he calls for tolerance between religions, and targets religious fanaticism, especially that of the Jesuits\u00a0(under whom Voltaire received his early education), indicting all superstitions\u00a0surrounding religions.<\/dd>\n \t<dt><strong>deism<\/strong><\/dt>\n \t<dd>A theological\/philosophical position that combines the rejection of revelation and authority as a source of religious knowledge, with the conclusion that reason\u00a0and observation\u00a0of the natural world\u00a0are sufficient to determine the existence of a single creator\u00a0of the universe.<\/dd>\n<\/dl><\/div>\n\u00a0\n<h3>Introduction: Voltaire<\/h3>\nFran\u00e7ois-Marie Arouet, known by his literary pseudonym Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment\u00a0writer, historian, and philosopher\u00a0famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state.\n\nHe was born in Paris in 1694 and educated by the Jesuits at the Coll\u00e8ge Louis-le-Grand (1704-1711). By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, who wanted him to become a lawyer. Under his father's pressure, he studied law but he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies. In 1713, his father obtained a job for him as a secretary to a French ambassador in the Netherlands, but Voltaire was forced to return to France after a scandalous affair. From early on, he had trouble with the authorities over his critiques of the government. These activities were to result in two imprisonments and a temporary exile to England. One satirical verse, in which Voltaire accused Philippe II, Duke of Orl\u00e9ans,of incest with his own daughter, led to an eleven-month imprisonment in the Bastille (after which he adopted the name Voltaire). He mainly argued for religious tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristocratic-monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects people's rights.\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\n\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"340\"]<img class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2529\/2017\/10\/04230858\/media_33806_medium.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"340\" height=\"426\"\/> Voltaire, portrait by Nicolas de Largilli\u00e8re, c. 1724[\/caption]\n\n<div class=\"atom__components__document\">\n\nVoltaire was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken advocate of several liberties, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma, and the French institutions of his day.\n\n<\/div>\n<h1 id=\"image_33806_text_equivalent\" class=\"atom__components__figure__text_equivalent\"\/>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1>Political and Philosophical Views<\/h1>\nVoltaire's political and philosophical views can be found in nearly all of his prose writings, even in what would be typically categorized as fiction. Most of his prose, including such genres as romance, drama, or satire, was written as polemics with the goal of conveying radical political and philosophical messages. His works, especially private letters, frequently contain the word <em>\"l'inf\u00e2me\"<\/em>\u00a0and the expression <em>\"\u00e9crasez l'inf\u00e2me,\"<\/em> or \"crush the infamous.\" The phrase refers to abuses of the people by royalty and the clergy that Voltaire saw around him, and the superstition and intolerance that the clergy bred within the people. Voltaire's first major philosophical work in his battle against <em>\"l'inf\u00e2me\"<\/em>\u00a0was <em>The Treatise on Tolerance <\/em>(1763), in which he calls for tolerance between religions and targets religious fanaticism, especially that of the Jesuits, indicting all superstitions\u00a0surrounding religions. The book was quickly banned. Only a year later, he published <em>The Philosophical Dictionary<\/em>\u2014an encyclopedic dictionary\u00a0with alphabetically arranged articles that criticize the Roman Catholic Church\u00a0and other institutions. In it, Voltaire is concerned with the injustices of the Catholic Church, which he sees as intolerant and fanatical. At the same time, he espouses deism, tolerance, and freedom of the press. <em>The Dictionary<\/em>\u00a0was Voltaire's lifelong project, modified and expanded with each edition. It represents the culmination of his views on Christianity, God, morality, and other subjects.\n<h1\/>\n<h1>Voltaire as Historian<\/h1>\nVoltaire had an enormous influence on the development of historiography through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. His best-known historiography works are <em>The Age of Louis XIV<\/em> (1751) and <em>The Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations<\/em> (1756). Voltaire broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history, and achievements in the arts and sciences. <em>The<\/em> <em>Essay <\/em> traced the progress of world civilization in a universal context, thereby rejecting both nationalism and the traditional Christian frame of reference. Voltaire was also the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks and emphasizing economics, culture, and political history. He treated Europe as a whole, rather than a collection of nations. He was the first to emphasize the debt of medieval culture to Middle Eastern civilization, and consistently\u00a0exposed the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages.\n<h1\/>\n<h1>Views on the Society<\/h1>\nIn his criticism of the French society and existing social structures, Voltaire hardly spared anyone. He perceived the French bourgeoisie to be too small and ineffective, the aristocracy to be parasitic and corrupt, the commoners as ignorant and superstitious, and the church as a static and oppressive force useful only on occasion as a counterbalance to the rapacity of kings, although all too often, even more rapacious itself. Voltaire distrusted democracy, which he saw as propagating the idiocy of the masses. He long thought only an enlightened monarch could bring about change, given the social structures of the time and the extremely high rates of illiteracy, and that it was in the king's rational interest to improve the education and welfare of his subjects. But his disappointments and disillusions with Frederick the Great changed his philosophy and soon gave birth to one of his most enduring works, his novella <em>Candide, or Optimism <\/em>(1759), which ends with a new conclusion: \"It is up to us to cultivate our garden.\"\n\nHe is remembered and honored in France as a courageous polemicist who indefatigably fought for civil rights (as the right to a fair trial and freedom of religion), and who denounced the hypocrisies and injustices of the Ancien R\u00e9gime. The <em>Ancien R\u00e9gime<\/em> involved an unfair balance of power and taxes between the three Estates: clergy and nobles on one side, the commoners and middle class, who were burdened with most of the taxes, on the other.\n<h3\/>\n<h3>Attributions<\/h3>\n<ul><li>Voltaire\n<ul><li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Age of Enlightenment.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Age_of_Enlightenment\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Age_of_Enlightenment<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Voltaire.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltaire\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltaire<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Deism.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deism\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deism<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Treatise on Tolerance.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Treatise_on_Tolerance\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Treatise_on_Tolerance<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Dictionnaire philosophique.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dictionnaire_philosophique\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dictionnaire_philosophique<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Ancien R\u00e9gime.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Nicolas_de_Largilli\u00e8re_Fran\u00e7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_vers_1724-1725_-001.jpg.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltaire#\/media\/File:Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re,_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_(vers_1724-1725)_-001.jpg\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltaire#\/media\/File:Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re,_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_(vers_1724-1725)_-001.jpg<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\">Public domain<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n<\/ul><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\u00a0\n\n\u00a0","rendered":"<h2 id=\"concept_1095\">19.4.4: Voltaire<\/h2>\n<div class=\"brief\">\n<p>Voltaire was a French Enlightenment\u00a0writer, historian, and philosopher, who attacked the Catholic Church and advocated freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objective<\/h3>\n<p>Discuss Voltaire&#8217;s thoughts on the masses and government<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Points<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Voltaire was a French Enlightenment\u00a0writer, historian, and philosopher\u00a0famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state.<\/li>\n<li>Voltaire&#8217;s political and philosophical views can be found in nearly all of his prose writings. Most of his prose was written as polemics, with the goal of conveying radical political and philosophical messages.<\/li>\n<li>Voltaire&#8217;s works frequently contain the word\u00a0&#8220;l&#8217;inf\u00e2me&#8221;\u00a0and the expression\u00a0&#8220;\u00e9crasez l&#8217;inf\u00e2me,&#8221;\u00a0or &#8220;crush the infamous.&#8221; The phrase refers to abuses of the people by royalty and the clergy, \u00a0and the superstition and intolerance that the clergy bred within the people. His two most famous works elaborating the concept are <em>The Treatise on Tolerance <\/em>and The Philosophical Dictionary.<\/li>\n<li>Voltaire had an enormous influence on the development of historiography through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. His best-known works are <em>The Age of Louis XIV<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0T<em>he Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>In his criticism of the French society and existing social structures, Voltaire hardly spared anyone. He perceived the French bourgeoisie to be too small and ineffective, the aristocracy to be parasitic and corrupt, the commoners as ignorant and superstitious, and the church as a static and oppressive force.<\/li>\n<li>Voltaire distrusted democracy, which he saw as propagating the idiocy of the masses. He long thought only an enlightened monarch could bring about change, and that it was in the king&#8217;s rational interest to improve the education and welfare of his subjects.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Key Terms<\/h3>\n<dl class=\"key_terms\">\n<dt><strong>Ancien R\u00e9gime<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>The monarchic-aristocratic, social, and political\u00a0system established in the Kingdom of France\u00a0from approximately the 15th century until the latter part of the 18th century (&#8220;early modern France&#8221;), under the late Valois\u00a0and Bourbon Dynasties. The term is occasionally used to refer to the similar feudal\u00a0social and political order of the time elsewhere in Europe.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>The Philosophical Dictionary<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>An encyclopedic dictionary\u00a0published by Voltaire\u00a0in 1764. The alphabetically arranged articles often criticize the Roman Catholic Church\u00a0and other institutions. It represents the culmination of Voltaire&#8217;s views on Christianity, God, morality, and other subjects.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>The Treatise on Tolerance<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A work by French philosopher Voltaire, published in 1763, in which he calls for tolerance between religions, and targets religious fanaticism, especially that of the Jesuits\u00a0(under whom Voltaire received his early education), indicting all superstitions\u00a0surrounding religions.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>deism<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A theological\/philosophical position that combines the rejection of revelation and authority as a source of religious knowledge, with the conclusion that reason\u00a0and observation\u00a0of the natural world\u00a0are sufficient to determine the existence of a single creator\u00a0of the universe.<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<h3>Introduction: Voltaire<\/h3>\n<p>Fran\u00e7ois-Marie Arouet, known by his literary pseudonym Voltaire, was a French Enlightenment\u00a0writer, historian, and philosopher\u00a0famous for his wit, his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and separation of church and state.<\/p>\n<p>He was born in Paris in 1694 and educated by the Jesuits at the Coll\u00e8ge Louis-le-Grand (1704-1711). By the time he left school, Voltaire had decided he wanted to be a writer, against the wishes of his father, who wanted him to become a lawyer. Under his father&#8217;s pressure, he studied law but he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies. In 1713, his father obtained a job for him as a secretary to a French ambassador in the Netherlands, but Voltaire was forced to return to France after a scandalous affair. From early on, he had trouble with the authorities over his critiques of the government. These activities were to result in two imprisonments and a temporary exile to England. One satirical verse, in which Voltaire accused Philippe II, Duke of Orl\u00e9ans,of incest with his own daughter, led to an eleven-month imprisonment in the Bastille (after which he adopted the name Voltaire). He mainly argued for religious tolerance and freedom of thought. He campaigned to eradicate priestly and aristocratic-monarchical authority, and supported a constitutional monarchy that protects people&#8217;s rights.<\/p>\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\n<div style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2529\/2017\/10\/04230858\/media_33806_medium.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"340\" height=\"426\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Voltaire, portrait by Nicolas de Largilli\u00e8re, c. 1724<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"atom__components__document\">\n<p>Voltaire was a versatile writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poems, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken advocate of several liberties, despite the risk this placed him in under the strict censorship laws of the time. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma, and the French institutions of his day.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h1 id=\"image_33806_text_equivalent\" class=\"atom__components__figure__text_equivalent\">\n<\/h1>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1>Political and Philosophical Views<\/h1>\n<p>Voltaire&#8217;s political and philosophical views can be found in nearly all of his prose writings, even in what would be typically categorized as fiction. Most of his prose, including such genres as romance, drama, or satire, was written as polemics with the goal of conveying radical political and philosophical messages. His works, especially private letters, frequently contain the word <em>&#8220;l&#8217;inf\u00e2me&#8221;<\/em>\u00a0and the expression <em>&#8220;\u00e9crasez l&#8217;inf\u00e2me,&#8221;<\/em> or &#8220;crush the infamous.&#8221; The phrase refers to abuses of the people by royalty and the clergy that Voltaire saw around him, and the superstition and intolerance that the clergy bred within the people. Voltaire&#8217;s first major philosophical work in his battle against <em>&#8220;l&#8217;inf\u00e2me&#8221;<\/em>\u00a0was <em>The Treatise on Tolerance <\/em>(1763), in which he calls for tolerance between religions and targets religious fanaticism, especially that of the Jesuits, indicting all superstitions\u00a0surrounding religions. The book was quickly banned. Only a year later, he published <em>The Philosophical Dictionary<\/em>\u2014an encyclopedic dictionary\u00a0with alphabetically arranged articles that criticize the Roman Catholic Church\u00a0and other institutions. In it, Voltaire is concerned with the injustices of the Catholic Church, which he sees as intolerant and fanatical. At the same time, he espouses deism, tolerance, and freedom of the press. <em>The Dictionary<\/em>\u00a0was Voltaire&#8217;s lifelong project, modified and expanded with each edition. It represents the culmination of his views on Christianity, God, morality, and other subjects.<\/p>\n<h1>\nVoltaire as Historian<\/h1>\n<p>Voltaire had an enormous influence on the development of historiography through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. His best-known historiography works are <em>The Age of Louis XIV<\/em> (1751) and <em>The Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations<\/em> (1756). Voltaire broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history, and achievements in the arts and sciences. <em>The<\/em> <em>Essay <\/em> traced the progress of world civilization in a universal context, thereby rejecting both nationalism and the traditional Christian frame of reference. Voltaire was also the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks and emphasizing economics, culture, and political history. He treated Europe as a whole, rather than a collection of nations. He was the first to emphasize the debt of medieval culture to Middle Eastern civilization, and consistently\u00a0exposed the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages.<\/p>\n<h1>\nViews on the Society<\/h1>\n<p>In his criticism of the French society and existing social structures, Voltaire hardly spared anyone. He perceived the French bourgeoisie to be too small and ineffective, the aristocracy to be parasitic and corrupt, the commoners as ignorant and superstitious, and the church as a static and oppressive force useful only on occasion as a counterbalance to the rapacity of kings, although all too often, even more rapacious itself. Voltaire distrusted democracy, which he saw as propagating the idiocy of the masses. He long thought only an enlightened monarch could bring about change, given the social structures of the time and the extremely high rates of illiteracy, and that it was in the king&#8217;s rational interest to improve the education and welfare of his subjects. But his disappointments and disillusions with Frederick the Great changed his philosophy and soon gave birth to one of his most enduring works, his novella <em>Candide, or Optimism <\/em>(1759), which ends with a new conclusion: &#8220;It is up to us to cultivate our garden.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p>He is remembered and honored in France as a courageous polemicist who indefatigably fought for civil rights (as the right to a fair trial and freedom of religion), and who denounced the hypocrisies and injustices of the Ancien R\u00e9gime. The <em>Ancien R\u00e9gime<\/em> involved an unfair balance of power and taxes between the three Estates: clergy and nobles on one side, the commoners and middle class, who were burdened with most of the taxes, on the other.<\/p>\n<h3>\nAttributions<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Voltaire\n<ul>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Age of Enlightenment.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Age_of_Enlightenment\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Age_of_Enlightenment<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Voltaire.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltaire\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Voltaire<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Deism.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deism\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Deism<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Treatise on Tolerance.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Treatise_on_Tolerance\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Treatise_on_Tolerance<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Dictionnaire philosophique.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dictionnaire_philosophique\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Dictionnaire_philosophique<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Ancien R\u00e9gime.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Nicolas_de_Largilli\u00e8re_Fran\u00e7ois-Marie_Arouet_dit_Voltaire_vers_1724-1725_-001.jpg.&#8221; 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