{"id":1287,"date":"2015-09-15T21:32:21","date_gmt":"2015-09-15T21:32:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/courses.candelalearning.com\/intropsychmaster\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1287"},"modified":"2016-11-17T03:17:52","modified_gmt":"2016-11-17T03:17:52","slug":"lifespan-theories-psychosexual-and-psychosocial-theories","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/suny-herkimer-introtopsych-2\/chapter\/lifespan-theories-psychosexual-and-psychosocial-theories\/","title":{"raw":"Lifespan Theories: Psychosexual and Psychosocial Theories","rendered":"Lifespan Theories: Psychosexual and Psychosocial Theories"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Discuss Freud\u2019s theory of psychosexual development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the major tasks of child and adult psychosocial development according to Erikson<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss Piaget\u2019s view of cognitive development and apply the stages to understanding childhood cognition<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe Kohlberg\u2019s theory of moral development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp15681184\">There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. We explore several of these theories in this section.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm9486704\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm99320496\">Sigmund <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Freud<\/span> (1856\u20131939) believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a serious of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage. Freud\u2019s stages are called the stages of <span data-type=\"term\">psychosexual development<\/span>. According to Freud, children\u2019s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp101552384\">While most of Freud\u2019s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud's psychosexual stages as a legitimate explanation for how one's personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud\u2019s theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood. These stages are discussed in detail in the chapter on personality.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp17260896\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp2695952\">Erik <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Erikson<\/span> (1902\u20131994) (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_09_03_Erikson\">[link]<\/a>), another stage theorist, took Freud\u2019s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson\u2019s <span data-type=\"term\">psychosocial development <\/span>theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"Figure_09_03_Erikson\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"244\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49109\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Erikson.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Erik Erikson in his later years.\" width=\"244\" height=\"305\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Erik Erikson proposed the psychosocial theory of development. In each stage of Erikson\u2019s theory, there is a psychosocial task that we must master in order to feel a sense of competence.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp44010080\">Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp78141888\">According to Erikson (1963), trust is the basis of our development during infancy (birth to 12 months). Therefore, the primary task of this stage is trust versus mistrust. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant\u2019s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby\u2019s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp28052240\">As toddlers (ages 1\u20133 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on the environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler\u2019s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt, by working to establish independence. This is the \u201cme do it\u201d stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm11970368\">Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3\u20136 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage\u2014with their initiative misfiring or stifled\u2014may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child\u2019s initiative?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp121307472\">During the elementary school stage (ages 6\u201312), children face the task of industry versus inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don\u2019t measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm106362992\">In adolescence (ages 12\u201318), children face the task of identity versus role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent\u2019s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWhat do I want to do with my life?\u201d Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people\u2019s perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents, who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents\u2019 ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm3479392\">People in early adulthood (i.e., 20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm20206656\">When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life\u2019s work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm76494672\">From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson\u2019s task at this stage is called integrity versus despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what \u201cwould have,\u201d \u201cshould have,\u201d and \u201ccould have\u201d been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair. <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Table_09_02_01\">[link]<\/a> summarizes the stages of Erikson\u2019s theory.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table id=\"Table_09_02_01\" summary=\"A table outlines Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development. It contains four columns which are labeled \u201cStage; Age (years); Developmental Task; and Description.\u201d Each of the following eight rows corresponds to Erikson\u2019s eight psychosocial stages of development. From left to right, the first row reads: \u201c1; 0\u20131; trust vs. mistrust; and trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 1\u20133; autonomy vs. shame\/doubt; and sense of independence in many tasks develops.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 3\u20136; initiative vs. guilt; and take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 7\u201311; industry vs. inferiority; and develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 12\u201318; identity vs. confusion; and experiment with and develop identity and roles.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 19\u201329; intimacy vs. isolation; and establish intimacy and relationships with others.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 30\u201364; generativity vs. stagnation; and contribute to society and be part of a family.\u201d The eighth row reads: \u201c8; 65\u2013; integrity vs. despair; and assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.\u201d\"><caption><span data-type=\"title\">Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/span><\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Stage<\/th>\r\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th>Developmental Task<\/th>\r\n<th>Description<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\r\n<td>Trust vs. mistrust<\/td>\r\n<td>Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\r\n<td>Autonomy vs. shame\/doubt<\/td>\r\n<td>Develop a sense of independence in many tasks<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td>Initiative vs. guilt<\/td>\r\n<td>Take initiative on some activities\u2014may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\r\n<td>Industry vs. inferiority<\/td>\r\n<td>Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>12\u201318<\/td>\r\n<td>Identity vs. confusion<\/td>\r\n<td>Experiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>6<\/td>\r\n<td>19\u201329<\/td>\r\n<td>Intimacy vs. isolation<\/td>\r\n<td>Establish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>7<\/td>\r\n<td>30\u201364<\/td>\r\n<td>Generativity vs. stagnation<\/td>\r\n<td>Contribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>8<\/td>\r\n<td>65\u2013<\/td>\r\n<td>Integrity vs. despair<\/td>\r\n<td>Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-idp81579744\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm12704528\" data-depth=\"2\"><\/section><\/section><section id=\"fs-idm109594576\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div class=\"bcc-box bcc-highlight\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Discuss Freud\u2019s theory of psychosexual development<\/li>\n<li>Describe the major tasks of child and adult psychosocial development according to Erikson<\/li>\n<li>Discuss Piaget\u2019s view of cognitive development and apply the stages to understanding childhood cognition<\/li>\n<li>Describe Kohlberg\u2019s theory of moral development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp15681184\">There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. We explore several of these theories in this section.<\/p>\n<section id=\"fs-idm9486704\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm99320496\">Sigmund <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Freud<\/span> (1856\u20131939) believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a serious of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage. Freud\u2019s stages are called the stages of <span data-type=\"term\">psychosexual development<\/span>. According to Freud, children\u2019s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp101552384\">While most of Freud\u2019s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud&#8217;s psychosexual stages as a legitimate explanation for how one&#8217;s personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud\u2019s theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood. These stages are discussed in detail in the chapter on personality.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp17260896\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp2695952\">Erik <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Erikson<\/span> (1902\u20131994) (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Figure_09_03_Erikson\">[link]<\/a>), another stage theorist, took Freud\u2019s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson\u2019s <span data-type=\"term\">psychosocial development <\/span>theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"Figure_09_03_Erikson\">\n<div style=\"width: 254px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49109\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Erikson.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Erik Erikson in his later years.\" width=\"244\" height=\"305\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">Erik Erikson proposed the psychosocial theory of development. In each stage of Erikson\u2019s theory, there is a psychosocial task that we must master in order to feel a sense of competence.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idp44010080\">Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp78141888\">According to Erikson (1963), trust is the basis of our development during infancy (birth to 12 months). Therefore, the primary task of this stage is trust versus mistrust. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant\u2019s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby\u2019s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp28052240\">As toddlers (ages 1\u20133 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on the environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler\u2019s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt, by working to establish independence. This is the \u201cme do it\u201d stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm11970368\">Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3\u20136 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage\u2014with their initiative misfiring or stifled\u2014may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child\u2019s initiative?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp121307472\">During the elementary school stage (ages 6\u201312), children face the task of industry versus inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don\u2019t measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm106362992\">In adolescence (ages 12\u201318), children face the task of identity versus role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent\u2019s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWhat do I want to do with my life?\u201d Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people\u2019s perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents, who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents\u2019 ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm3479392\">People in early adulthood (i.e., 20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm20206656\">When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life\u2019s work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm76494672\">From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson\u2019s task at this stage is called integrity versus despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what \u201cwould have,\u201d \u201cshould have,\u201d and \u201ccould have\u201d been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair. <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#Table_09_02_01\">[link]<\/a> summarizes the stages of Erikson\u2019s theory.<\/p>\n<table id=\"Table_09_02_01\" summary=\"A table outlines Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development. It contains four columns which are labeled \u201cStage; Age (years); Developmental Task; and Description.\u201d Each of the following eight rows corresponds to Erikson\u2019s eight psychosocial stages of development. From left to right, the first row reads: \u201c1; 0\u20131; trust vs. mistrust; and trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 1\u20133; autonomy vs. shame\/doubt; and sense of independence in many tasks develops.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 3\u20136; initiative vs. guilt; and take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 7\u201311; industry vs. inferiority; and develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 12\u201318; identity vs. confusion; and experiment with and develop identity and roles.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 19\u201329; intimacy vs. isolation; and establish intimacy and relationships with others.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 30\u201364; generativity vs. stagnation; and contribute to society and be part of a family.\u201d The eighth row reads: \u201c8; 65\u2013; integrity vs. despair; and assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.\u201d\">\n<caption><span data-type=\"title\">Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/span><\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Stage<\/th>\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\n<th>Developmental Task<\/th>\n<th>Description<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\n<td>Trust vs. mistrust<\/td>\n<td>Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\n<td>Autonomy vs. shame\/doubt<\/td>\n<td>Develop a sense of independence in many tasks<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\n<td>Initiative vs. guilt<\/td>\n<td>Take initiative on some activities\u2014may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\n<td>Industry vs. inferiority<\/td>\n<td>Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>12\u201318<\/td>\n<td>Identity vs. confusion<\/td>\n<td>Experiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>6<\/td>\n<td>19\u201329<\/td>\n<td>Intimacy vs. isolation<\/td>\n<td>Establish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>7<\/td>\n<td>30\u201364<\/td>\n<td>Generativity vs. stagnation<\/td>\n<td>Contribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>8<\/td>\n<td>65\u2013<\/td>\n<td>Integrity vs. despair<\/td>\n<td>Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp81579744\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2><\/h2>\n<section id=\"fs-idm12704528\" data-depth=\"2\"><\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idm109594576\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2><\/h2>\n<\/section>\n\n\t\t\t <section class=\"citations-section\" role=\"contentinfo\">\n\t\t\t <h3>Candela Citations<\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\t <div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <div id=\"citation-list-1287\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t <div class=\"licensing\"><div class=\"license-attribution-dropdown-subheading\">CC licensed content, Specific attribution<\/div><ul class=\"citation-list\"><li>Lifespan Theories. <strong>Authored by<\/strong>: OpenStax College. <strong>Located at<\/strong>: <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.15:51\/Lifespan-Theories\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.15:51\/Lifespan-Theories<\/a>. <strong>License<\/strong>: <em><a target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY: Attribution<\/a><\/em>. <strong>License Terms<\/strong>: Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/content\/col11629\/latest\/.<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t <\/div>\n\t\t\t <\/section>","protected":false},"author":74,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc-attribution\",\"description\":\"Lifespan Theories\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.15:51\/Lifespan-Theories\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at 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