{"id":3101,"date":"2017-10-04T23:12:28","date_gmt":"2017-10-04T23:12:28","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-worldhistory2\/chapter\/napoleons-military-record\/"},"modified":"2017-10-04T23:12:28","modified_gmt":"2017-10-04T23:12:28","slug":"napoleons-military-record","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-hccc-worldhistory2\/chapter\/napoleons-military-record\/","title":{"raw":"Napoleon's Military Record","rendered":"Napoleon&#8217;s Military Record"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"concept_1177\">23.1.2: Napoleon's Military Record<\/h2>\n<div class=\"brief\">\n\nNapoleon rose to prominence as a military leader during the French Revolutionary Wars. His 20-year military career earned him remembrance as one of the finest commanders in world history and a military genius.\n\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objective<\/h3>\nCriticize Napoleon's military record and examine the extent to which he was a hero of the Republic.\n\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Points<\/h3>\n<ul><li>Upon graduating from the prestigious \u00c9cole Militaire in Paris in 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment. He served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789. He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica, fighting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He was promoted to captain in the regular army in 1792.<\/li>\n \t<li>Napoleon would witness the effects of Parisian\u00a0mob violence against trained troops and became an exemplary officer in defense of revolutionary ideals. His firm beliefs would lead him to fight his own people, initially at the Siege of Toulon, where he would play a major role in crushing the royalist rebellion.<\/li>\n \t<li>Promoted to general\u00a0in 1795, Napoleon was sent to fight the Austro-Piedmontese armies in Northern Italy\u00a0the following year. In less than a year, French armies under Napoleon decimated the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula. With French forces marching towards Vienna, the Austrians agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the First Coalition against the Republic.<\/li>\n \t<li>The War of the Second Coalition began with the French invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon in 1798. His forces annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor, and Abukir. These victories and the conquest of Egypt further enhanced Napoleon's popularity back in France. He returned in the fall of 1799 to cheering throngs in the streets despite the Royal Navy's critical triumph at the Battle of the Nile in 1798.<\/li>\n \t<li>Napoleon's arrival from Egypt led to the fall of the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, with Napoleon installing himself as Consul. He then reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the European Coalition In 1802, with Austria and Russia out of the war, the United Kingdom found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens, concluding the Revolutionary Wars. The lingering tensions proved too difficult to contain, however, and the Napoleonic Wars began a few years later with the formation of the Third Coalition.<\/li>\n \t<li>The military career of\u00a0Napoleon Bonaparte lasted more than 20 years. He is widely regarded as a military genius and one of the finest commanders in world history. He fought 60 battles and lost just seven, most at the end of his career.<\/li>\n<\/ul><\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Key Terms<\/h3>\n<dl class=\"key_terms\"><dt><strong>Coup of 18 Brumaire<\/strong><\/dt>\n \t<dd>A bloodless coup d'\u00e9tat under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte that overthrew the Directory, replacing it with the French Consulate. It took place on November 9, 1799, 18 Brumaire, Year VIII under the French Republican Calendar.<\/dd>\n \t<dt><strong>Directory<\/strong><\/dt>\n \t<dd>A five-member committee\u00a0that governed France\u00a0from November 1795, when it replaced the Committee of Public Safety, until it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte\u00a0in the Coup of 18 Brumaire\u00a0(November 8-9, 1799) and replaced by the Consulate. It gave its name to the final four years of the French Revolution.<\/dd>\n \t<dt><strong>French Revolutionary Wars<\/strong><\/dt>\n \t<dd>A series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802, resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted the French First Republic\u00a0against Britain, Austria, and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition\u00a0(1792\u20131797) and the War of the Second Coalition\u00a0(1798\u20131802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension as the political ambitions of the Revolution expanded.<\/dd>\n \t<dt><strong>Siege of Toulon<\/strong><\/dt>\n \t<dd>A military siege of republican\u00a0forces over a royalist\u00a0rebellion in the southern French city of Toulon that took place between September 8 and December 19, 1793. The royalists were supported by British, Spanish, Neapolitan, and Piedmontese\u00a0troops.<\/dd>\n<\/dl><\/div>\n\u00a0\n<h1>Early Military Career: The Revolution<\/h1>\nNapoleon's noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than available to a typical Corsican of the time.Upon graduating from the prestigious \u00c9cole Militaire (military academy) in Paris in 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned as a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment. He served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 and took nearly two years' leave in Corsica (where he was born and spent his early years) and Paris during this period. At this time, he was a fervent Corsican nationalist. He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica, fighting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He was a supporter of the republican Jacobin movement, organizing clubs in Corsica, and was given command over a battalion of volunteers. He was promoted to captain in the regular army in 1792, despite exceeding his leave of absence and leading a riot against a French army in Corsica.\n\nNapoleon would witness the effects of Parisian\u00a0mob violence against trained troops and became an exemplary officer in defense of revolutionary ideals. His firm beliefs would lead him to fight his own people, initially at the Siege of Toulon where he played a major role in crushing the royalist rebellion by expelling an English fleet and securing the valuable French harbor. Almost two years later, he faced an uprising in the heart of Paris, again utilizing his skills as a gunner. Promoted to general\u00a0in 1795, Napoleon was sent to fight the Austro-Piedmontese armies in Northern Italy\u00a0the following year. After defeating both armies, he became France's most distinguished field commander.\n\n\u00a0\n<h1>French Revolutionary Wars<\/h1>\nThe French Revolutionary Wars began from increasing political pressure on King Louis XVI of France to prove his loyalty to the country's new direction. In the spring of 1792, France declared war on Prussia and Austria, who responded with a coordinated invasion of the country.\u00a0By 1795, the French monarchy had failed and the French army had recorded both triumphs and failures, but the French had captured the Austrian Netherlands and knocked Spain and Prussia out of the war with the Peace of Basel. Hitherto unknown general Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italy in April 1796. In less than a year, French armies under Napoleon decimated the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. With French forces marching towards Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the First Coalition against the Republic.\n\nThe War of the Second Coalition began with the French invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon in 1798. The Allies took the opportunity presented by the French strategic effort in the Middle East to regain territories lost from the First Coalition. Napoleon's forces annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor, and Abukir. These victories and the conquest of Egypt further enhanced Napoleon's popularity back in France. He returned in the fall of 1799 to cheering throngs in the streets despite the Royal Navy's critical triumph at the Battle of the Nile in 1798. This humiliating defeat further strengthened British control of the Mediterranean.\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\n\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"340\"]<img class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2529\/2017\/10\/04231227\/media_34724_medium.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"340\" height=\"147\"\/> Battle of the Pyramids\u00a0on July 21, 1798 by Louis-Fran\u00e7ois, Baron Lejeune, 1808.[\/caption]\n\n<div class=\"atom__components__document\">\n\nThe Egyptian\u00a0campaign ended in what some in France believed was a failure, with 15,000 French troops killed in action and 15,000 by disease. However, Napoleon's reputation as a brilliant military commander remained intact and even rose higher despite his failures during the campaign. This was due to his expert propaganda designed to bolster the expeditionary force and improve its morale. That propaganda even spread back to France, where news of defeats such as at sea in Aboukir Bay and on land in Syria were suppressed.\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\nNapoleon's arrival from Egypt led to the fall of the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, with Napoleon installing himself as Consul. Napoleon then reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the Austrians in Italy during the spring of 1800. This latest effort culminated in a decisive French victory at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800, after which the Austrians withdrew from the peninsula once again. Another crushing French triumph at Hohenlinden in Bavaria forced the Austrians to seek peace for a second time, leading to the Treaty of Lun\u00e9ville in 1801. With Austria and Russia out of the war, the United Kingdom found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleon's government in 1802, concluding the Revolutionary Wars. The lingering tensions proved too difficult to contain, however, and the Napoleonic Wars began a few years later with the formation of the Third Coalition, continuing the series of Coalition Wars.\n\n\u00a0\n\n\u00a0\n<h1>Napoleon as a Leader<\/h1>\nThe military career of\u00a0Napoleon Bonaparte lasted more than 20 years. He is widely regarded as a military genius and one of the finest commanders in world history. He fought 60 battles and lost only seven, most of these at the end of his career.\n\nIn the field of military organization, Napoleon borrowed from previous theorists and reforms of preceding French governments, developing much of what was already in place. He continued the policy that emerged from the Revolution of promotion based primarily on merit. Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, mobile artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid, and cavalry returned as an important formation in French military doctrine. These methods are now referred to as essential features of Napoleonic warfare.\n\nNapoleon's biggest influence was in the conduct of warfare. Antoine-Henri Jomini explained Napoleon's methods in a widely used textbook that influenced all European and American armies. Influential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz regarded Napoleon as \u00a0a genius in the operational art of war and historians rank him as a great military commander. Under Napoleon, a new emphasis towards the destruction, not just outmaneuvering, of enemy armies emerged. Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader fronts, which made wars costlier and more decisive. The political effect of war increased. Defeat for a European power meant more than the loss of isolated enclaves, intensifying the Revolutionary phenomenon of total war.\n<h3>Attributions<\/h3>\n<ul><li>Napoleon's Military Record\n<ul><li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"French Directory.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_Directory\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_Directory<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"French campaign in Egypt and Syria.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Napoleon.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Napoleon\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Napoleon<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military_career_of_Napoleon_Bonaparte\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military_career_of_Napoleon_Bonaparte<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Siege of Toulon.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siege_of_Toulon\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siege_of_Toulon<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Coup of 18 Brumaire.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coup_of_18_Brumaire\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coup_of_18_Brumaire<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"French Revolutionary Wars.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_Revolutionary_Wars\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_Revolutionary_Wars<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n \t<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">\"Louis-Fran\u00e7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg.\" <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg\">https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Louis-Fran%C3%A7ois_Baron_Lejeune_001.jpg<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikimedia Commons<\/span> <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_domain\">Public domain<\/a>.<\/div><\/li>\n<\/ul><\/li>\n \t<li\/>\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"concept_1177\">23.1.2: Napoleon&#8217;s Military Record<\/h2>\n<div class=\"brief\">\n<p>Napoleon rose to prominence as a military leader during the French Revolutionary Wars. His 20-year military career earned him remembrance as one of the finest commanders in world history and a military genius.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objective<\/h3>\n<p>Criticize Napoleon&#8217;s military record and examine the extent to which he was a hero of the Republic.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Key Points<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Upon graduating from the prestigious \u00c9cole Militaire in Paris in 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment. He served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789. He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica, fighting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He was promoted to captain in the regular army in 1792.<\/li>\n<li>Napoleon would witness the effects of Parisian\u00a0mob violence against trained troops and became an exemplary officer in defense of revolutionary ideals. His firm beliefs would lead him to fight his own people, initially at the Siege of Toulon, where he would play a major role in crushing the royalist rebellion.<\/li>\n<li>Promoted to general\u00a0in 1795, Napoleon was sent to fight the Austro-Piedmontese armies in Northern Italy\u00a0the following year. In less than a year, French armies under Napoleon decimated the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula. With French forces marching towards Vienna, the Austrians agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the First Coalition against the Republic.<\/li>\n<li>The War of the Second Coalition began with the French invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon in 1798. His forces annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor, and Abukir. These victories and the conquest of Egypt further enhanced Napoleon&#8217;s popularity back in France. He returned in the fall of 1799 to cheering throngs in the streets despite the Royal Navy&#8217;s critical triumph at the Battle of the Nile in 1798.<\/li>\n<li>Napoleon&#8217;s arrival from Egypt led to the fall of the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, with Napoleon installing himself as Consul. He then reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the European Coalition In 1802, with Austria and Russia out of the war, the United Kingdom found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens, concluding the Revolutionary Wars. The lingering tensions proved too difficult to contain, however, and the Napoleonic Wars began a few years later with the formation of the Third Coalition.<\/li>\n<li>The military career of\u00a0Napoleon Bonaparte lasted more than 20 years. He is widely regarded as a military genius and one of the finest commanders in world history. He fought 60 battles and lost just seven, most at the end of his career.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox examples\">\n<h3>Key Terms<\/h3>\n<dl class=\"key_terms\">\n<dt><strong>Coup of 18 Brumaire<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A bloodless coup d&#8217;\u00e9tat under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte that overthrew the Directory, replacing it with the French Consulate. It took place on November 9, 1799, 18 Brumaire, Year VIII under the French Republican Calendar.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Directory<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A five-member committee\u00a0that governed France\u00a0from November 1795, when it replaced the Committee of Public Safety, until it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte\u00a0in the Coup of 18 Brumaire\u00a0(November 8-9, 1799) and replaced by the Consulate. It gave its name to the final four years of the French Revolution.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>French Revolutionary Wars<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802, resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted the French First Republic\u00a0against Britain, Austria, and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition\u00a0(1792\u20131797) and the War of the Second Coalition\u00a0(1798\u20131802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension as the political ambitions of the Revolution expanded.<\/dd>\n<dt><strong>Siege of Toulon<\/strong><\/dt>\n<dd>A military siege of republican\u00a0forces over a royalist\u00a0rebellion in the southern French city of Toulon that took place between September 8 and December 19, 1793. The royalists were supported by British, Spanish, Neapolitan, and Piedmontese\u00a0troops.<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<h1>Early Military Career: The Revolution<\/h1>\n<p>Napoleon&#8217;s noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than available to a typical Corsican of the time.Upon graduating from the prestigious \u00c9cole Militaire (military academy) in Paris in 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned as a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment. He served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 and took nearly two years&#8217; leave in Corsica (where he was born and spent his early years) and Paris during this period. At this time, he was a fervent Corsican nationalist. He spent the early years of the Revolution in Corsica, fighting in a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He was a supporter of the republican Jacobin movement, organizing clubs in Corsica, and was given command over a battalion of volunteers. He was promoted to captain in the regular army in 1792, despite exceeding his leave of absence and leading a riot against a French army in Corsica.<\/p>\n<p>Napoleon would witness the effects of Parisian\u00a0mob violence against trained troops and became an exemplary officer in defense of revolutionary ideals. His firm beliefs would lead him to fight his own people, initially at the Siege of Toulon where he played a major role in crushing the royalist rebellion by expelling an English fleet and securing the valuable French harbor. Almost two years later, he faced an uprising in the heart of Paris, again utilizing his skills as a gunner. Promoted to general\u00a0in 1795, Napoleon was sent to fight the Austro-Piedmontese armies in Northern Italy\u00a0the following year. After defeating both armies, he became France&#8217;s most distinguished field commander.<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<h1>French Revolutionary Wars<\/h1>\n<p>The French Revolutionary Wars began from increasing political pressure on King Louis XVI of France to prove his loyalty to the country&#8217;s new direction. In the spring of 1792, France declared war on Prussia and Austria, who responded with a coordinated invasion of the country.\u00a0By 1795, the French monarchy had failed and the French army had recorded both triumphs and failures, but the French had captured the Austrian Netherlands and knocked Spain and Prussia out of the war with the Peace of Basel. Hitherto unknown general Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italy in April 1796. In less than a year, French armies under Napoleon decimated the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. With French forces marching towards Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the First Coalition against the Republic.<\/p>\n<p>The War of the Second Coalition began with the French invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon in 1798. The Allies took the opportunity presented by the French strategic effort in the Middle East to regain territories lost from the First Coalition. Napoleon&#8217;s forces annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor, and Abukir. These victories and the conquest of Egypt further enhanced Napoleon&#8217;s popularity back in France. He returned in the fall of 1799 to cheering throngs in the streets despite the Royal Navy&#8217;s critical triumph at the Battle of the Nile in 1798. This humiliating defeat further strengthened British control of the Mediterranean.<\/p>\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure\">\n<div class=\"atom__components__figure__cont\">\n<div style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"atom__components__figure__image\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2529\/2017\/10\/04231227\/media_34724_medium.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"340\" height=\"147\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Battle of the Pyramids\u00a0on July 21, 1798 by Louis-Fran\u00e7ois, Baron Lejeune, 1808.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"atom__components__document\">\n<p>The Egyptian\u00a0campaign ended in what some in France believed was a failure, with 15,000 French troops killed in action and 15,000 by disease. However, Napoleon&#8217;s reputation as a brilliant military commander remained intact and even rose higher despite his failures during the campaign. This was due to his expert propaganda designed to bolster the expeditionary force and improve its morale. That propaganda even spread back to France, where news of defeats such as at sea in Aboukir Bay and on land in Syria were suppressed.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Napoleon&#8217;s arrival from Egypt led to the fall of the Directory in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, with Napoleon installing himself as Consul. Napoleon then reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the Austrians in Italy during the spring of 1800. This latest effort culminated in a decisive French victory at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800, after which the Austrians withdrew from the peninsula once again. Another crushing French triumph at Hohenlinden in Bavaria forced the Austrians to seek peace for a second time, leading to the Treaty of Lun\u00e9ville in 1801. With Austria and Russia out of the war, the United Kingdom found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleon&#8217;s government in 1802, concluding the Revolutionary Wars. The lingering tensions proved too difficult to contain, however, and the Napoleonic Wars began a few years later with the formation of the Third Coalition, continuing the series of Coalition Wars.<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<h1>Napoleon as a Leader<\/h1>\n<p>The military career of\u00a0Napoleon Bonaparte lasted more than 20 years. He is widely regarded as a military genius and one of the finest commanders in world history. He fought 60 battles and lost only seven, most of these at the end of his career.<\/p>\n<p>In the field of military organization, Napoleon borrowed from previous theorists and reforms of preceding French governments, developing much of what was already in place. He continued the policy that emerged from the Revolution of promotion based primarily on merit. Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units, mobile artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid, and cavalry returned as an important formation in French military doctrine. These methods are now referred to as essential features of Napoleonic warfare.<\/p>\n<p>Napoleon&#8217;s biggest influence was in the conduct of warfare. Antoine-Henri Jomini explained Napoleon&#8217;s methods in a widely used textbook that influenced all European and American armies. Influential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz regarded Napoleon as \u00a0a genius in the operational art of war and historians rank him as a great military commander. Under Napoleon, a new emphasis towards the destruction, not just outmaneuvering, of enemy armies emerged. Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader fronts, which made wars costlier and more decisive. The political effect of war increased. Defeat for a European power meant more than the loss of isolated enclaves, intensifying the Revolutionary phenomenon of total war.<\/p>\n<h3>Attributions<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Napoleon&#8217;s Military Record\n<ul>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;French Directory.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_Directory\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_Directory<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;French campaign in Egypt and Syria.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Napoleon.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Napoleon\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Napoleon<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military_career_of_Napoleon_Bonaparte\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Military_career_of_Napoleon_Bonaparte<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Siege of Toulon.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siege_of_Toulon\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Siege_of_Toulon<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;Coup of 18 Brumaire.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coup_of_18_Brumaire\">https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Coup_of_18_Brumaire<\/a>. <span class=\"attribution-name\">Wikipedia<\/span> <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>.<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<div class=\"attribution\">&#8220;French Revolutionary Wars.&#8221; 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